2014 Uprisings in Egypt Dr. Namir Al-Nuaimi This Is A
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The Representation of Women in Egyptian Newspapers During the 2011 – 2014 Uprisings in Egypt Dr. Namir Al-Nuaimi This is a digitised version of a dissertation submitted to the University of Bedfordshire. It is available to view only. This item is subject to copyright. The Representation of Women in Egyptian Newspapers During the 2011 – 2014 Uprisings in Egypt By Namir Al-Nuaimi A thesis submitted to the University of Bedfordshire in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy University of Bedfordshire Research Institute for Media, Arts and Performance September 2020 Declaration I, Namir Al-Nuaimi, declare that this thesis and the work presented in it are my own and has been generated by me as the result of my own original research. I confirm that: 1. This work was done wholly or mainly while in candidature for a research degree at this University; 2. Where any part of this thesis has previously been submitted for a degree or any other qualification at this University or any other institution, this has been clearly stated; 3. Where I have cited the published work of others, this is always clearly attributed; 4. Where I have quoted from the work of others, the source is always given. With the exception of such quotations, this thesis is entirely my own work; 5. I have acknowledged all main sources of help; 6. Where the thesis is based on work done by myself jointly with others, I have made clear exactly what was done by others and what I have contributed myself; 7. None of this work has been published before submission. Name of candidate: Namir Al-Nuaimi Signature: ii Abstract The Arab Spring, which swept across North Africa and parts of the Middle East in 2011 was viewed by many observers, commentators and activists in the West and throughout the region as a beacon of hope. The world rejoiced that the autocratic regimes of leaders such as Muammar Gaddafi in Libya, Hosni Mubarak in Egypt and Zine El Abidine Ben Ali in Tunisia were toppled, and it was hoped that these regimes would be replaced by fair and democratic governments. Unfortunately, the post-revolutionary reality has not met the expectations of many ordinary people. Instead, Libya and Syria have descended into factional clashes between local militias and civil war respectively. In Egypt, the progress that women activists and campaigners were achieving with respect to improving the rights and representation of women across society has regressed. Consequently, the social position of women has become marginalised in the face of masculine institutions such as the Egyptian military. In order to assess the impact that gender discourses held within Egyptian society, this research project has analysed articles from two of the most popular newspapers in the country – Al Ahram and Al-Masry Al-Youm. Specifically, the study assesses how both these papers have reported incidents featuring prominent protests and campaigns by women in the aftermath of the Egyptian Revolution and within the context of dominant patriarchal discourses and discursive practices. I argue that these discourses served to normalise an inferior position for women in society. Using critical discourse analysis (CDA) and qualitative interviews involving women who have first-hand experiences of the workings of newspapers in Egypt, this study discovers that there are similarities and deviations in the way that language is used in articles that feature campaigns and protests by women: in particular, the court case pertaining to Samira Ibrahim and the virginity test case; the presidential bid by Bothaina Kamel; and the campaign by women’s groups to allow female recruitment by the Egyptian military. This study finds that some language in the newspapers does counter hegemonic masculinity. I argue in this study that Egyptian newspapers are responsible for disseminating an ideological discourse that serves to support the patriarchal institutions of the State. Through the lens of hegemonic masculinity, it finds that the dominance and normalising of the male voice within the selected Egyptian newspapers, serves to reinforce certain preferences within social opinion through discursive practices. The study ascertains that Egyptian newspapers offer an example of institutionalised hegemonic masculinity which strives iii systematically to silence women despite valiant attempts by certain women activists to interrogate both the workings and institutions of hegemonic masculinity by way of their voice. By analysing the voices of Egyptian women as captured in Western sources and through the lens of Islamic Feminism, this study also demonstrates how women contest dominant discourses in mainstream Egyptian newspapers. Keywords: 2012 Presidential Election, Arab Spring, 2011 uprisings, 2013 uprisings, Bothaina Kamel, Egyptian Revolution, Egyptian Media, Egyptian Press, Egyptian Newspapers, Egyptian Military, Hegemonic Masculinity, Feminism, Islamic Feminism, Samira Ibrahim, Virginity Tests. iv Acknowledgements I would like to begin by thanking Allah for giving me the ability and strength to complete this research. My sincere gratitude goes to my Director of Studies, Prof. Noha Mellor for giving me the opportunity and confidence to partake this research. And a special thanks to my co-supervisor Prof. Agnieszka Piotrowska, who was a magnitude of help in a short period of time. This section would not be complete without thanking my colleagues Rua Al-Sheikh, Najla Al-Jasas, Daw Al-Sadawe and Faris Abomelha. Their constant support throughout this research made this journey much more enjoyable. The staff at the Research Graduate School at the University of Bedfordshire have never missed an opportunity to lend their support when needed, specifically Michelle Miskelly, Caroline Aird, Kim Burrows and Melanie Coulson, and for that I am very grateful. And many thanks to the proofreader as well. And lastly, to my wonderful family who are too many to name- my mother, father, aunts, uncles, brothers, and cousins; Layla, Nadera, Fatima and Mustafa; I am forever in your debt for your encouragement and counsel. v Table of Contents List of Tables ........................................................................................................................ viii List of Figures ....................................................................................................................... viii Abbreviations and Acronyms ............................................................................................. viii Chapter One: Introduction ..................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Overview ......................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Background of Research ............................................................................................... 2 1.3 Aims and Objectives ...................................................................................................... 4 1.4 Significance of Study...................................................................................................... 4 1.5 Research Questions ........................................................................................................ 6 1.6 Definitions and Concepts ............................................................................................... 6 1.7 Outline of the Thesis .................................................................................................... 10 1.8 Summary ....................................................................................................................... 12 Chapter Two: Background of the Arab Spring .................................................................. 13 2.1 Overview ....................................................................................................................... 13 2.2 The Arab Spring: An Overview ................................................................................. 13 2.3 The Egyptian Revolution ............................................................................................. 15 2.4 The Egyptian Revolution: The Medium and Tenor of Protests .............................. 18 2.5 Women’s Involvement in the Protests and Post-Arab Spring Reforms ................. 21 2.6 Summary ....................................................................................................................... 25 Chapter Three: Theoretical Framework ............................................................................. 27 3.1 Overview ....................................................................................................................... 27 3.2 Islamic Feminism and Arab women’s struggle for equality .................................... 30 3.3 Islamic Feminism in the Egyptian Context ............................................................... 35 3.3.1 Secularism as a vehicle for western incursion .................................................... 37 3.4 Hegemonic Masculinity and Militarisation ............................................................... 42 3.4.1 Egypt as a militarised state .................................................................................. 44 3.4.2 Egypt as a woman and the military as a guardian of honour .................................. 46 3.5 Summary ....................................................................................................................... 48 Chapter