Page 15 / Issue 1 / Volume 1 / DOI: 10.29173/aar10 •Structural genocidemoreaccuratelydescribesthetreatmentofIndigenouspeoplesinCanada. enous andnon-IndigenousgroupsinCanada. •Subjective andracializedhistoricalconceptscreatehealthsocio-economicdisparitiesbetweenIndig century bureaucracyofCanada. •Marginalization ofIndigenouspeoplesisacontinuousprocessestablishedinthenineteenth andtwentieth Key points: University Domplein29,3512JEUtrecht,Netherlands 2 1 Laura Mudde Correspondence to: [email protected] Key words: Department ofIndian Affairs andFramingofIndigenousPeoples Structural GenocideandInstitutionalizedRacisminCanada: The For thepartialcompletionofM.A.degree2016inNorth American StudiesintheInternationalRelationsDepartmentatUtrecht Exchange program2015Universityof Alberta, Edmonton,116 St&85 Avenue, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada but forallIndigenouspeoplesinCanada. not onlyIndigenouspeoplesasseeninthiscase study oftheDepartmentIndian asamoreaccurateandinclusivetermforthecontinuousinstitutionalmarginalization of Truth andReconciliationCommission(TRC)onculturalgenocide. This studyproposesstructural culosis andrelateddiseasesdeathsamongIndigenouspeoples’ challengeconclusionsofthe tural governmentinstitutedimaginariesandtheindirect,exponentiallyhigherchancesoftuber and non-IndigenousgroupsinCanadiansociety. The criticalanalysisofthesehistoricallystruc naries’. These imaginariesfosterthehealthandsocio-economicdisparitiesbetweenIndigenous peoples, myresearchintroducesthereadertoconceptofpoliticalmasternarratives,or‘imagi late nineteenthandtwentiethcentury. InexposingthestructuraldiscriminationofFirstNations the administrativeregimesinCanadaasacontinuouscontemporaryprocessestablished ties. Myresearchresultsrevealtheracializedmarginalization ofFirstNationpeoplesthrough as amultidisciplinaryresearchmethodtoanalysehowpeopleunderstandsituationsandactivi peoples inCanada’s Prairie West provincesthroughtheapplicationofdiagnosticframeanalysis to uncovertheintrinsicracialpredilectionsofCanadiangovernmentpolicytowardFirstNations ly, IanalysethecontinuousprocessofIndigenousadministrativesubjugationunderCanadianrule Indigenous communities,whichIargue isduetotheroleofCanadiangovernment.Specifical This reviewproblematizesthehealthandsocio-economicdisparitybetweenIndigenousnon- Abstract: 1,2 Canada,Indigenous,government,health,tuberculosis. albertaacademicreview.com Mudde etal.2018 ISSN: 2561-5335c (Online) ISSN: 2561-5327 (Print) Affairs (DIA) ------Page 16 / Issue 1 / Volume 1 / DOI: 10.29173/aar10 ------1.1 History of Relations: Canadian Gov of Relations: 1.1 History of an in saw the emergence The 1870’s I have analysed the Department of Indian Department the analysed I have albertaacademicreview.com DIA DIA stipulated who was and was not an “Indian.” body policed all as a political In turn, the DIA those defined as “Indian,” which was further in with treaties of signing the through stitutionalized these “Indian” bands, resulting in reserve life and of colonization of by provid by peoples Indigenous of colonization of the to addition and conclusion alternative an ing Reconciliation and Truth done by the research for the use of the term Commission (TRC). I argue genocide cultural than rather genocide structural the continuous insti describe to more accurately Indig by experienced marginalization tutionalized genocide structural context, In this enous peoples. nature of geno refers to the all-encompassing society. colonial cide still going on in Canada’s Peoples ernment framing of Indigenous the inhabitants categorized that system stitutional to race. according West Prairie Canadian of the According to Canadian historian John S. Milloy Ab Andersen, today’s Chris Métis scholar and the in originated identity and ancestry original Act of 1763 and the Indian Royal Proclamation Andersen 2013). In these of 1876 (Milloy 1999; the and government Canadian the documents, West. I argue that the Canadian colonial govern colonial the Canadian that I argue West. institutionalized of consolidation its and ment a is not regimes in regulatory marginalization and but still apparent solely in the past, problem Prairie The Canadian in the present. problematic 1, Treaties areas of to the geographic refers West parts northern 8, which include 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, and of but mostly covers parts of British Columbia excluding Alberta, and Manitoba, Saskatchewan, the Northwest Territories (Aboriginal Affairs and 2018]). [accessed Canada Northern Development Affairs (DIA) Annual Reports between 1900 and and neglect and discrimi 1915 for racial framing West. in the Prairie of Indigenous peoples to the connected In turn, these reports have been experienced disparities socio-economic and health today (CBC by Indigenous peoples in Canada 2016]). My analysis of the re News [accessed of the imaginaries ports alludes to the continuities ------Mudde et al. 2018 et al. Mudde This study problematizes the historical This study problematizes The active Canadian policy, as well as well as policy, Canadian active The Even though the Canadian government ex the Canadian Even though marginalization in regulatory regimes is not a regimes in regulatory marginalization problem solely in the past, but still apparent and Prairie The Canadian in the present. problematic West. I argue that the Canadian colonial govern colonial that the Canadian I argue West. institutionalized of consolidation its and ment emergence of socio-economic and health dispari of socio-economic emergence diseases TB-related to connection and their ties Prairie among Indigenous peoples in Canada’s ized by deteriorating living conditions, enhanc living conditions, ized by deteriorating TB incidences among Indigenous peoples. ing cial welfare, health care, and knowledge regarding cial welfare, health care, and knowledge diseases TB-related and prevention of treatment since the 1910s, most reserves are still character lic Health Agency of Canada [accessed 2013]). Agency of Canada [accessed Health lic past government policies of so despite Moreover, nected to diet and living conditions. This questions and living conditions. to diet nected and exponentially the reason for both structurally groups (Pub higher death rates among Indigenous World” (Daschuk 2013, p. 186). In the case of (Daschuk 2013, p. 186). World” devel and economic care, health welfare, social con are especially diseases TB-related opment, care, and economic development, most reserves most development, and economic care, in Canada have “more in common with the Third tinued disparity between Indigenous and non- Indigenous between disparity tinued Daschuk, According to J.W. Indigenous groups. welfare, health despite high standards in social (Public Health Agency of Canada [accessed 2013]). Agency of Canada (Public Health a con opinion, postulate and expert statistics the higher rate of TB-related disease on Aboriginal disease on TB-related of higher rate to non-Aboriginal people status people compered lic Health Officer’s Report, “the burden of TB in the in TB of burden “the Report, Officer’s Health lic than in the is much greater Aboriginal by the much This is indicated population”. overall to socio-economic disparities under Canadian gov under Canadian disparities to socio-economic Wakeham 1870s (Henderson and ernance since the Pub Chief 2013 Canadian the to According 2008). tinuous health disparities relative to non-Indige relative disparities health tinuous related rates TB the are An example nous people. related and TB against policy health active an erts con still experience Indigenous peoples diseases, 1. Introduction Page 17 / Issue 1 / Volume 1 / DOI: 10.29173/aar10 tions and disease, but they lacked self-critique. of race and class in connection to living condi tive case studytothe overt and embedded notions political imaginaries communicated an instruc DIA century. twenty-first the in increasing is race ment’s institutionalized marginalization based on bas 2000). The critique of theCanadiangovern 2002; Soja 2010; Harris 1993;Mako2012; Scha cially in thecolonial context (DardenandKamel cess forminorities in liberal capitalist states, espe cri tique the unequal distributions of power and ac geography and social law of fields the from 1995). Indigenouscritical scholars and Moreton-Robinson 2003;NakayamaandKrizek 2000; Turner 1998,2000;Cook-Lynn 1997,1998; 2014; Andersen 2014;Battiste and Henderson voices (Coulthard2014; Alfred 2005;Simpson government are continuously met with dissenting cal deconstruction – maintained by theCanadian cialized historical concepts lacking critical histori naries –perspectivesbasedonsubjective and ra in deteriorating the livesofIndigenouspeoples. lessstructural or territory, obtaining in effective and governmental implementations were noless cide”. Nevertheless, the administrative coercion “geno overt or warfare open included longer no to removeIndigenouspeoplesforhomesteaders 1996; Price 1999). These extraordinary measures treaty promises and reality (Hildebrandt et al. ited aidonreservesandthediscrepancybetween work andself-supportwereinstructive for the lim acquisition and liberalcapitalist notions ofhard- enous peoples. The underlyinggoalofterritorial Indig toward policy guided officials government cal framing of IndigenouspeoplesbytheDIA and casian immigrants (Smith 2009,p.2). The politi the territories” to make room forprimarily Cau be employedtoremoveIndigenouspeoplesfrom to measures “extraordinary the as defined eralism, rizations connect to the political ideology of lib on 1763and1876categorizations (Leslie 2002). ducted byHealthCanadain2014wasstillbased 1999; Andersen 2013). Additionally, acensuscon subsequent deteriorated living conditions (Milloy The structural character of political imagi The inherent racial ofthese catego albertaacademicreview.com Mudde etal.2018 ------ism wasperceived as thenatural truth? How rac scientific if blamed be policies “mainstream” can Canada, and peoples Indigenous between structural genocide and thecontinued disparities ity in the documents unnecessary. In relation to or whether its normativity has made its visibil academic research is visible in theDIA documents whether the primary frame substantiated through toclass. in connection scientific of that case study, acomplex primary frame includes ism in institutional government settings. In this size thecontinued structural nature ofcolonial genocide rather than cultural genocide to empha ized marginalization suggest thetermstructural mativity. Moreover, thiscontinued institutional within administrative regimes andwhitenor tween 1900and1915have a continued legacy inherent racial biasishowthe imaginaries be DIA’s Annual to expand Reports TRC’s conclusions combined source with primary the analysis of the and science, political and history. fields These were Indigenous studies, postcolonial studies, social from was of analysed with use theory the critical imaginaries and promulgated with , stitutionalized marginalization, through political lonialism ininstitutional government settings. In to indicate continued the nature structural of co genocide ratherstructural than cultural genocide marginalizationalized justifiesthe theuse of term normativity. Moreover, continued this institution within administrativelegacy regimes and white 1900andnaries between 1915have acontinued to inherent this racial and how imagi the 2. Methods day andthequestionofinstitutionalized racism? mean for the continuity of these policies to notion ofstructural genocide? What doesthis ward Indigenous peoples today if we accept the 1900 and1915relate to treatment and policyto between policy DIA within racism scientific does This studyseekstoanswerthequestionof The leadingquestioninrelationtothis I analyzed leading the question in relation ------Page 18 / Issue 1 / Volume 1 / DOI: 10.29173/aar10 ------2.2. Frame Analysis 2.2. Frame the social Frame analysis is used mostly in pack the are frames context, In a political This study seeks to problematize notions notions to problematize This study seeks albertaacademicreview.com discourage or denounce others (Goffman 1975). to presented often are facts framing, In political reveal a problem and the corresponding need for specific solutions. Moreover, this information at tempts to justify past, present, and future policy by scholars as a mechanism of liberal capitalist of liberal by scholars as a mechanism (Kelm its population to homogenize governance but are vary, and struggle 1998). Resistance bands or seen throughout all communities, and affected by geographic location and time. of concepts multitude a comprises and sciences individu which in ways the on perspectives and and perceive, organize, als, groups, and societies Framing involves the their realities. communicate social constructions of “reality” to of social phenomena. Framing, or the attach make sense ment of meaning, is an inevitable process (Goff of frame analysis has The concept man 1975). been widely employed in the past (Goffman 1975; Snow and Benford 1988, 2000; Snow et al. 2007). Part of is presented. ages in which information in such a way as to presented is then rhetoric the and interpretations establish or solidify certain nalis copied. Throughout this paper, I have chosen chosen I have paper, this Throughout copied. nalis commu the to refer to Indigenous term to use the schools dur residential reserves and in nities on and in the 1900 to 1915 period of ing the research twenty-first century. It important is to “In know group not a homogenous as a group are digenous” here are displayed concepts and the generalizing that actor government of the perspective the from does categorize and generalize under the term “In this generalization, This is not as to repeat dian”. the diagnostic framing but to better understand whiteness. of construct the and DIA the by done and and society great of Canada’s does not have a colonial the myth that Canada how past (Reuters 2009). It describes white nor is constructed and how this norm and mativity or manipulated. ignored been have self-image of this whitewashing of mi The consequences are recognized norities are often overlooked, but ------Mudde et al. 2018 et al. Mudde In doing so, this study is not meant to gen to meant study is not In doing so, this My research focuses on governmental po My research focuses on governmental The political imaginaries of the Canadian the of imaginaries political The uses capitalized versions or other terms, the origi the terms, other versions or uses capitalized the way in which the DIA mentions Indigenous mentions the way in which the DIA analy general peoples. Indigenous is used in the When a cited author or paraphrased academic sis. eralize the experiences of Indigenous peoples. experiences the eralize “Indians” is used throughout the text to refer to and critique on liberal capitalist societies’ inher societies’ capitalist liberal on critique and introspection. of lack and normativity white ent and institutionalization by the Institution of Can by the Institution and institutionalization nature is of a critical the content ada. In general, activism of discourse a within placed be can and First peoples, but rather focused on the perspectives political historical non-Indigenous structural nature of institutionalized racism and the racism of institutionalized nature structural of terms such as post- or neo-colonial emptiness this research has not incorporated ism. Moreover, non-Indigenous person. Nevertheless, it is neces non-Indigenous person. Nevertheless, marginaliza sary to address the issue of structural to understand the predilections tion and its racial a top-down approach. This analysis is highly one- is highly This analysis a top-down approach. by a and conducted abstract, times at dimensional, discourse on Indigenous-governmental relations. on Indigenous-governmental discourse employs and implications and imaginaries litical ward both themselves and their intended audience. and their intended ward both themselves analysis frame the and Reports Annual DIA The historical to the materials as comparative function nostic frame analysis was used as a tool to look at the justification mechanisms for DIA policy to public record by which progress and the political which progress and the political public record by Canadian government regard of the objectives Diag ing Indigenous peoples are communicated. government were analyzed using frame analysis analysis frame using analyzed were government and policy DIA to sources closest public on the a are DIA the of Reports Annual The ideology. to Indigenous peoples and the transfer of those and the transfer of those to Indigenous peoples public. to the perspectives constructed socially Political imaginaries refer to the predominant per to the predominant refer imaginaries Political pertaining especially circles, political in spectives ideas on race and class, and they became institu and they became race and class, ideas on which has cre and governance, in law tionalized peoples. of Indigenous subjugation structural ated for cultural genocide. Political imaginaries from imaginaries Political genocide. cultural for just abstract than more years ago were a hundred Page 19 / Issue 1 / Volume 1 / DOI: 10.29173/aar10 ih a ctee cnetaiain ad a frac “a and conceptualization” scattered “a with ing tomediascholarRobert M.Entman,hastodo (Smith 2009). This context dependency, accord surveillance of whatwouldappear in the reports intensive policing by individual Indian Agents and within thebureaucratic system, whichallowedfor DIA inthe Annual Reports is their absolute power ofthe mechanism framing the (Goffman to Specific dependency 1975). context or roots cultural certain has frame a of meaning the Goffman, ing minorities in connection to health, race, and class. analysis of political imaginaries about Indigenous opinion today. This makesthereportsusefulfor in thesame way that the media helps shapemass were meant to shapeand satisfythe public’s opinion jectives (Russell 1984). The DIA’s Annual Reports resonated with boththepublic and government ob reinforce the DIA’s goalsandaspirations as they 2009). Often,information wascontextualized to jectivity and truthfulness with itsmembers (Smith cessfully aspossible,whileexudingalevelofob processing dataonthedevelopment project as suc ers and the political opposition in conveying and sionism, influence primary frames (Goffman 1975). ideological orientations, such asliberalist expan For instance, opposition, other policy makers, and and constraints,externalpressures. pressures enced by larger societal norms andvalues, internal ty (Goffman 1975). These primary frames are influ and justifies what is happening within its own reali primary frameishowaperson(orgroup)explains resonate with the primary frames of the society. A make DIA’spolicies feasible,theDIA frameshadto tial schools is also influenced by public opinion. To and TB-related diseasesonreservesandinresiden DIA anditsframingofIndigenouspeoples’ health ent audienceorsocietalresponse.Nevertheless,the digenous peoples’ health; it is lessabout the recipi ment asdistributerofdiagnosticframesaboutIn tivity or agency (Froehlich andRüdiger2005). by powerrelationsandperceptionsaboutobjec influenced place and timeand to nipulated specific implementations. Political framing is oftenma According toCanadiansociologistErv The DIA actively sought toimpressitsread The focus ofthisstudyisonthe govern albertaacademicreview.com Mudde etal.2018 ------affirms a primary frame, the more people accept more people the frame, aprimary affirms ment policy (Snow and Benford 2000,p.197-215). govern for justification a creating when relevance well astheprimaryframeanditsresonance litical imaginaries to the larger belief-system, as tic frame analysis most accurately connects po Diagnos 1975). (Goffman public the and peoples nadian state viewed itself in relation to Indigenous Ca the how indicate interpretation” of “schemata 1988, 2000;Snowetal.2007).Framesasthe and Benford Snow 1975; (Goffman model tative text. Frame analysisthusconstitutes an interpre interpretations that reverberated withintheculturalrootsorcon and definitions certain promoted lected frames of perceived reality and thereafter tion (Entman 1993). Inotherwords,theDIA se and leave elements up tothe readers’ interpreta are incomplete forexplaining certain phenomena tured paradigm” (1993). This means that frames ports andacademic debate to problematize the con genocide. This reviewcombines boththe DIA re litical imaginaries and makes a case for structural TB-related diseases todayproblematizes the po diseases between1900and1915inconnection to analysis oftheDIA Annual Reportson TB-related cide (Wolfe, 2006).Similarly, adiagnostic frame of thelogic of elimination and structural geno according to Patrick Wolfe, becategorized as part lyzed by the TRC ascultural genocide and would, The consequencesinresidential schools wereana Indigenous peoplesbytheDIA (Smith2009,p.3). and non-material consequences for the treatment of material serious had that signification” of “politics ly invokingoneormoreframes(Andersen2013). eral population of Indigenouspeoplesbyconsistent framing party cancontrol the perception of thegen for action or inaction (Lakoff, 2002). The DIA as the justification the of audience political a persuade to According to Lakoff, a frame needs to be rhetorical sible fortheframingpartytogetawaywithmurder. pos it make can method frame the of use effective used toplace blame or attach causality, suchthat an frames are valuable for their level of success when the policy(SnowandBenford2000).Diagnostic The strongeraframeandthemoreitre The DIA Annual Reportsarepartofthe ------Page 20 / Issue 1 / Volume 1 / DOI: 10.29173/aar10 ------This chauvinism was guided by the DIA’s the DIA’s This chauvinism was guided by Noel anthropologist Canadian to According The DIA saw its records on assimilative saw its The DIA albertaacademicreview.com an administration to transform racist assumptions assumptions transform racist to administration an all-encompassing an into Indigenous peoples about that mentioned be needs to It reality. administrative and excluded themselves categories “Indian” these Indigenous many non-status exclude to continue impetus for data ” (Smith 2009, p. 94). (Smith collection” for data impetus its wards, as they feeling of responsibility towards the to responsibility and legal a moral perceived “White Burden” Man’s (Russell 1984, p. 52). The idea of the “White Man’s Burden” in the admin had consequences for body of the DIA istrative was respon since the DIA its subjects, especially sible for all aspects of “Indian life” between 1860 and the number of records The length and 1914. created during this time reflect the(Rus policy sizenature of the DIA’s encompassing and all- formed the Euro- records The DIA sell 1984). on peoples. history of written version Canadian can be de coercive administration Dyck, the DIA’s fined as an extreme form of guardianship (Dyck, guardianship necessitated This coercive 1997). ad and was part of an record-keeping extensive The provisions of the 1857 tradition. ministrative Euro-Canadi Act allowed the Gradual Civilization partmental administration had a major impact impact major had a administration partmental 1984, (Russell operations” on records-keeping cen rationalization, This administrative p. 51). to change the general resistance and tralization, bureaucracy in light of and con ideology, efficiencyDIA’s the created is what ics andeconom the ways in which Indigenous sequently formed (Smith 2009). and policed peoples were described gen future for history writing of part progress as their work had more believed The DIA erations. had and its records departments, than other to be “kept intact for p. 2009, (Smith to future generations” historical example purposes as an of the value the regarding 95-96). One example to dispose of any work was its reluctance DIA’s files. TheDIA’s chauvinism created(Rus importance historical of uniqueness and the feeling sell 1984). Historians Smith and “Functionaries Russell agree: of the DIA […] had a romantic ------Mudde et al. 2018 et al. Mudde The Canadian government and the DIA and the DIA government The Canadian The DIA was the complete and sole ad and sole was the complete The DIA According to Canadian historian Bill Rus According to Canadian centered on efficiency and rationality: “the over bureaucrat Victorian of the riding preoccupation with economy and efficiency in all aspects of de ing this situation unaltered (Russell 1984, p. 51). were guided by a general moral of administrators between Indigenous and non-Indigenous peoples between in keep government and the role of the Canadian nous peoples and Euro-Canadians are framed. This nous peoples and Euro-Canadians are framed. contem is a necessary step to further problematize gap health socio-economic of the porary notions Reports of the DIA between 1900 and 1915 seeks to and 1900 between of the DIA Reports racism the processes of institutionalized illuminate between Indige and how the disparities in health DIA DIA officials regarding these processes was prob Annual of the analysis frame diagnostic The lematic. and class were used uncritically, and these actions and class were used uncritically, lesser than Indigenous peoples as institutionalized lack of foresight-by The the white Euro-Canadian. ministrative power between 1900 and 1915 when 1900 power between ministrative to in connection reporting on Indigenous peoples of race and relief. Categorizations health treatment it deemed important to communicate to the public. the to to communicate important deemed it pletely dedicated to policy implementation and re to policy implementation dedicated pletely govern into insight gives trail paper This finement. what and peoples Indigenous on perceptions ment Canada before Confederation was carried East and was carried before Confederation Canada (Smith 2009, structure” into a full national West p. 93). A significant bureaucracy developed, com 2009, p. 93). For the DIA, “it was in these years that an Indian policy defined in the Province of us about policy today as well. The DIA was part DIA The as well. today policy us about in Canada and of development time of the national (Smith institutions” government of “maturation the sell, the DIA’s paper trail gives us more insight in insight us more gives trail paper DIA’s the sell, memory as a form of public 1900-1915 period the teach archives These paper 50). (Russell 1984, p.

3. Critical Analysis of DIA Annual Annual of DIA Analysis 3. Critical Reports ceptualization of cultural and structural genocide. and structural cultural of ceptualization Page 21 / Issue 1 / Volume 1 / DOI: 10.29173/aar10 in theRoyal Proclamation and the of excluding Indigenous peoplesbasedupontheir nomic disparities under capitalist liberalism today. of Indigenoussubjugationtohealth and socio-eco tween 1900 and 1915 form a continuous process diagnostic frames intheDIA Annual Reportsbe peoples as second-rate citizens (Smith 2009). The ology brings forward the framing of Indigenous ideological formation ofpeople’s lives; theide vinism, liberalism, and capitalism is notonlyan tler capitalism todevelop. This ideology of chau toremove Indigenous peoplesfromtheir territories for set taken measures the justified prairies (Smith 2009, p.2).Liberalism in the Canadian faced bymanyIndigenouspeoplesinCanada” oversee thelife-threatening material conditions to continue that “structures the created capitalism eralism and market economics. Liberalism and keeping Indigenous peoples silent and out of sight. trol successfullyminimized publicdiscontent by con Administrative “Indian”. the of pacification ropean migration to Canada and necessitated the DIA wasgroundedintheideaofstimulating Eu cerns thatthediagnosticframingofpeoplesby similation project (Carter 1990). Smith (2009) dis to impressforeign diplomats ofthe Canadian as equality as seeninthe model farms onreserves taining an image of friendly relations and public main busy was and conflicts hush to best its did Indigenous peoples. According toSmith,theDIA tion project, which meant the forced relocation of policies. Oneofthesepolicieswastherehabilita ing possibledissatisfaction withtheassimilative keeping possiblerebellionsincheck,andcontain this wererecord-keeping, intelligence gathering, a top-downanalysis(Smith2009).Motivesfor in affairs of administration the of aspect every ent tensive paperadministration; the DIA recordspres ianship andpolicies of assimilation (Smith 2009). peoples. This absence validated coercive guard evidence of thelackdevelopment of Indigenous coercive policies wassubstantiated by theDIA as peoples. Moreover, Indigenousresistance to these The DIA initiated this continuous process The DIA’s control was informed by lib Guardianship, onthisscale, warranted ex albertaacademicreview.com Mudde etal.2018 ------serves insouthern Alberta, the Annual Reportslose and, in combination with the false entries on re 452). This problematizes the deathratesmentioned traordinary degree” (DIA Annual Report 1909,p. ex an to tuberculosis with infected are […] bands manifestly defective [and] it may be said that altogether the are figures […] a defective; as are “returns whole Reports: Annual 1909 the in DIA or their deteriorating living conditions (Smith 2009). in favouroftheDIA andwithoutregardforpeoples provide the best portrait of the assimilation project lection was pronetosloppinessandmanipulation to DIA data collection, Moreover, the DIA’s data col completely dependent ongoverningstructuresand ference. Indigenous peoples’ representation became dehumanized and notprotected against state inter ered citizensinCanadiansociety;thus,theywere peoples were treated like children and not consid Indian Act. According toSmith(2009),Indigenous categorizations convey moreabout the Euro-Cana featured political perceptions, descriptions, and not inlinewithDIAon thereservewas policy. or ifthe information provided bythe Indian agent ing information on Indigenous peoples’ well-being, by Indian Agents and/ortheDIA tocoverup miss mains if this was a general description entry used (DIA Annual Reports1900-1915). The questionre tended to, andtheir houses arekeptneatandclean” been good.Sanitaryprecautionshavewellat can be done; otherwise the health of the band has and scrofula on these reserves, for which but little is: “there are still a number of cases of consumption sentences copiedforeachyear. Oneofsuchentries the Annual Reports appear to be standard entries or pattern standsout.Someoftheentriesfeaturedin schools mighthavebeenevenworsethanreported. TB-related diseases onreservesandinresidential cates theliving conditionsandresultingdeathsby the death rates mentioned in the reports and indi 1909 ismuch higher. This realization questions the real number of TB-related deaths in the year the incomplete number andsloppinessindicate credibility. According to the same 1909 Report, I foundexamples of the sloppiness ofthe Therefore, the DIA’s Annual Reportsand In fact,throughoutthe Annual Reports,a ------Page 22 / Issue 1 / Volume 1 / DOI: 10.29173/aar10 ------is indicative of the is indicative ). These occurrences can These occurrences ). Table 1 Table Table 1 Table is indicative of the Canadian bureaucracy of the Canadian is indicative It is important to determine what kind of It is important to determine The primary source analysis displayed in displayed analysis source primary The Even though all information collected from collected information though all Even albertaacademicreview.com analysis presented in presented analysis 1915. and 1900 between bureaucracy Canadian used as are how they prevailed, frames diagnostic justification mechanisms, and whether they com eventually bring DIA objectives and policy into and policy objectives bring DIA eventually As such, I agree question” (Smith 2009, p. 118). was part policy DIA the that (2009), in Smith with designed to get rid of the Canadian bureaucracy, keep of Indigenous peoples while simultaneously minimum. to a resistance and costs low federal ing Frames Diagnostic 4. Prevailing 1 Table An DIA Analysis of the 1900 and 1915. between nual Reports found that the words “tuberculosis”, “scrofula”, or “consumption” and related ings, appeared more than 1,805 times on more than spell 14,400 pages ( Catego categories; be divided in seven thematic ry 1, for instance, consists of those hits referring a gov without or deaths diseases TB-related to source primary The frame. diagnostic ernmental in case of conflict, agents acted the DIA’s judge serving and presiding prosecutor, as complainant, it was the inspectors TB, In the case of interests. develop relative and health supervise to who had (Smith reserves on peoples of ment by the tempered surveillance, 2009). Nevertheless, in was more important than agricultural economy, 2009). (Smith conditions living or general struction pass unnoticed. could treatment vile result, As a was schools analyzed, reserves and residential An it into the DIA’s would make not everything 2009). For nual Report (Smith I suggest that which ap written to serve the public’s these reports were and rational, credible, look DIA the make to proval and were manipulated but reports well-informed, demands the meet Agents to dressed up by Indian which to prevent failure, of the DIA. In attempt politicians, or federal DIA the discredit could which and might cause unwanted “public scrutiny, ------Mudde et al. 2018 et al. Mudde Even though the different levels in the hi 3.1. DIA’s Administrative Bureaucracy Administrative Bureaucracy 3.1. DIA’s the century, nineteenth in the Beginning This image of First Nations people, or the of First Nations people, This image on and off reserves vileto treatment. Moreover, individu one another, policed erarchy of the DIA als could be tyrants and expose Indigenous peoples icy due to the geographic distances and infrequent distances geographic due to the icy contact between the different layers officials. of dent general of Indian affairs (Carter Apart 1999). poli the hierarchy, pyramid from this bureaucratic had room to follow their own pol cy implementers “commissioners”, who had to answer to the deputy the to answer to had who “commissioners”, general, who then had to report to superintendent who was also the superinten the cabinet minister, agents and was monitored by inspectors. These agents and was monitored by inspectors. inspectors were supervised by superintendents, or enous lives to assimilate and monitor progress. monitor and assimilate to lives enous First Na Indigenous between contact This meant through Indian occurred DIA tions peoples and the the supervision and reform of Indigenous peoples the supervision and reform of Indigenous orga DIA The 2009). (Smith West Prairie the in in all aspects of Indig had to be present nization DIA, through various tactics, established adminis established DIA, through various tactics, and organized regions that institutionalized trative TB and the Case Study on government structure. Through time, the DIA con DIA the time, Through structure. government struct of Indigenous peoples and disease changed in to be exclusionary. form and language but continued (Stoler 1995). The archival texts only provide sub archival The (Stoler 1995). constructs from the dominant and one-sided jective was The and continues to be flexible through time. of Indigenous exclu the mechanisms aligned DIA values norms and societal and opinion public sion to and Indigenous peoples by the DIA, was not a fixed a not was DIA, the by peoples Indigenous and mecha exclusionary the maintain To boundary. the boundary system, nisms of the administrative selves had fabricated of non-Euro-Canadians. fabricated selves had between the non-Indigenous constructed imaginary capitalist values (Smith 2009). DIA policy was was policy DIA 2009). (Smith values capitalist image Euro-Canadians them instructed by the The DIA’s paper trail is a social and political con political and social is a trail paper DIA’s The Eu with accepted in accordance written struct on liberal frames based diagnostic ro-Canadian dian dian views on the “Indian” than about the actual schools. in residential on reserves and situation Page 23 / Issue 1 / Volume 1 / DOI: 10.29173/aar10 physical or biological science (Goffman 1975). (Goffman science biological or physical is asocialconstruct, wrongfully perceivedas considered savages. This state,however, was and were peoples Indigenous the and racism scientific Euro-Canadian worldviews were determined by world. The Canadian governance structure and the categorized and saw officials its and DIA the ing itself is coloured by the primary frame of how knowledge oftheperiodbetween1900to1915. plied withexistingacademic research andmedical transcribed andputinPDFformatbytheCanadian Archives given year, orange indicates the three categories in relation to hygiene. Year Year ReportsThe Annual DIA Canada 1900 1916 - search words 'tuberculosis', 'scrofula', and 'consumption' year per Yet itmustbenotedthatdiagnosticfram 1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 Table 1. - Category7,miscellaneous(e.g.causedbyother diseases,God). - Category6,levelorlackofassimilationcivilization; - Category5,personalmoralityseeninresponsetoweatherandeatenfood; - Category4,in-housecleanlinessandconditions; - Category3,generalstandardofsanitationandventilation; - Category2,sicknessduetoraceorhereditaryproneness; - Category1,wordoccurrences; For thepresentationofframes,followingdiagnosticcategoriesareclustered: albertaacademicreview.com Total ResultsDIA Annual Reports1900-1916 1,805 150 110 133 124 151 141 144 124 68 68 74 93 99 99 68 85 74 Cat. 1 Cat. 10 14.7 % 10 14.7 14 20.6 % 14 20.6 31 41.9 % 31 41.9 40 43.0 % 40 43.0 34 34.3 % 34 34.3 36 36.4 % 36 36.4 67 44.7 % 67 44.7 37 33.6 % 37 33.6 56 42.1 % 56 42.1 63 50.8 % 63 50.8 77 51.0 % 77 51.0 60 42.6 % 60 42.6 74 51,4 % 74 51,4 71 57.3 % 71 57.3 33 48.5 % 33 48.5 41 48.2 % 41 48.2 783 43.4% 39 52.7 % 39 52.7 Mudde etal.2018 Cat. 2 Cat. 15 22.1 % 15 22.1 19 27.9 % 19 27.9 13 17,6 % 13 17,6 15 16.1 % 15 16.1 16 16.2 % 16 16.2 17 17.2 % 17 17.2 22 14.7 % 22 14.7 19 17.3 % 19 17.3 19 14.3 % 19 14.3 13 10.5 % 13 10.5 15 9.9 % 15 9.9 11 7.8 % 11 7.8 12 8.3 % 12 8.3 12 9.7 % 12 9.7 5 7.4 % 5 7.4 7 8.2 % 7 8.2 240 13.3% 10 13.5 % 10 13.5 - 360 19.9% 360 19.9% Cat. 3 Cat. 37 54.4 % 37 54.4 25 36.8 % 25 36.8 16 21.6 % 16 21.6 17 18.3 % 17 18.3 22 22.2 % 22 22.2 17 17.2 % 17 17.2 29 19.3 % 29 19.3 24 21.8 % 24 21.8 18 13.5 % 18 13.5 23 18.5 % 23 18.5 25 16.6 % 25 16.6 23 16.3 % 23 16.3 19 13.2 % 19 13.2 20 16.1 % 20 16.1 15 22.1 % 15 22.1 17 20.0 % % 17 20.0 13 17.6 % 13 17.6

linked race to class and reveal that officials were officials that reveal and class to race linked beyond issues of race alone. The Annual Reports the Canadian government, this casestudygoes as welltheneglected treaty responsibilities by related diseases asenvironmentally enhanced, cluding Euro-Canadians and the DIA 1915,in (Kelm 1998). and 1900 between of racism truth tific Nevertheless, manypeoplebelieved in thescien * . Pinkindicates the highestpercentage of the . Nevertheless, with the knowledge of TB- 230 12.7 % 230 12.7 Cat. 4 Cat. 3 4.4 % 3 4.4 6 8.8 % 6 8.8 6 8.1 % 6 8.1 8 8.6 % 8 8.6 18 18.2 % 18 18.2 16 16.2 % 16 16.2 18 12.0 % 18 12.0 13 11.8 % 13 11.8 23 17.3 % 23 17.3 15 12.1 % 15 12.1 17 11.3 % 17 11.3 21 14.9 % 21 14.9 22 15.3 % 22 15.3 12 6.7 % 12 6.7 11 16.2 % 11 16.2 14 16.5 % 14 16.5 7 9.5 % 79.5 * All the Annual Reportshave been 104 5.8 % 104 5.8 Cat. 5 Cat. 2 2.9 % 2 2.9 3 4.4 % 3 4.4 1 1.4 % 1 1.4 4 4.3 % 4 4.3 5 5.1 % 5 5.1 6 6.0 % 6 6.0 3 2.0 % 3 2.0 12 10.9 % 12 10.9 9 6.8 % 9 6.8 4 3.2 % 4 3.2 7 4.6 % 7 4.6 18 12.8 % 18 12.8 11 7.6 % 11 7.6 7 5.6 % 7 5.6 4 5.9 % 4 5.9 4 4.7 % 4 4.7 4 5.4 % 4 5.4 56 3.1 % 56 3.1 Cat. 6 Cat. - - 4 5.4 % 4 5.4 7 7.5 % 7 7.5 2 2.0 % 2 2.0 5 5.1 % 5 5.1 5 3.3 % % 5 3.3 2 1.8 % 2 1.8 7 5.3 % 7 5.3 3 2.4 % 3 2.4 8 5.3 % 8 5.3 6 4.3 % 6 4.3 4 2.8 % % 4 2.8 1 0.8 % 1 0.8 1 1.2 % 1 1.2 1 1.4 % 1 1.4 0 32 1.8 % 32 1.8 Cat. 7 Cat. 1 1.5 % 1 1.5 1 1.5 % 1 1.5 3 4.0 % 3 4.0 2 2.2 % 2 2.2 2 2.0 % 2 2.0 2 2.0 % 2 2.0 6 4.0 % % 6 4.0 3 2.7 % 3 2.7 1 0.8 % 1 0.8 3 2.4 % 3 2.4 2 1.3% 2 1.4 % 2 1.4 2 1.4 % % 2 1.4 1 0.8 % % 1 0.8 1 1.2 % 1 1.2 0 0 - - Page 24 / Issue 1 / Volume 1 / DOI: 10.29173/aar10 ------TB-related diseases and the scourge of diseases and the scourge TB-related TB, scrofula, in which categories The DIA TB-related diseases were seen as some diseases were seen TB-related albertaacademicreview.com “usual” TB-related diseases. TB, scrofula, and con and scrofula, TB, diseases. TB-related “usual” diseases sumption were denied as being epidemic but were met with the same sanitary precautions. In were seen as common, diseases TB-related this way, for Indigenous peoples due to their not epidemic, the “Indian” were furthermore explained through scientific racism and the stage of development, as the report claims “the high death-rate is attributed chiefly to the presence of tuberculosis and kindred attending conditions by the aggravated scrofula, the aboriginal the earlier stages of transition from Annual Re (DIA environment” to the civilized of develop causality This 1905, p. 31, 429). port stage of evolution as a necessary ment perceived served as a justification mechanism for was provided population Indigenous the of aid the lack by white governance structures. Nevertheless, the transi of state a forced and incited it DIA, when hinted indirectly on reserves, people onto tion of assimila policy government forced the that TB and kindred scrofula diseases. tion aggravated combined often mentioned were or consumption remarks on the overall health of in-reserve popu diseases with the of epidemic lack and the lations Annual Report 1905). All reports featured general general featured All reports 1905). Report Annual scrofula be and TB, consumption, of descriptions ing described as either “most pervasive,” prevalent,” “most or the “scourge of the Indian”; health was the ‘Indian problem.’ linked to continuously Though determined. biologically or inherent thing this perception, does not reveal 2 on race category the firstcategory indicates Indigenous to ascribed the “normal”DIA the ness to disease prone peoples: “tuberculosis and scrofula hos tent but where race, upon the inroads make continue to as well nursing and introduced, been have pitals been pro has treatment surgical as medical and those check to been a gratifying has vided, there Annual (DIA aborigines” of the dread scourges Report 1907, p. 302). The primordial “scourge” through among Indigenous peoples is explained scientific racism and could only be contained or isolation. and precautions sanitary through limited ------Mudde et al. 2018 et al. Mudde , the largest numbers are found are numbers largest , the Table 1 Table The high percentages in Category 1 indicate Category in percentages high The 4.2. TB as a Natural Disease (Categories Natural Disease a as TB 4.2. In the Annual Reports of the years 1900 to years of the Reports Annual In the 4.1. Government Fortuitousness 4.1. Government child or an elderly person, or by a death rate (DIA (DIA rate death a by or person, elderly an or child the number of people that died on reserves each year. year. died on reserves each that number of people the TB, scrofula, and consump in 1905, For instance, to specify the death of a tion were only mentioned actual diagnostic framing as to why the disease oc disease why the to as framing diagnostic actual curred. DIA officials often indifferently specified 1 & 2) without diseases were only mentioned, TB-related “Sanitary Conditions” does indicate TB infection of sanitation. lack a to as related was perceived the DIA’s the categorizations DIA’s of “Health” or “Health Conditions” grouped together with “Sanitation” or to a lack of sanitation or seen as inherent “Indian” were TB, however, diseases. Some variations of also diagnosed as “white” diseases. Nevertheless, 1916, ending in March 1916, “consumption” and connected often were TB of variations as “scrofula” was suggested that TB was a natural disease con TB was a natural was suggested that civilization. and of assimilation lack a to nected West. In fact, it shows the blame was on placed West. their arguing themselves, Indigenous peoples the diseases; it TB-related proneness to hereditary ing, was not blamed for the health and socio-eco ing, was not blamed for the health on re of First Nations peoples deprivation nomic Prairie Canadian serves or close to reserves in the in Category 1 and Categories 3 to 5 combined. 1 and Categories in Category function or DIA policy, government means This structural genocide up until the twenty-first century. twenty-first the until up genocide structural In economic and health gaps in twenty-first century questions if scientif this does not hold and Canada, of mechanism institutionalized an became racism ic cuse against governmental guilt or blame and put guilt or blame and put cuse against governmental and 1900 between neglect forward as unintentional socio- to continued in connection 1915. However, level of The accountability. argument of scientific ex as an used be frame, might primary as a racism, overcrowding, and disease caused socio-economic socio-economic caused disease and overcrowding, develop medical disparities. Moreover, and health a indicate tented camps in TB treatment ment and aware of how political, economic, and socially de socially and economic, political, of how aware as malnourishment, such circumstances termined Page 25 / Issue 1 / Volume 1 / DOI: 10.29173/aar10 sidered “savage” living conditions, were increas were conditions, living “savage” sidered place. first the in sanitation of lack a and ditions cies wereresponsibleforcreating these livingcon (DIA Annual Report 1901). Therefore, DIA poli houses thatlacked garbage disposalorventilation successful. This resultedinpoorlyconstructed western housingformulasthatwereonlypartially ated by theDIA,forcingIndigenouspeoplesinto trast, immoral living conditions wereoftencre dian’ (DIA Annual Report 1901,p.i-xxi).Incon In the of enemy great ‘the TB made “Indians” of and poor housing added to the weak constitution nual Report of 1901,the idea that malnutrition ways, explained the highillnessrates.In An together with alack of sanitation and uncivilized “Indians”, of constitution weak perceived or ity, nual Report 1900). FortheDIA,this Indigene often connectedtoideasofIndigeneity (DIA An and thefourthcategory, ‘livingconditions’,were 4) tents ifinfected and almost nohelpfromtheDIA. self-sufficient way, a whichincluded Indigenous peoplesliving in in done be to had improvement Annual Report1903,p.32).However, thisgradual (DIA infection” to power resisting “constitutional environment had to be achieved gradually to form al Report1903,p.xix).Fullassimilation into anew fittest’ [seemed] to be still in operation” (DIA Annu process ofselectionunderthelaw‘survival adapted […] to their new environment, and that the “fully not were DIA “Indians” to officials, cording aborigines” (DIA Annual Report 1901, p.xxi). Ac is onenottendingtothephysicalwell-beingof combination the […], exposure unnecessary with ments, either direct, or indirect, and whencoupled stitution thatmakeupthemajorportionofhisail are thetwoinherent tendencies in theIndiancon scrofula and “consumption agent, Indian 8 Treaty ideas abouttheIndigenouspeoples. According toa naturally on all reserves irrespective of DIA policy. DIA: it was frequently put forward that TB appeared immoral ways of living. This argument served the Meanwhile, living in tents, previously con The thirdcategory, ‘lackofsanitation’, in Hygiene(Categories3& 4.3. Lessons The normalcy of diseasewasconnected to albertaacademicreview.com Mudde etal.2018 ------and precautions, Indigenous peoples still suffered still peoples Indigenous precautions, and agents realized that, despite sanitary measures cials. Inthe Annual Reportof1902,someIndian of theIndigenouspeoplescaused TB. al health,theDIA concluded that theimmoral ways gener the to beneficial as acknowledged was tents Report 1901, p. 263). Thus, even though living in consumption, the bane of the Indian” (DIA Annual lives [areundoubtedlythecauseof]scrofulaand wet clothes, which are slept in, and their immoral day, compulsory fast the next, wet feet and often er,] theirmodeofliving, their feastandwaste one autumn, their health is verymuch better [.Howev tically in the open air, during spring, summer and prac living are “Indians”] [the they when that fact well-known a is “it Enoch’sband, of agent Indian became a sanitaryprecaution. According tothe ber ofconsumption,scrofula,or TB patientsand ingly condoned as it proved to decrease the num schools (Johnston1988; Fontaine 2010; Robertson oirs pointoutthedegeneration that occurredinthe contrast, TRC reportsandresidential school mem ful disease”(DIA Annual Report1903,p.171).In more andsusceptibletocontractthisdread degenerated, year after year, andinconsequence tions of the Indians are becoming more and more their children: “the once robust and hardy constitu the general constitution of Indigenous peoples and on instead, placed, was Blame clean”. and “perfectly as “excellent” consistently off written asschools were responsible held not was staff school tion and ventilation circumstances. The residential lowed bypraise for the schools’ excellent sanita of residential schools wasoften immediately fol of this paradox, DIA policy was never questioned. tion (DIA Annual Report1904,p.xix).Regardless consump from suffered still peoples Indigenous neighbours,” white “their to compared conditions despite sanitary regulations andfavourableliving report of1904,oneIndianagentpointsouthow, ties that had assimilated to a white standard. In the the prevalence ofthe disease even in communi agents inquestiondidnotknowwhattothinkof from TB (DIA Annual Report 1902). The Indian hs aao pzld oe I offi DIA some puzzled paradox This Mention of TB-related deaths inthecontext ------Page 26 / Issue 1 / Volume 1 / DOI: 10.29173/aar10 ------The general sentiment put forward in the sentiment general The Precautionary policies delineated in the in delineated policies Precautionary albertaacademicreview.com and operations on patients were mentioned more and operations on patients were mentioned that frequently after 1902, which might indicate This in prior cases were not seen by a doctor. with occurred simultaneously crease in attention TB, scrofula, and consumption as dis insights on fire protection. Increased emphasis was placed on people of infected segregation and isolation the and reserves. Never from their houses, families, theless, it is difficult to determine if the labelling of the DIA as “satisfactory functioning”, “appro priate”, and “considerable care” precautions were white to provided standards the to comparable peoples Euro-Canadian and upper-class middle sections in the The economic and their children. otherwise, Annual Reports after 1910 suggested on than was spent on stationary money as more care for Indigenous peoples precautions or health Annual Report 1910; 1912; 1913; 1914). (DIA Views 5. Opposing Medical TB was the big Annual Reports is the idea that and consumption ger term which encompassed Treatments 1903). Annual Report scrofula (DIA a halt to TB among Indigenous peoples and they and peoples Indigenous among TB to a halt expan and westward civilization that idea had the sion would eventually save the “Indian”: “extend more more and bringing gradually is ing settlement of sci reach within bands outlying hitherto of the entific aid, and marked results have been obtained in experimentally hospitals in tent from treatment Annual Re (DIA localities” troduced into certain reasoning of line this However, 35). p. 1907, port that those to the argument was in direct opposition suffering from TB-related diseases werethose in (Lux 2001). western medicine close contact with and segregation treatment reports praised medical Throughout 1907). Report Annual (DIA policies descrip Reports, the precautionary Annual the not only referring to more detailed, tions become re explicitly but more and ventilation, sanitation systems, heating outhouses, drainage to ferring and supplies, food, clothing, water mechanisms, ------Mudde et al. 2018 et al. Mudde , “miscellaneous”, often referred to TB- DIA DIA officials believed progress would put This diagnostic frame of inherent prone This diagnostic frame of inherent The perceived primordial normalcy where normalcy primordial The perceived

white behaviour and civilized ways were perceived ways and civilized behaviour white of reduce the incidence to eventually and naturally diseases among Indigenous peoples. TB-related ing power to resist the conditions peculiar to the ing power to resist the conditions peculiar 1907, p. 35). Hence, Report Annual (DIA Indians” enous First Nations peoples by TB-related diseases TB-related enous First Nations peoples by served the “general progress in the impart and removing gradually [by] civilization direction of of civilization in the genocidal manner conclud of civilization general The TRC in 2015 (TRC 2015). ed by the rate of Indig death idea regarding the increased that the objective of sanitary policies was aimed at that the objective some level destroying ways of living and achieve tion in separate hospitals, tents, or wards was the tion in separate hospitals, tents, for sanatoriums erected the retreat to alternative seemed would have It 2001). (Lux people white only got sicker; consequently, they would require they consequently, got sicker; only regiments (DIA rigid structure and assimilatory and segrega The isolation Annual Report 1908). behaviour. In prairie conditions, white people conditions, white In prairie behaviour. bands Indigenous while TB from cured be would that people on reserves simply got sick very often. very sick got simply reserves on people that to connected was furthermore ness to disease measles were seen as an explanation for increased measles were seen as an explanation An peoples (DIA among Indigenous TB infections seemed to be The perception nual Report 1906). general higher rate of infectious diseases such as higher rate of infectious general the whooping-cough, scarlet fever, influenza, and cellaneous cases referred to one acute TB-related TB-related cases referred to one acute cellaneous by caused and one fever by typhoid caused death influenza (DIA Annual Report 1903). In 1906, a Table 1 Table such as caused by other diseases diseases related in 1903, two mis For instance, grippe or measles. to TB-related diseases is also connected to their to is also connected diseases TB-related to other diseases. For to lack of immunity biological in to 1915, the seventh category the years 1900 prone as being were labeled by Indigenous peoples how school administrations sent severely infected infected severely sent administrations how school toll in an increased death home to prevent students members. family among infection causing schools, 2011; Sellars 2012; TRC 2016; Merasty 2015). 2015). Merasty 2016; TRC 2012; Sellars 2011; 1912 revealed of Report Annual the Moreover, Page 27 / Issue 1 / Volume 1 / DOI: 10.29173/aar10 races oftheseveralcontinents” (DIA Annual Re so-called civilized races withthenativeuntutored of “contact of result the not and diseases were ula based on notions of race and class. TB and scrof the 1905report,pointing out that DIA policy was in DIA the of Officer Medical Chief as pearance from suffer TB-related diseases based on their race and class. to assumed were peoples digenous In way, this In more. or same the suffer to have behind inthestagesofdevelopment, would also from TB, Indigenous peoples, whom lagged further suffered people white lower-class and ing Therefore, the assumption was made that if work disease” (DIA Annual Report1905,p.320). dread this from greatly suffer to continue Indians the whiterace,itcannotbewonderedatthat in combatingtheravagesoftuberculosisamong cities: achieved bigbeen has little in comparatively so “when communities white poor among more often. diseases TB-related from suffered were alsoliving in unhygienic circumstances and nual Report of 1905,poorwhite communities wasconnected to class.Forexample, according to theDIA An civilization meant also housefly on the theory This houseflies. have not to lieved behaviour; afterall,civilized households werebe as another indication of Indigenousunhygienic served only housefly the behaviour, to linked ily that the spreading of the disease was notnecessar Report 1911, p.627).Eventhoughthisindicated of the germs ofcertain diseases” (DIA Annual carriers serious most as recognized now are flies “house emerged: diseases related TB of spreader and quarantine politics (DIA Annual Report1904). were treated with the same sanitary precautions to small-pox, measles, and whooping-cough and were diseases similar in spreading and contagion ing remained that TB, scrofula,andconsumption Report 1903).Nevertheless, general understand infection of whitesettlersinthearea(DIA Annual increased medical treatment to prevent the possible sible spreadofthediseasemight have warranted eases spreadbygerms. The urgency ofthepos Physician P. H. Bryce made his first ap first his made Bryce H. P. Physician TB-related diseases, thus,alsoprevailed as housefly the on theory new a 1911, In albertaacademicreview.com Mudde etal.2018 ------standpoint of health” (DIA Annual Report 1906, p. the reservesdistant from settlement, even fromthe the whiteman,hasprovedwisdomofplacing nature to imitate the vices rather than the virtues of, which longagowasshownforthesechildren of tendency “the Meindl, to According life. reserve digenous peoplesandtheirpoorassimilation to suggested thattheblameshouldbeplacedonIn that ofphysician reports was G. Meindl,who A. and England(DIA Annual Report1905,p.473). standard ofhealth regulations available in Canada tents, double-walledtents,”inlinewiththehigh pital forwinteraccommodation, and thenhave [in] somecottages or asmall consumptive hos the patients, particularly those intheadvancedstages isolate “to DIA the advised Bryce munities. those thathadbeen implemented for whitecom in government spending and similar policies as port 1905,p.468).Brycesuggestedanincrease as theminimal allowance from the DIA didnotal caused deteriorated living conditions for thepupils (DIA Annual Report 1905, p. 443). Lack of money their exclusionmightlessenthepercapita grant” pils […]. Everywhere was too apparent the fear that preciation of thedangersthreatening the other pu very fewwerethereevidencesofanadequateap cases oftuberculosis of the scrofulous form,andin most all [residential schools] there were present al “in instance, For schools. residential the in and were notfollowedbythoseincharge on thereserves nual Report1907,p.439).Hygienicprescriptions enous peoplesmoreregardingDIA policy(DIA An saw thecausesof TB-related disease among Indig Bryce disagreed with Meindl. Bryce, and instead the DIA policywasnotaltered or questioned. (DIA Annual Report1906,p.431).Butagain, adopted the settled manner oflife on reservations” freer fromdiseasethanhavebeenthosewho roving bandsofhuntersandtrappershavebeen is athandthatthosebandswhichhaveremained “evidence because communities white to threat a ing to Indigenous health and, most importantly, as development and westward expansion as degrad 431). Incontrast to theDIA’s ideas,Meindl saw Another pointofviewfeaturedintheDIA In comparingtheDIA entries,itisclearhow ------Page 28 / Issue 1 / Volume 1 / DOI: 10.29173/aar10 ------Moreover, in an indirect response to Doc response indirect in an Moreover, As 1908 report also of fact, the a matter albertaacademicreview.com of existence and to their life in unsanitary and ill of existence 1908, Annual Report (DIA dwellings” ventilated policy and the imposed DIA p. 332). Ironically, or are not linked changes to sedentary conditions part of the pro TB remained Increased questioned. nected to the idea of the frail constitution of Indige nected to the idea of the frail constitution further were constitutions frail These nous peoples. compromised by “the sudden change from Annual Report 1908, their (DIA former way of living” phy arguments, p. 485). Despite all these medical sicians and DIA officials alike still blamed Indig expansion Euro-Canadian not and peoples enous progression of a logical The idea policy. or DIA and mor morbidity and high of history prevailed, shift peoples rates among those Indigenous tality ing towards civilization were therefore justified. Indian Com Bryce, and Meindl, DIA Walker, tors develop the suggested that David Laird missioner of standards white to dwellings unsanitary of ment living, as well as general assimilation, had proven Annual (DIA properly when conducted successful Report 1908). According to Laird, “the of the change of tuberculosis are a consequence ravages from the former roving life of the Indians under canvas to their now more sedentary conditions changed their nomadic to a settled life in houses” houses” in life settled to a nomadic their changed related TB and 1908, p. 479). Report Annual (DIA biologi not as by some were perceived diseases through European increased but rather new, cally contact: “when they began to live in houses, them, so that among began to increase berculosis tu caused this increase must have the conditions that been different from those surrounding them when Report 1908, Annual (DIA they lived in tepees” policies and government DIA p. 479). However, or scrutinized. accountable held not were still TB as instigating explanations sanitary denounced infection, which stated that “they were both filthy, in when they lived and in tepees when they lived ever filth this that evidence no is There […] houses. it was mingled caused tuberculosis except when with the specific germs of the disease” An (DIA arguments the Despite 479). p. 1908, Report nual TB was still con on germ theory that developed, ------Mudde et al. 2018 et al. Mudde Additionally, the DIA reports as early as the DIA Additionally, Even ideas on the hereditary proneness to Even ideas on the hereditary In almost all instances, medical advice was advice medical instances, all In almost was, rare among them and remained so until they was, rare among them and remained pre-contact disease, meaning tuberculosis existed tuberculosis meaning disease, pre-contact before contact among the Indigenous population with Euro-Canadians, “but at that time the disease as a was seen TB which in entries 1908 featured with tuberculosis. This must be the result of ex of result the be must This tuberculosis. with to pertain do not especially that conditions ternal p. 479). 1908, Report Annual (DIA Indian” the from tuberculosis than is a white man under like circumstances […] a much larger proportion these Indians than of the white people are infected of white people. […] There is no inherent peculiar infection to liable more renders him which ity was explained as external rather than primor as external was explained dial: “tuberculosis among these Indians does not differ in any respect from tuberculosis amongst TB were partially declared unfounded in 1908. Ac unfounded in 1908. declared TB were partially causal the Walker, J. R. Dr. physician to cording Indigenous peoples among TB infection of factor able in 1908, circulated in DIA reports, and ignored. in DIA able in 1908, circulated 1908, p. 478). This medical knowledge on TB in TB on knowledge medical This 478). p. 1908, and cattle, rations, government to relation in fection avail conditions was already living environmental actually tuberculous meat or milk, or from infected or milk, or from tuberculous meat actually food the into getting actually dust and house faith through hands, dishes […]” (DIA Annual Report pare through these inflamed tracts the tissues for whether as of the bacillus of tubercle, the reception now recognizes that it is digestive troubles due to due troubles is digestive it that now recognizes infancy that not only cause many improper food in diseases, but which also pre deaths from diarrheal by TB as well (TRC 2015). Moreover, medical medical TB as well (TRC 2015). Moreover, by TB infection of origin digestive knowledge on the was already mentioned by 1908: “medical science cies implemented in most schools, but altered diets schools, but altered in most implemented cies increased the dairy nor be realized would neither contaminated be to proved later which products, done (DIA Annual Report 1907, p. 399). Controlled 1907, p. 399). Annual Report done (DIA poli only were the regulations dietary and altered ignored. DIA officials ignored. inDIA 1907 claimed Indigenous con so and impure so be to appears “blood peoples could be that not much with scrofula,” taminated low for investments other than bare necessities. bare than other for investments low Page 29 / Issue 1 / Volume 1 / DOI: 10.29173/aar10 tity fromonegeneration to thenext”(TRCFinal vent thetransmissionof cultural values andiden allow the group to continue as a group [which] pre destruction of thosestructuresandpractices that “the as genocide cultural defines TRC The mains. economic gapthatalsocauseshigher TB ratesre has nojudicial resonance,and thegeneral socio- genocide” “cultural term the Nevertheless, 2016). policy of cultural genocide” (TRC Final Report, conscious “a of part was system school residential system. Moreover, the TRC concluded that the for their involvement in the residential school involved churcheshaveissuedformalapologies eases suchas TB. The Canadiangovernmentand mortality rates inresidential schools duetodis considerable attention to thehighmorbidity and and StructuralGenocide 6. InstitutionalizedMarginalization rate amongIndigenouspeoplesandtheirchildren. death the to indifference relative displayed ously incurable. PublicopinionandDIA policycontinu TB amongreservepopulations something almost opinions. Combinedideasonclassandracemade and racewithinthepublicvariousmedical were continuouslyperceived as theinferiorclass Annual Report 1910, p.423).Indigenouspeoples icy “because of the danger to the white man” (DIA culosis campaigns were startedoutsideofDIA pol race [was] suffering,” and in 1910 active anti-tuber Indian “The 1937). (Long, 1937 to through States seen in medical research in Canada and the United rates from white and “negro” were still timidation. Campaigns and research compared TB 1910 werebasedonrace, class, andthepublic in officials. DIA by ignored were but Walker, and medical knowledge fromDoctorsMeindl,Bryce, 1908, p.333).Collectively, DIA reports featured the evils which it is intended to cure” (DIA Annual Report removing before benefit to designed is it those for difficulties creates often it that shows civilization of progress “the as civilization of cess The TRC reportsof2015and 2016gave Many anti-tuberculosis campaigns after albertaacademicreview.com Mudde etal.2018 ------iie t te iet itn t dsry i whole or in part, a national, ethical, racial or religious in destroy, to “intent direct the is to limited genocide of definition the legally, Therefore, resentatives at the time (Abtahi and Web 2008). genocide was deemed too vague and broad by rep tion (Davidson2012). The distinction of cultural but these were never incorporated in the Conven different types ofgenocide,including cultural genocide, distinguish did Lemkin, Raphael cide, “cultural genocide”. The initiator of the term geno lished aftertheSecond World War, neverincluded (Schabas 2000). The , estab genocide does notexist under international law to Canadian law expert William Schabas, cultural dian governmenttointernational law. According international law and the connection of the Cana generated social reformintermsoflegal impact. TRC reports,thetermculturalgenocidehasnot Report, 2016). Despite the formal apologies and recognition of cultural genocide excludes some of major UnitedNationsdocuments, andevenrecent viously votedtokeepcultural genocide out oftwo (Carnegie Council[accessed2016]).Canadapre cide, was accepted by the Trudeau government enous Rights,whichalsodealswithactsofgeno [accessed 2016]). Declaration The UN of Indig Convention on Genocide (UN Treaty Collection structural processsuchaswithincolonialism. ing somethingtemporal rather thanacontinuous as having a beginning and an end, as well as be 1948 (Schabas2000).Genocideisalsoviewed only applicable to crimesagainsthumanity after non-retroactive by the Genocide Convention and gin. Duringthe1940s,genocidewasstipulated as complexity of theterm genocide resides initsori nothing wasasbadtheHolocaust. Another War andmayresultinaheavily charged ideathat politics of destruction during theSecond World cide is often used to refer to specific anti-Semitism the Second World War andtheHolocaust. Geno remains complex,withstrongnormativelinksto the same destructive result (UN 1948,p.280). group,” rather than including indirect policies with The lack of judicial resonance relates to Canada onlyrecently acknowledged the Moreover, as a historical term, genocide ------Page 30 / Issue 1 / Volume 1 / DOI: 10.29173/aar10 ------Australian researcher Keith Windschuttle Windschuttle Keith researcher Australian structural of aftermath continuous The albertaacademicreview.com torical displacement on reserves and the residential displacement torical to cause school system, which caused and continue this structural Moreover, poverty. socio-economic Cana the by maintained and monitored is process dian government. The restrictive racial classifica soil are no partial or cultural form of genocide as form of genocide or cultural soil are no partial are structural. they TRC – in fact, by the concluded West deny both to uses this logic of elimination or displacement for Indigenous ern responsibility Wind to According 2001). (Windschuttle genocide schuttle (2001, p. 41), while reflecting on Austra there Canada, to applicable equally but history, lian the just was “it genocide: government covert no was Even development”. progression of colonial normal and troops British was warfare among the if there In of history. feat normal was a Aborigines, this the of explanation (2001)’s Windschuttle opposition to his in phase temporal as a of elimination logic the of focuses on the continuous aftermath Wolfe tory, racism institutionalized war and structural colonial subjects. governance over its Indigenous of colonial health dispar to contemporary genocide connected by Indig experienced shows how imbalances ity of his a result today are enous peoples in Canada cide to describe an event like , but not but the Holocaust, like an event to describe cide is genocide structural 2006). Rather, (Wolfe really the contin describes more accurately a term that Indigenous of the privation and ued domination geno state. Structural by the Canadian peoples cide can also be explained through the “logic of elimination”. This “logic of elimination” explains necessity to dis constructs the the settler-colonial purpose of for the peoples Indigenous pose of the for the incoming Europeans. acquiring territory Wolfe compares the difference betweenthe while that suggesting people Indigenous and enslave people was seen as a ben reproduction of popula Indigenous of growth the owner, the to efit ac settler’s to the an obstruction tions was seen as cess to land: “in this way [through] the restrictive racial classification of Indians straightforwardly p. 2006, (Wolfe elimination” of logic the furthered 388). The logic and the racial classifications that Canadian on populations Indigenous decreased ------Mudde et al. 2018 et al. Mudde in abeyance […] rather According to Wolfe, cultural genocide, be cultural Wolfe, According to Wolfe describes structural genocide as the genocide describes structural Wolfe This quote, seemingly unrelated to the per This quote, seemingly unrelated As Australian anthropologist Patrick Wolfe Wolfe Patrick anthropologist Australian As ques the avoids genocide] [structural It perspective on structural genocide, we can rec on structural genocide, perspective ognize its being than being a thing of the past. among victims – that are entailed in qualified ’s settler retaining while , a historical […]. Given structural induration of hierarchy and, therefore, – tion of degree sides being legally void, indicates a form of geno economic, religious, and other structural implica religious, and other structural economic, tions for Indigenous peoples (CIR [accessed 2016]). or present. Covert and institutionalized marginal or present. Covert and institutionalized social, has political, but cultural, is not only ization partial and do not accurately describe the structural the describe accurately not do and partial between Indigenous of the relationship character past First Nations peoples and Canadian hegemony, 2006, p. 390). As such, apologies from the Canadian the from As such, apologies 2006, p. 390). settler-colonial as bodies and church government structures for past abuses and cultural genocide are the morbidity and mortality rates caused by TB- rates caused by and mortality the morbidity (Wolfe day this to continues diseases that related to policies eliminatory settler-colonial continued is an example ward Indigenous peoples, of which ferred from the past DIA official documents, the on, consequences and the census reports present Indigenous peoples. among TB rates for example, Wolfe Wolfe suggest the term “structural genocide” to in marginalization fully capture the institutional as equally problematic as Canadian law expert as equally problematic government Canadian the and Schabas William Rather, limitations. legal its of because not but sistence of TB related diseases, was mentioned diseases, related TB of sistence of this re introduction in the Canada by Health genocide” “cultural term the regards Wolfe search.

(2006, p. 403), wrote: lawsuit filed by Indigenous peoples against the Ca the against peoples Indigenous by filed lawsuit restitu financial excluding but government, nadian conclusions. genocide the cultural tions following the legal implications of genocide. Moreover, the the Moreover, of genocide. implications legal the funded by a class-action TRC was of the instalment Page 31 / Issue 1 / Volume 1 / DOI: 10.29173/aar10 invented tactics of scientific racism and interven and racism scientific of tactics invented re and mechanisms justification new twenty-first are century the in government Canadian the by Moreover,politics of reconciliation and recognition pursued hierarchy. class and difference racial naries arestillbasedonembeddedimaginaries of groups inCanada.Historically, constituted imagi eignty and self-determination and non-Indigenous tension between Indigenous peoples seeking sover constant a cause government and law in solidified political imaginaries of Indigenous subordination peoples (Andersen2013,p.634). Today, these tion and continuoussubjugation of Indigenous cal imaginaries that justify government interven politi embedded historically specific to according is stilldetermined by theorganization of peoples parent intheDIA reportsbetween1900and1915. sen 2013,p.634). This situation was already ap developmental lag behindotherCanadians (Ander conditions wereevidenceofIndigenouspeoples’ term deteriorating conditions. Subsequently, these vestment in thecommunities. This producedlong- in quantifiable no was there but Burden”, Man’s “White the and intervention welfare ofthe government as result reserves off and in were of Indigenous peoples generations five Andersen, to ing I founditisapplicable to 2016aswell. Accord though Milloy (1999) recounts date from 1879, intervention without achieving anything. Even mies, thus creating impetus for intensive welfare DIA intervention destroyed traditional econo form taking place. According to Milloy (1999), Indigenous peopleswithoutstructuralsocialre Man’sBurden” inCanadiangovernmenttoaid “White the of concept mentioned previously the 1999). (Milloy century twenty-first the in effect ideas and their consequential disparities still hold socio-economic disparities and health issues, these nineteenth and twentieth centuries, whichcaused segregation, starvation, and assimilation in the only didtheseideas of racefuel harsh policies of in Canada (Andersen 2013; Andersen 2014).Not and material consequences for Indigenous peoples tions afterthe1870shaveimportant immaterial Andersen concludeshowCanadian society In turn,structural marginalization validates albertaacademicreview.com Mudde etal.2018 ------from that territory (Foucault 1975;Stoler 1995). result inthelossofmeansincomeretrieved trol would mean the loss of territory, which would Canadian government. A loss of government con tion of the settler-colonial state policed by the peoples –aresubjected to theruleanddomina a result, opponents – and in this case Indigenous favour the liberal majority (Foucault 1975). As and money of flow the control to are goals ism’s prison-like surveillance. Moreover, liberal capital subjects of the state are policed and understrict, meaning principle, “panopticon” the it calls cault The government control theoryofMichelFou nism ofliberal capitalist nations (Smith2009). government controlisalogical state mecha Coulthard 2014; Simpson Andersen 2013). enous peoples(Turner 1998,2000; Alfred 2005; manages its control and sovereignty over Indig tion, throughwhichtheCanadian government tl otn vi dfiut usin of genocide. questions difficult avoid often still normativity of Canadian history; however, they 2016). son Their conclusionsquestionthewhite enous peoples (Rimmer 2015; Moreton-Robin to Canada’s history of violence against Indig have century pointed to thelack of historical attention given twenty-first early the during tions picture oftheconstructionCanada.Publica enous counter-narratives toformamorecomplex Indig and officials DIA of correspondence sonal 2009). Their main arguments incorporate per of thegreatwhitenarrativehistory(Smith Canada functions mostly as a critique of notions enous peoplesinCanada”(Smith2009,p.cover). ening material conditions facedbymanyIndig life-threat the oversee to continue that “structures liberalism and market economics that created surveillance panopticon, a webinformed by governmental structure functionedaspartofthis peoples in morethanjustcultural ways. The DIA asa Indigenous about ideas influence ously ing bytheCanadiansurveillance state continu Indig affects directly enous peoples.Political imaginaries and Other imaginary political this According toSmith,thisreinvention of The historical research on post-colonial As such,according to Smith(2009), ------Page 32 / Issue 1 / Volume 1 / DOI: 10.29173/aar10 ------The coexistence remains a struggle for a struggle remains coexistence The DIA the of analysis its with review, This The conclusion of cultural genocide estab genocide of cultural conclusion The exemplified is racism institutionalized This albertaacademicreview.com genocide. This problematizes our understanding of This problematizes genocide. genocide, to race, and its relation post-colonialism self-determination and sovereignty Indigenous and gover white western of Notions today. Canada in and white nor past and present, nance structures, of recognition and reconciliation employed by gov employed and reconciliation of recognition and erning parties are forms of neo-colonization deny Indigenous self-determina that domination as has been done since the sign tion or sovereignty, Alfred 2005; 1998, 2000; ing of the treaties (Turner Andersen 2013). 2014; 2014; Simpson Coulthard of refusal and, ul In reaction, Indigenous politics emerge. increasingly of coexistence ideas timately, Through justice. and the lack of spatial territory before both policies segregationist and treaties come have peoples 1900, Indigenous and after socio- lack spaces that to inhabit those territorial or health opportunities, political access, economic The people. to other available services normally institutionalized politically and class, of race, axis reinforces ideas that Indigenous marginalization of themselves. to take care peoples are unable vouches TRC, the to relation Annual Reports in cultural than rather genocide structural term the for tutional marginalization of First Nations peoples. Nations of First marginalization tutional and partial as criticized be can TRC the by lished research combined report The DIA incomplete. more reason suggests discussion with academic to accept analysis Wolfe’s of the term “structural Not reality. Canadian of description as a genocide” the continu describe accurately only does the term which Indigenous peoples through ous character also describes the Canadian gov are governed, it its public change to ability and system’s ernment institution maintaining while perspective political 1870s the in established marginalization alized amendments. Act and its later Indian through the and renewed in the recent politics of reconciliation Indigenous peoples in need for attention political or betterment any social of help without granting or sovereignty. reform through self-determination politics scholars, Indigenous eyes of critical In the ------Mudde et al. 2018 et al. Mudde follow Table 1 Table Making the link to today using the TRC re TRC Making the link to today using the The DIA as a public institution was almost as a public institution The DIA TB-related diseases were continuously were continuously diseases TB-related 7. Conclusions genocide rather than cultural genocide on Indig genocide genocide rather than cultural enous peoples in Canada is furthermore an impor in the intrinsic analyse to critically distinction tant the health of First Nations people and mainstream present (Daschuk 2013, p. 186). are still Canadians (2006) on structural Wolfe The analysis made by ports and recent policies of recognition and recon of recognition policies ports and recent in this review shows how the disparities ciliation, of determinants social other and conditions, living intended to cure” (DIA Annual Report 1908, p. 333). p. 1908, Report Annual (DIA cure” to intended believed the progression of history and the progress the progression of history and the progress believed Indige for “difficulties” necessitated civilization of is it which evils the “removing before peoples nous the most hits which refers to the indifference to by caused rates mortality and morbidity wards the DIA the of Laird, words In the diseases. TB-related Further underlining the lack of introspection within of introspection lack the Further underlining category with is suggested by the thematic the DIA erwise. As such, the diagnostic frames discerned discerned frames diagnostic the As such, erwise. Cana the of carelessness the to correspond directly their wards. toward dian government and the DIA completely void of any self-critical reflection and oth who claimed physicians by entries denounced and some awareness about the unfoundedness and some awareness about the and ignored. were available perceptions of these class, and civilization between 1900 and 1915. between class, and civilization on race and class Not only were these perceptions knowledge medical but even used uncritically, people. The DIA as the complete and sole admin sole and complete as the DIA The people. Indigenous peoples categorized istrative power, on race, to its perceptions and disease according relative indifference to a more careful white and its possible spread to disease of the ation consider ness to the disease, and stages of civilization all civilization of stages and disease, the ness to singled out the “Indian” as the problem. Yet the TB moved from voice regarding general tone of in all six categories discerned in in discerned six categories in all Perspectives on Annual Reports. ing the DIA’s prone hygiene, hereditary inadequate lifestyle, Indigenous communities of fault as the framed

Page 33 / Issue 1 / Volume 1 / DOI: 10.29173/aar10 struction and analysis (Snow and Benford 2000). ple andIndigenouspeoples,warrantdecon identity formations ofbothEuro-Canadian peo instructive for both the collective or individual government framing processes havebeenhighly lia. In general, nineteenth and twentieth-century in theUnitedStates,NewZealand, and Austra Indian policywasinformedbysimilarprocesses cultural process andstrategybehindtheCanadian of so-calledpostcolonial societies. The cross- acter and all-encompassing form of subjugation circumstances is indicative of the structural char The enduringgapinhealth and socio-economic parative analysis in other postcolonial contexts. thing ofhistorybutanenduringstructuralreality. that made Indigenous marginalization not justa its Indigenous peoples created a cycle in history tionalized racism of acolonial governance over aftermath of colonialism and structuralinstitu ization ofIndigenouspeoples. The continuous a formofcolonialismwithaninternalmarginal Daschuk signify this progressionofhistory as dersen, Smith, Alfred, Simpson,Coulthard,and genocide, other scholarssuchasFoucault, An responsibility for Indigenousdisplacement and Whereas Windschuttle (2001) rejects any western leged racelessnessofCanadianwelfareandhealth. constructs someofthismythologyandunravelal racelessness” (Smith2009,p.23). This reviewde of government institutions discussed in this review. curately assessed throughcritical self-examination in Canadacanonlybeac non-Indigenous groups ic and health gap between Indigenous peoples and enhanced conditionsthatexplainthesocio-econom an inward inspection. Moreover, environmentally public political mechanisms andimaginaries lack frame analysis provided here however reveals how altered, or deconstructed.However, thediagnostic mechanism are hardtobeproven,fundamentally mativity as aninstitutionalized marginalization e Tei. h fl tei i acsil a: https:// at: accessible is thesis full The Thesis. ter This paperwasderived from theauthor’s Mas Disclosure Future research would benefit from a com a from benefit would research Future of “mythology the in believes Canada albertaacademicreview.com Mudde etal.2018 ------Abtahi H, Web, P. (2008). The GenocideConven Development Northern and Affair Abogiginal References Coulthard GS. 2014. Red Skins, White Masks: Re Studies: An Indian 1998. American Cook-LynnE. Cook-Lynn E. 1997. Who Stole Native American Re Indian Prairie Harvests: Lost 1990. S. Carter Carter S. 1999. Aboriginal PeopleandColonizers Battiste M, HendersonJSY. 2000.Protesting In Andersen C. 2013. 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