108 SEEKING THE CITY

Defying Gravity: Space Architecture in Film Environ- ments: An Opportunity Lost

TERRI MEYER BOAKE University of Waterloo

INTRODUCTION Unlike architecture, fi lm spaces have never had to be realistic, nor have they been obliged to possess Film gives us the rare opportunity to completely a conscience. That is not to say, however, that question all that has come to be accepted in terms the notions of science or conscience have failed to of the language of architecture as well as cultural be vital motivations behind the creation of many and historic convention. It allows for educated fi lms. Film producers and directors though, can speculation on what may have been in the past, make a conscious decision whether to choose to and what the world of the future might become. respect scientifi c accuracy, and how to portray Current fi lm technologies provide such a high de- moral and political conscience. An examination of gree of realism in the product, that architectural scientifi c timelines can begin to allow us to un- education can use these fi lms as vehicles for criti- derstand the development of the space genre of cal discussion of the ethos of these environments. fi lm as it relates to accurate scientifi c invention.1 Much like, and yet experientially speaking, well If scientifi c knowledge was available at the time of beyond the efforts of the Visionary architects of the writing of books and making of fi lms, it will be the 18th century, fi lm can create speculations of assumed that such was purposefully ignored, for realistic feeling environments that can be used to either artistic or technological cause, if not shown reinvent the meaning and defi ning factors of ar- to be respected. chitectural expression. This paper examines innovation in architectural Where many fi lms have continued to freely ex- (set) design that has occurred in space themed plore “earthly environments”, unhindered by real- fi lms, from Aelita in 1924 to the fi nal installation ity and liberated by digital and f/x technologies, of the Star Wars Saga in 2005. Much will be seen another genre has stepped well beyond visions of to have changed as a result both of an increase an often dystopic future here on earth, and ven- in scientifi c knowledge, as well as the technologi- tured to imagine architectural and urban environ- cal advances in the fi lm industry. Knowledge and ments, “off-world”. technical innovation have given directors unlimit- ed potential for choice in representations of space Much of the development of the conventions and environments. Such choice also includes the will- expressions of our earth bound architectural and ful abandonment of science for fantasy. urban environment is based upon the existence of gravity and breathable atmosphere. The explora- THE EVOLUTION OF FILM tion of “space themes” in fi lm theoretically allows for free experimentation in an architecture that For the last century, the medium of fi lm has al- can be imagined and designed, without reference lowed increased understanding and appreciation to normal architectural limitations or subject to of the realistic, three-dimensional occupation of the infl uence of the force of gravity, but on the architectural and urban spaces that previously other hand, must respond to oxygen related limi- existed as captives of text and two-dimensional tations. representation. These would include not only the reconstructions of actual historic places, but also DEFYING GRAVITY 109

visionary or imaginary places. From the repre- this tradition in the development of architecture. sentation of 16th century Prague in The Golem Simply by turning relationships “upside down”, let (1921), to the ancient splendor of Rome in Ben Hur alone removing the force of gravity, begs us to (1959) or Egypt in Antony and Cleopatra (1972), question the logic behind everything that we can traditional fi lm techniques have been relatively see. This is what the medium of fi lm frees design- successful in allowing for experiential occupancy ers to explore. Film environments are not gov- of former ruins – albeit with varying degrees of erned by the same laws or rules. historic accuracy. CGI techniques are allowing un- surpassed detail in contemporary explorations of VISIONARY ARCHITECTURE historical places as represented in fi lms. Within the profession and practice of architec- Gravity determines architectural form and struc- ture, there have been various venues for chal- ture. There is very little that has been developed lenging science and materials based construc- throughout history, from early Roman vaulting tion techniques. The Visionary Architects of the through to modern steel construction that cannot 1700s, such as Etienne Louis Boullée, adopted a be attributed to increasingly refi ned responses to two-dimensional, painterly solution to the propo- the actions of gravity on structure and associated sition of unbuilt (unbuildable?) architecture. Had material limitations. Real architecture must func- reinforced thin shell concrete been invented 100 tion in a real world, governed by the laws of sci- years earlier, Boullée’s Centotaph for Newton or ence. Biblioteque Nationale might have been able to be constructed, rather than looking to future possi- Gravity has also determined the way that we oc- bilities or dreams. The work of Pier Luigi Nervi and cupy space, and hence, the way that we have Eero Saarinen attests to the possibility. Many of tended to design space, as well as to select sur- their works, had they been presented as render- face fi nishes. The fl oor is where we walk. Walls ings two hundred years earlier, would have been and ceilings bound us, but we are not obliged deemed unconstructable. The medium of paint to come into contact with those surfaces unless was permitting design freedom outside of the re- we so choose. Material placements have devel- alistic boundaries imposed by construction. oped that respond to issues of wear and dura- Whereas the extraordinary vision of architecture bility, again subject to gravitational orientation. that drove the work of Boullée simply stretched Such scientifi c concerns have driven the design the structural capacity and orientation of the tra- of structures and architectural systems since the ditional materials of the time, using traditional notion of shelter was fi rst conceived. Speculations forms, the excited musings of Archigram and all during the 1700s as to the origins of architecture during the 1960s proposed architectural alterna- – including, Laugier’s “Rustic Hut”2 – all support tives that questioned almost everything, from the

Fig. 1. Ron Herron’s Walking City versus Howl’s Moving Castle. 110 SEEKING THE CITY

materiality and mechanical systems proposed, of an ancient canal system, indicating the pres- down to the static location of urban environ- ence of water and a far more hospitable climate.3 ments. Ron Herron’s “Walking City” remains quite The lunar environment presented by Wells was unrealizable in “buildable” terms, but would not signifi cantly more severe than that on earth, but be beyond the capabilities of any CGI unit at Lu- did provide a breathable environment when the cas Film or the animation team at Studio Ghibli, explorers entered an underground city beneath as recently shown in the 2005 fi lm Howl’s Mov- the surface of the moon. Differences in planetary ing Castle, based upon the novel by Diana Wynn gravity fi elds were not known. Jones. Howl’s Moving Castle brings a magical Walking House to life, in perhaps a more realistic, The invention of the modern science fi ction novel although animated style, than was represented by was not far ahead of the invention of the motion Herron’s renderings. picture. It is not surprising then, that the space/ sci-fi fi lm genre has its start during the beginnings Where Herron’s static illustrations may give rise to of the development of the commercial fi lm indus- dynamic architectural dreams, CGI technologies try, and that the scientifi c development of the fi lm and even classic animation can put these images industry sees its needs propelled by the desire to into real time motion. The view from the “outside” create more compelling, and often realistic look- can be replaced by the potentially realistic expe- ing, science fi ction and space environments. rience of the virtual spaces that also include the interior. Miriam Allen de Ford has noted: “Science fi ction deals with improbable possibilities, fantasy with The creation of visionary works of art and archi- plausible impossibilities.”4 And herein lies part of tecture often arises at times when cultural, politi- the blur that we see in the evolution of the Space cal or technological infl uences impose restrictions Film genre. What might have begun in Aelita and on creative works. Etienne-Louis Boullée and C.N. First Men in the Moon as science based fi ction in Ledoux ceased to build when Napoleonic pressures its attempts to include recognition of some of the left them without patrons that were permitted to assumed realities of space, has ultimately evolved construct. Archigram’s illustrations exhibited a to become more decidedly fantasy based. Where frustration with the technological limits placed Stanley Kubrick employed consultants from NASA on construction, in a period of burgeoning ideas to ensure that the environments and equipment and rapid growth. The images from “Howl’s Mov- used in 2001: A Space Odyssey were as accu- ing Castle” exhibit liberation due to their animated rate as possible as it was his wish to have every- generation and release from the technical need to thing “intellectually justifi ed”5, the modern” Star solve all of the details. In a way, this construction Wars” series of fi lms, which although include an is working “in spite of gravity” and with disregard unending variety of innovative off-world environ- of reality. Given the genre, this might be expected ments, tends to tenaciously ignore any realistic so does not challenge accepted conventions of the or scientifi c portrayal of the limits that space en- house as a fi xed and stable object. vironments bring to bear on urban environments and travel. The lavish urban environments on THE INFLUENTIAL ROLE OF THE SCIENCE the planet Corsucant more closely resemble the FICTION NOVEL ON THE SPACE FILM GENRE painterly visions of Boullée than build on Kubrick’s proposition. Film has often acted as a vivid visual interpreta- tion of text. Early space based science fi ction nov- In fi lms such as Blade Runner, the dystopic envi- els, such as Aelita by Alexei Tolstoy (1922) and ronment as represented by LA 2019, based upon “First Men in the Moon” by H.G. Wells (1901), had Philip K. Dick’s novel, “Do Androids Dream of Elec- little accurate scientifi c information upon which tric Sheep”, forms the central urban focus. The to base their texts. In Aelita the atmosphere on “Off World” colony is only referenced in the dia- Mars was harsh, but was not lacking in breathable logue and left to the viewer’s imagination, reliev- atmosphere or gravity. At this point in time the ing the fi lm from direct responsibility for justifying geographic markings on Mars that were visible to any scientifi c accuracy in these environments. early telescopes were thought to be the remains DEFYING GRAVITY 111

THE ENVIRONMENT SUIT AND TRANSPOR- TATION AS A STARTING POINT In spite of being written almost 20 years earlier than Aelita, Wells inclusion of scientifi c knowledge Examination of the majority of space fi lms would in “First Men in the Moon” was more accurate, indicate deference to consistency among ap- and the fi lm makers in 1964 had benefi t of be- proaches to the personal, transportation and ur- ing able to include (or willfully reject) state of the ban/architectural environments. Whether or not a art interpretations to aspects of the fi lm due to fi lm tends to exploit the creative possibilities of the the contemporary nature of the United States ver- zero-gravity environment in terms of their archi- sus Russia “Space Race”. Where the cosmonauts tectural or urban design vision, seems to directly in Aelita ventured to Mars devoid of any special relate to the election to the use of a personal “en- clothing, First Men in the Moon includes two va- vironment suit” as well as to the (realistic) design rieties of space suits. In the fl ashback sequence of the space transportation. The acknowledgment to the exploration that was to have taken place of alternate atmospheres must fi rst require im- in the early 1900s, the astronauts donned special mediate body protection, before that human body suits that incorporated old model diving helmets, can be placed in a scientifi cally believable relation- but that left their hands exposed. When present ship to an architecture that is not gravity based. day (1964) astronauts ventured to the moon, they The natural extension of this can be seen in the wore space suits quite like those of the Mercury design of the space transportation, in combination mission.7 with fueling/take-off methods. Just Imagine (1930) was Fox Films combined far- Novels written around the beginning of the 20th cical commentary on the propositions presented century and their resultant fi lms, if produced in by Metropolis (1927) and Aelita (1924). Repre- the same time period, were less likely to require sentations of early space travel in Aelita, Just environment suits, nor to understand fuelling Imagine and First Men in the Moon are all consis- methods for spacecraft, due to their lack of scien- tently unrealistic – as were the approaches to the tifi c knowledge. In these fi lms, space architecture space environments. seemed to be more likely represented as highly Constructivist or Modern in style in order to iden- The Martian environment presented in Just Imag- tify the environment as being “not of the Earth” ine included wild geometric shapes for their build- and non traditional. This followed general ten- ings (not specifi cally what we would understand dencies in fi lm set design during the 1920s that as either Modern or Constructivist) which were chose highly modern styles to represent futuris- set amongst fantastical jungle like vegetation and tic societies.6 This is clearly seen in the supposed included a breathable environment. Given the in- Mars based sets of Aelita: Queen of Mars. A wildly tentional comedic nature of the production, scien- Constructivist set design is used to differentiate tifi c mockery is in keeping with the design as well between the Russian and Mars locations. Due to as the references to Metropolis and Aelita. limited model making skills, only a glimpse of the exterior of the “town” can be seen (Figure 2 left), There has been constant interaction between sci- but that, in concert with the lavish interior envi- ence fi ction writers and space genre fi lm produc- ronments, use Constructivist shapes and textures tion. Arthur C. Clarke worked with Stanley Kubrick to create an interior space that clearly is gravity on the screen play for 2001: A Space Odyssey (in based in terms of its occupation, shapes and ap- this rare case, the book followed the fi lm), and parent fi nishes, but slightly defi es gravity if only Philip K. Dick’s short story, “We Can Remember due to the lightness of the theatrical construction. it for You Wholesale” (1966), provided the ba- In this instance the imagined environment on sis for the Mars based fi lm, Total Recall (1990). Mars closely follows the one described by Alexei Current screen/writers have had up to date sci- Tolstoy in the 1922 novel of the same name in it entifi c knowledge at their disposal, which makes assumption of a breathable atmosphere. Physical conscious choice possible when creating accurate sets, by their very nature, must be constructed versus inaccurate space environments. In 1964 in an environment infl uenced by gravity, thereby Mariner 4 made the fi rst Mars fl yby (impacting putting inherent limitations on the design. Philip K. Dick’s short story) and in 1976 the U.S. 112 SEEKING THE CITY

Fig. 2. Surface of Mars in Aelita (left), surface of the moon in First Men in the Moon (right)

Viking spacecraft took colored images of the sur- 2001. Kubrick’s desire for scientifi c accuracy, and face of Mars, thereby informing alterations in sci- his consultation with experts from NASA, fueled entifi c accuracy between the short story and the the construction of a large rotating set that permit- fi lm. 2001 makes signifi cant use of the vulner- ted a fi lming technique that freed the actors from ability of the space suit it its plot development, appearing to be under the normative force of grav- which is in keeping with respect for the silence ity9 (see Dave jogging in Fig 3 left). The coloration and severity of spatial environments throughout of the interiors and whiteness of fi nishes gave the the balance of the fi lm. appearance of plastics and other lightweight mate- rials. On the other hand, Trumbull’s set was con- The predilection for a higher degree of scientifi c structed in a retired aircraft freighter – giving rise accuracy in fi lms of this period can likely be attrib- to excessively large spaces that were obviously uted to media hype surrounding the space race. constructed of metal and other heavy materials. Society was culturally aware and anticipating the The space scenes in Solaris seemed to combine idea of conquering space. Space fi lms post 1990 some of the geometry and lightness of 2001 with have tended to show less interest in realistic prop- apparent heaviness in some of the materials of the ositions of conquering space as worldwide interest craft’s interior, although the director claims not to in the subject has waned. have seen 2001 prior to creating his own fi lm and felt Kubrick’s piece to be very “cold and sterile”.10 The “architecture” of space vehicles and space craft has become a central signature of this genre INTERIORIZATION OF URBAN PUBLIC SPACE of fi lm. In 2001 (1968), Solaris (1972), directed by Andrei Tarkovsky and based upon the book Total Recall, if not entirely scientifi cally correct in of the same name published in 1961 by Stani- its depiction of unprotected exposure to the Mar- slaw Lem, and Silent Running (1971), directed by tian environment, also shows characters exploring Douglas Trumbull (who was responsible for spe- the surface in a protective suit. The fi lm’s plot de- cial effects in 2001), the action of the fi lm largely velopment also relies heavily on the tenuous pro- takes place without planetary contact. In the case tection provided by the architectural envelope. of these three period fi lms, budget, as well as the sensibility of the director, had immense impact on This inclusion of a protective garment in light the ability to create a realistic response to the oc- of a hostile environment also translates into a cupation of space and impact of gravity on both changed attitude towards the creation of “urban the architecture and occupants. space”. Perhaps one of the more striking chang- In spite of Douglas Trumbull’s role in the creation of es in the architectural development of this oxy- 2001, his budget for “Silent Running” was a mere gen-dependent society is the inversion of public $1,000,000, as compared to the $10,000,000 that space – from the exterior “square/piazza” to the Stanley Kubrick had to create the environments of “interior street/lobby”. This gross “interiorization” DEFYING GRAVITY 113

of space requires set designers to reconsider the actors are integrated into increasingly computer meaning of public space. In this instance the inte- generated image based scenes. The majority of rior public space of the future derives its architec- the most recent chapter of the Star Wars Saga, tural precedent from the scale and design of the The Revenge of the Sith was fi lmed with live ac- large contemporary hotel lobby. The cast in place tors in front of a complete green set. This allows concrete Mexico City location sets used in Total for the creation of a far more detailed and varied Recall play well into creating durable and tough collection of architectural settings, than would be feeling interior spaces. In Total Recall the interior possible if models were the exclusive means of public street also represents the controlled supply representation. The transition away from scale of oxygen. models and sets, towards digital representation, served to free the set from the continued impact The design of the physical exterior of buildings in of gravity. These animated sequences have come Total Recall becomes less important in the overall to represent upwards of 75% of the content of design of the fi lm set. The buildings are largely highly futuristic visualizations in fi lm. built into the rocklike landforms that provide pro- tection and frame the limited glazed openings that A combination of budget and technology gave connect this new interior city space to the inhospi- rise to the predominant use of scale models to table landscape beyond. create both environments as well as spacecraft. With the exception of select full scale sets, dis- REPRESENTATIONAL LIMITS tance views of the space craft and planetary en- vironments of 2001, Silent Running, Total Recall, The art of fi lmmaking has also undergone a tran- Outland (1981) and the earlier Star Wars install- sition from “techniques” to “technologies”. Early ments, all employed highly detailed scale models fi lm was reliant on a fi xed camera position, fi xed that were placed into larger environments using lens and the physical construction of sets and mini green screening techniques. It was this method models to represent imaginary places. This, more that allowed the visual effect of zero gravity. More so than lack of scientifi c knowledge about space, sophisticated camera movements also assisted in severely limited the portrayal of space environ- releasing fi lm environments from a dependency ments. This can be clearly seen in Aelita -- the on a more rigid camera position that had rein- novel spends the majority of its pages roaming forced a gravity-bound view of the set. Cameras around Martian landscapes, and the fi lm does not that can now run on tracks at computer controlled elaborate on the environment of Mars beyond a rates have the ability to simulate fl ight more be- few small glimpses through a window. lievably.

In First Men in the Moon (1964) Ray Harryhausen’s Where scale models were able to provide a high invention of “Dynamation”8 (early green screen- level of detail to the set at little cost, they also ing techniques) allowed the fi lm to more believ- resulted in a level of texturing that upon closer ably mix live action with realistic looking settings, examination, appeared nonsensical from both a limiting dependency on simple model views. This mechanistic and purpose driven perspective. This technology has become the basis by which live texturing, however, assisted the architectural

Fig. 3. Interiors: 2001 (left), Solaris (right) – both making use of a circular basis for space making 114 SEEKING THE CITY

reading of the construction as futuristic. manifestations of these geometry in space/sci- ence fi ction genre fi lms, tend to employ a highly Filming techniques today, have the ability to make regular use of these forms, differentiating such visual images of environments that blend seam- from the work of contemporary architects such lessly from scale models, to the physically con- as Daniel Libeskind or Frank Gehry, both who use structed full sized set to realistically animated vi- non rectilinear geometry in highly irregular ways. sions of characters speeding through highly com- plex urban cities set on unknown planets. This has Figure 3, showing the interiors of both 2001 and radically changed the appearance of space genre Solaris illustrates the use of the circle to rede- fi lms through an increase in complexity, speed, fi ne the relationship of the occupant to the space. layering and realism in the imagery used – but 2001, by placing the occupant in line with the ra- again, is a budget related option. One needs only dius of the circle, challenges gravitational pull and watch the credits roll on any fi lm to understand in doing so, asks for a new defi nition of the walls. the payroll implications of CGI. The hyper-real- istic environments of Revenge of the Sith (2005) Solaris, through the use of a larger room that is require a level of detail and animation that is ca- circular in nature, aligning the occupant perpen- pable of realistically blending live actors with ani- dicular to the radius of the larger circle, while also mated environments whose level of detail, mate- employing a circular corridor, fails to fully chal- riality and lighting approaches reality. One of the lenge normal gravitational predispositions. The benefi ts of the expense of CGI is the loss of the curved wall surfaces are simply fi lled with tech- excessive plastic model detail that was the trade- nological gadgets, and the occupant walks on a mark of pre-CGI fi lms. fl at path.

NON RECTILINEAR GEOMETRY As can be seen in Figure 4, both Outland and Si- lent Running use hexagonal shapes to create the The tendency to use non rectilinear geometry has futuristic edge to their respective interior environ- been maintained throughout all space fi lms as one ments. of the primary indicators of a future based set- ting. This simple deviation from 90 degree angles REALISM AND THE VISUAL FUTURISTS is perhaps the most signifi cant architectural move away from gravity defi ned design that can be The virtual environments that have come to char- found in these fi lms. This connects back to early acterize the fi lm industry, both in terms of future initiatives in fi lms such as Aelita. worlds on earth and worlds apart from earth, have been conceived and created by people whose There would appear to be two tendencies in this training may or may not be “architectural” in na- regard. One style uses the circle to defi ne space ture. But whether or not the concept artist has both in section and plan, and another that uses received accredited training in Architectural de- the triangle/hexagon to the same end. Notably, sign, this does not stop the worlds that they cre-

Fig. 4. Hexagonal corridor: Outland (left); Hexagonal storage units in Silent Running (right) DEFYING GRAVITY 115

ate from infl uencing both the perception and the reality of design and fashion. Where atmospheric issues have played a key role What begins to be revealed when examining the in the development of architecture and plot in this history of fi lm is that a select set designers and group of fi lms, zero-gravity issues have been of- concept artists have had a high level of infl uence ten overlooked. 2001 is the only fi lm that includes on the outcomes. Where Hugh Ferriss’ designs Velcro slippers for the stewardess as she walks on have been seen to impact sets such as Gotham the fl oor/wall/ceiling of the craft, placing a fl oat- City in Batman11, Syd Mead and Douglas Trumbull ing pen back into a pocket (Fig. 6 left). Space type in their work with Stanley Kubrick, as well as di- food is also on Kubrick’s menu. Zero-gravity is rectors Ridley Scott, Peter Hyams, Paul Verhoeven only truly recognized in Outland when we see that and George Lucas, have set the architectural tone a prisoner is being held in a zero-gravity cham- for space environments. ber (Fig. 6 right), at least giving rise to speculate that gravity must have been artifi cially created on Within this group, there have tended to be two the rest of the set/environment. In Silent Run- camps – the scientifi c realists and the fantasy ning actor Bruce Dern walks on the exterior of his artists. The fi lms of Ridley Scott in Alien (1979), spacecraft without protection other than a special Peter Hyams, with specifi c reference to Outland lightweight suit. (1981), and Paul Verhoeven, Total Recall (1990), have created a more realistic, gritty depiction of In complete contrast, Lucas’ decision to create life off-world. The spacecraft in Alien is far rough- fantasy based fi lms chooses to ignore atmospher- er in its tectonic feel than those in 2001. The min- ic limitations, providing oxygen regardless of lo- ing camp on Io in Outland focuses on the division cation. This has given him complete freedom in between the harsh exterior environment and the building, spaceship and spacesuit design (or lack protective interiors, using highly industrial fi nish- thereof) and eliminates this issue from plot devel- es and materials. Similarly in Total Recall the plot opment as well. focuses on the manufacturing of air and withhold- ing the same as punishment for the lower classes. Precedents trickle from genre to genre. Early fu- Interior environments again use very industrial turistic urban fi lm environments, such as those in motifs. In both fi lms in major plot moves the en- Fritz Lang’s Metropolis, also encouraged the devel- vironmental barrier between the interior and ex- opment of fi lm techniques as they too stretch the terior is punctured. Both fi lms purposefully play limits of model builders and fi lm makers in their upon the vulnerability of glass or thin architectural ability to portray realistic sets that represent al- skins in direct relationship to their non earth lo- ternate environments. Lang’s environments have cations. Silent Running and 2001 also work the also infl uenced the urban representations of many vulnerable aspect of skin into their plot lines and dystopic fi lms such as Blade Runner (1982) di- architecture. The giant geodesic domes in Silent rected by Ridley Scott, with total set and vehicular Running play upon the tenuous position of man concept design by Syd Mead. Syd Mead was edu- and his small piece of the environment as it fl oats cated at the Art Center College of Design in Cali- in space. fornia and went on to work for U.S. Steel and Ford

Fig. 5. Expansive glass skins: Outland (left), Total Recall (right) –the “interiorization” of the urban environment 116 SEEKING THE CITY

Fig. 6. Gravity: 2001 (left), Outland (right) in the automobile design industry. Blade Runner OPPORTUNITY LOST - MAINTAINING THE was the fi rst fi lm that Mead had the opportunity TRADITIONAL VIEW OF ARCHITECTURE to work on from concept to completion. In an in- terview with Syd Mead in September 2006, Mead At present, in spite of the limitless capabilities in was very clear about the way he viewed himself fi lm making with the advent of computer aided as a Visual Futurist, (a category also outside of drawing and design software, the tendency in the the “unions” and ineligible for Academy Awards) presentation of zero gravity environments has and his role in shaping the way that future envi- normally maintained a gravity driven architectural ronments would be perceived. Blade Runner was solution. intentionally dystopic, but his preference was to create future environments that were light and From Aelita (1924) to the most recent installment optimistic.12 of Star Wars (2005), fi lm has held an architec- tural response to the act of living and building in Douglas Trumbull was another key fi gure in the space that is almost totally derived from traditions development of the language of space architec- in building on earth. With the exception of rotat- ture through the 1970s and 80s. Although his ing spaces in 2001: A Space Odyssey, the fl oor education began in an architecture curriculum, he remains the fl oor, the ceiling the ceiling and the quickly switched to illustration and by the age of walls the walls. There are more durable materials 23 he was working special effects for Stanley Ku- placed on the fl oor than the other surfaces. Bar- brick on the set of 2001. His father, Don Trumbull ring some hexagonal and curvilinear anomalies, (1909-2004), had been involved in effects in the the tendency towards sliding doors and bright fi n- fi lm industry (notably The Wizard of Oz in 1939), ishes, the spaces are rectilinear and familiar look- and Douglas worked on many of the same sets as ing. Even the architecture of Star Wars has bor- his father. Trumbull, like Mead, created a stylis- rowed from the romance of the Art Deco period in tic design thread that wove together much of the the creation of its powerful urban images. As with “look” of the transportation, robotics and environ- fi lms such as Metropolis and The Fifth Element ment of futuristic fi lms – with Mead and Trumbull (1997), a simple combination of building height only coinciding in the creation of Blade Runner. and urban density has also come to represent the future. In this way a few directors, concept artists and special effects persons have created select “bench- So with rare exception, it can be seen, that very mark” fi lms that have subsequently become the little in the space fi lm genre has taken any ad- basis for the general design of space related ar- vantage of the lack of restriction in conforming to chitecture, much in the same way as early Vision- the laws of gravity. What might be the cause of ary Architects acted towards built architecture. this effectual anesthetization of the realistic space Some of these environments have drawn their environments that fl eetingly appeared between inspiration from futuristic architectural environ- 1968 and 1990? ments that were earth based. Although Mead is still designing, Trumbull has not been involved in concept design for the fi lm in- DEFYING GRAVITY 117

dustry for 20 years. Current fi lms, that are being ENDNOTES produced at a rapid rate, using predominantly CGI methods, must use CGI production houses, such All images from within the fi lms were captured from as Industrial Light & Magic, to provide enough the DVD versions of the fi lms using WinDVD. computing and editing power to create realistic 1. Timelines of Science: http://kosmoi.com/Science/ looking environments. The exponential increase History/ Einstein’s “special theory of relativity” was in visual effects artists, special effects, animation published in 1905, followed by the “general theory of relativity” in 1915; Hubble was able to peer more crews, etcetera, has resulted in a watering down closely into the universe during the 1920s. of some of the more powerful concepts and a ten- dency to opt for fantasy based solutions instead 2. Rykwert, Joseph. On Adam’s House in Paradise. Cambridge: The MIT Press, 1981. p. 45. of the more diffi cult to defend scientifi c position. Fantasy solutions also feed into the current zeit- 3. Sheehan, William. The Planet Mars: A History of Ob- servation and Discovery. University of Arizona Press, geist of contemporary CGI based fi lm themes. 1996: http://www.uapress.arizona.edu/onlinebks/ mars/chap04.htm Contemporary society looks to fi lm for entertain- 4. Chronology of Science Fiction Literature. http:// ment not education. The fl eeting time of scientifi c www.nvcc.edu/home/ataormina/scifi /history/default. realism in this fi lm genre took place when there htm as quoted from “Elsewhere, Elsewhen, Elsehow”, was much optimism about the “space race”. Man Miriam Allen deFord, 1971. had arrived on the moon and there was much hope 5. Ciment, Michel. Kubrick: The Defi nitive Edition. New that more would be soon accomplished. Subse- York: Faber and Faber Inc., 2001. p. 208. quent disasters, such as the crash of the space 6. The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari (1924) used Expres- shuttle “Challenger” in 1986, dampened belief sionist motifs and Fritz Lang’s Metropolis (1927) used in the industry. A myriad of subsequent techni- highly modern décor as well. cal diffi culties, as well as increasing awareness of 7. History of the Space Suit: http://en.wikipedia.org/ the diffi culties for human beings to live in space wiki/Space_suit without losing critical body mass have also con- 8. The UnMuseum: Ray Harryhausen’s Dynamation: tributed to a preference to return to the fantasy http://www.unmuseum.org/dyna.htm vision of life and travel in space. 9. Bizony, Piers. 2001: fi lming the future. London: Au- rum Press Limited, 1994. p. 181. The current choice in fi lm is to represent the po- 10. Solaris (1972 fi lm): http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ tential space future as pure fantasy as can be Solaris_%28movie%29 seem in George Lucas’ Star Wars Saga. The fan- 11. Deitrich Neumann, editor. Film Architecture from tasy based view supports traditional architectural Metropolis to Blade Runner. New York: Prestel, 1999. styles and obviates the need to question the same p. 162. since spatial occupation need not change in envi- 12. Interview with Syd Mead, September 2006: ronments that in spite of being located on planets http://www.cgchannel.com/news/viewfeature. of unknown origin, still have gravity, air to breathe jsp?newsid=5410 – currently offl ine, however this and a similar palette of materials in their digital li- short is reputed to be included on the 5 disc DVD edi- braries. Sadly, signifi cant fi lm based explorations tion due out in January 2008. completely liberated by an architecture of zero- gravity have yet to be developed.