Diversity of Mat-Forming Sulfide-Oxidizing Bacteria at Continental Margins

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Diversity of Mat-Forming Sulfide-Oxidizing Bacteria at Continental Margins Diversity of Mat-forming Sulfide-oxidizing Bacteria at Continental Margins Dissertation zur Erlangung des Doktorgrades der Naturwissenschaften - Dr. rer. nat. - dem Fachbereich Biologie/Chemie der Universität Bremen vorgelegt von Stefanie Grünke Bremen, April 2010 Die vorliegende Doktorarbeit wurde in der Zeit von Juni 2006 bis April 2010 am Max- Planck-Institut für Marine Mikrobiologie und am Alfred-Wegener-Institut für Polar- und Meeresforschung angefertigt. 1. Gutachterin: Prof. Dr. Antje Boetius 2. Gutachter: Prof. Dr. Rudolf Amann Tag des Promotionskolloquiums: 4. Juni 2010 Diese Arbeit ist all denjenigen gewidmet, die ihre Segel setzen, um neue Welten gu erkunden. Seien sie sich gewiss, dass auf Sturm immer ruhiges Wasserfolgt. Wertrauen sie auf ihr größtes Gut — ihre Freunde und Familie. Nutgen sie ihre Schwächen, um neue Stärken gu finden. Soll Zuversicht ihr Kompass sein! Summary In the oceans, microbial mats formed by chemosynthetic sulfide-oxidizing bacteria are mostly found in so-called ‘reduced habitats’ that are characterized by chemoclines where energy-rich, reduced substances, like hydrogen sulfide, are transported into oxic or suboxic zones. There, these organisms often thrive in narrow zones or gradients of their electron donor (sulfide) and their electron acceptor (mostly oxygen or nitrate). Through the build up of large biomasses, mat-forming sulfide oxidizers may significantly contribute to primary production in their habitats and dense mats represent efficient benthic filters against the toxic gas hydrogen sulfide. As gradient organisms, these mat-forming sulfide oxidizers seem to be adapted to very defined ecological niches with respect to oxygen (or nitrate) and sulfide gradients. However, many aspects regarding their diversity as well as their geological drivers in marine sulfidic habitats required further investigation. Within this thesis, different thiotrophic mats ranging from shallow coastal waters to the deep sea along the European continental margin were investigated. The focus was on five different sulfide- oxidizing bacteria, including giant filamentous Beggiatoa species, giant vacuolated attached filaments (VAF), the giant ‘sulfur pearl’ Thiomargarita, gelatinous-mat-forming Thiobacterium species and filamentous-sulfur-excreting Arcobacter species. Molecular techniques targeting the diversity of the mat-forming sulfide-oxidizing bacteria were combined with geochemical analyses of prevailing chemical gradients to broaden our knowledge on these conspicuous organisms in marine sulfidic habitats. In Chapter 2, novel observations of the genus Thiobacterium are described. Thiobacterium species are rod-shaped cells that internally store several granules of elemental sulfur, and that are embedded within a gelatinous matrix. So far, no 16S rRNA gene sequence has been clearly attributed to these organisms. Within this thesis, Thiobacterium mats were recovered from a whale bone, deep-sea sediment and a shallow- water cave. Microprofiles of oxygen and sulfide confirmed the dependence of Thiobacterium on hydrogen sulfide as energy source. Fluorescence in situ hybridization indicated that Thiobacterium species belong to the Gammaproteobacteria. Niche differentiation between mats dominated by either Beggiatoa species and VAF, Thiomargarita species, or Arcobacter species was investigated on the Nile Deep Sea Fan in the Eastern Mediterranean Sea (Chapters 3 & 4). Visual observations from ROV (remotely operated vehicle) dives were combined with in situ geochemical measurements and analyses of the morphology as well as phylogeny of the mat-forming sulfide oxidizers. The filamentous sulfide oxidizers were found to thrive at non-overlapping oxygen-sulfide gradients. Thiomargarita species populated a highly dynamic and brine- influenced habitat characterized by temporarily changing supplies of oxygen and sulfide. Arcobacter species dominated when oxygen-sulfide gradients overlapped in the bottom water. Investigations on the diversity of mat-forming sulfide oxidizers as well as their geological drivers in different deep-sea thiotrophic mats observed along the Norwegian margin are presented in C hapter 5. Small grayish mat patches of 20 cm to 5 m in diameter were compared with extensive white mats covering up to 850 m2 of seafloor. Whereas between and within gray mats a high diversity of sulfur-storing and non-sulfur- storing thiotrophs was observed, the extensive white mats were composed only of two types of Beggiatoa filaments. In combination with obtained geochemical data, it was hypothesized that large continuous mats may develop in stable geochemical gradients selecting for only 1 or 2 types of sulfide-oxidizing bacteria, whereas small patchy mats may be indicators of rather dynamic habitats hosting a variety of competing thiotrophic bacteria. The occurrence, biomass and size distribution of Beggiatoa species in fjord sediments of the arctic archipelago Svalbard are discussed in Chapter 6. The obtained results suggest that Beggiatoa, although previously unnoticed, occur widespread in these arctic fjord sediments and are well adapted to thriving at seawater temperatures permanently close to the freezing point. Zusammenfassung In marinen Ökosystemen findet man von chemosynthetisch lebenden, sulfidoxidierenden Bakterien gebildete Matten vor allem an den Grenzflächen Reduzierter Habitate’ vor, wo energiereiche, reduzierte Substanzen wie Schwefelwasserstoff auf Sauerstoff oder andere oxidierte Substanzen treffen. Dort leben diese Organismen meist innerhalb eines schmalen Horizontes oder Gradienten, wo ihnen sowohl ihr Elektronendonor (Sulfid) als auch ihr Elektronenakzeptor (meist Sauerstoff oder Nitrat) zur Verfügung stehen. Kommen sie in großer Zahl vor und bilden dabei dichte Matten, können mikrobielle Sulfidoxidierer deutlich zur Primärproduktion in ihren Lebensräumen beitragen und als benthische Filter wirken, indem sie giftiges Schwefelwasserstoffgas aus ihrer Umgebung entfernen. Als Gradientenorganismen scheint jeder dieser mattenbildenden Sulfidoxidierer an eine spezielle ökologische Nische im Hinblick auf Verfügbarkeit und Konzentration von Sauerstoff (oder Nitrat) und Sulfid angepasst zu sein. Viele Aspekte bezüglich ihrer Diversität und der auf die Mattenbildung einflussnehmenden Umweltfaktoren sind jedoch noch nicht vollständig verstanden und bedürfen weiterer Untersuchungen. Innerhalb der vorliegenden Doktorarbeit wurden verschiedene Sulfidoxidierer-Matten entlang des europäischen Kontinentalrandes untersucht, wobei sowohl Matten in der Tiefsee als auch in flachen Küstengewässern vorkommende Populationen von Sulfidoxidierem analysiert wurden. Im Mittelpunkt standen dabei fünf verschiedene Typen von sulfidoxidierenden Bakterien, und zwar (1) große, filamentöse Bakterien der Gattung Beggiatoa, (2) an verschiedene Substrate angeheftete, vakuolierte, große, filamentöse Bakterien (VAF), (3) die großen ,Schwefelperlen’ der Gattung Thiomargarita, (4) Bakterien der Gattung Thiobacterium , welche gallertartige Matten bilden, und (5) schwefelausscheidende Bakterien der Gattung Arcobacter. Um das allgemeine Wissen über die Diversität dieser Organismen und ihre ökologische Anpassung in marinen, sulfidischen Lebensräumen zu erweitern, wurden molekulare und geochemische Analysen miteinander kombiniert. Neue Erkenntnisse über die Bakterien der Gattung Thiobacterium werden in Kapitel 2 beschrieben. Thiobacterium -Zellen sind stäbchenförmig, enthalten mehrere runde Schwefeleinschlüsse und sind von einer gallertartigen Masse umgeben. Bisher wurden Thiobacterium noch nicht eindeutig taxonomisch klassifiziert, da keine 16S rRNA- Gensequenz für sie bekannt ist. In der vorliegenden Doktorarbeit wurden Thiobacterium- Matten auf einem Walknochen, auf Tiefseesediment und in einer Unterwasserhöhle gefunden. In einer Matte gemessene Sauerstoff- und Sulfidgradienten bestätigten die Abhängigkeit von Thiobacterium-'Z&Me.n von Schwefelwasserstoff als Energiequelle, und Fluoreszenz in situ Hybridisierung ordnete die untersuchten Zellen den Gammaproteobakterien zu. Die Besiedlung unterschiedlicher ökologischer Nischen durch verschiedene filamentöse Sulfidoxidierer ( Beggiatoa, VAF) sowie Bakterien der Gattungen Thiomargarita oder Arcobacter wurde in der Tiefsee des östlichen Mittelmeeres untersucht (Kapitel 3 & 4). Beobachtungen am Meeresgrund mit Hilfe so genannter ROVs (remotely operated vehicles, zu deutsch: ferngesteuerte Fahrzeuge) wurden mit geochemischen in situ Messungen und Untersuchungen zur morphologischen und phylogenetischen Diversität der mattenbildenden Sulfidoxidierer in Zusammenhang gesetzt. Dabei zeigte sich, dass die filamentösen Sulfidoxidierer in einem Habitat vorkamen, wo Sauerstoff und Sulfid nicht überlappten. Bakterien der Gattung Thiomargarita besiedelten einen hochdynamischen und durch Salzsole beeinflussten Lebensraum mit zeitlich veränderlichem Vorkommen von Sauerstoff und Sulfid. Bakterien der Gattung Arcobacter dominierten ein Habitat, wo Sauerstoff und Sulfid dicht über dem Sediment in der Wassersäule aufeinander trafen. Untersuchungen zur Diversität mattenbildender sulfidoxidierender Bakterien und der die Mattenbildung beeinflussenden Umweltfaktoren in verschiedenen Tiefsee- Lebensräumen vor der Küste Norwegens werden in Kapitel 5 beschrieben. Kleine, graue Matten von 20 cm bis 5 m Durchmesser wurden dabei mit großflächigen, weißen Matten, die bis zu 850 m2 des Meeresbodens bedeckten, verglichen. Wohingegen die Diversität an Schwefelbakterien in und zwischen verschiedenen grauen Matten hoch war,
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