“We Rule the Waves”

Athletic Labor, Femininity, and National Collective in Billy Rose’s Aquacade Yasmine Marie Jahanmir

We’re gonna heal. We’re gonna start again. You’ve brought the orchestra, synchronized swimmers. — Warsan Shire, “Hope” (in Beyoncé 2016b)1

On 6 February 2016, Beyoncé shocked the popular culture world with her most explicitly polit- ical artistic work to date when she released a surprise video for her new song: “Formation.” The video begins with the image of Beyoncé lounging atop a sinking police car in post-Katrina New Orleans. At 1:23 in the video, rows of black women similarly dressed, all with their hair curly and natural, sit at the bottom of an empty pool and for the next 37 seconds, the beat car- ries the viewer as the video cuts in and out of the pool scene. Beyoncé appears in the second­ shot of the pool among the dancers, their biceps flexed in a bodybuilding pose. They sharply place their right, flexed arms above their heads for a moment before they lower their arms

1. Verse from the poem from Beyoncé’s visual album Lemonade (2016b).

Figure 1. Rehearsal for Billy Rose’s Aquacade. The embodied practice of coordinated stroking in rehearsal and performance helped to generate feelings of solidarity. (Billy Rose Theatre Division, The New York Public Library for the Performing Arts)

TDR: The Drama Review 61:3 (T235) Fall 2017. ©2017 112 New York University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology

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2 as the video cuts as the video — performing (sans water) performing (sans water) — one can count 16, but the camera is zoomed in to one can count 16, — come from two visual sources: War Footage (2014) and Wayne Wayne and (2014) Footage War sources: visual two from come Aquacade Theatre SurveyDance: An Anthology, and The Living of Essays on Theatre but still synchronized. More women join the dance, forming a large join the dance, More women but still synchronized. — used the combination of femininity the Aquacade “Formation,” Aquacade. Like

The title of this article, “We Rule the Waves,” is the first lyric in the opening number of the 1937 Cleveland Cleveland 1937 the of number opening the in lyric first the is Waves,” the Rule article, this title of The “We the of descriptions . All Aquacade (1939–1941). The synchronized swimming-esque choreography is an aesthetic counterpart to the other choreography is an aesthetic The synchronized swimming-esque An inciting event in the establishment of synchronized swimming as the confluence of popu- An inciting event in the establishment of men paraded across the stage hoisting banners In the Aquacade’s spectacular final number, , and Performance Women 2. more definitively political scenes of the video, including: vignettes of policemen, hands up of policemen, including: vignettes scenes of the video, more definitively political a graffiti scrawl spelling out black boy dancing in jeans and a hoodie; in front of a very agile per YouTube New Orleans in black; and voiceover by gender-bending “stop shooting us” A of Kuwait. University of Drama at the American is Assistant Professor Jahanmir Marie Yasmine and Space Nationalism, her dissertation Beauties: Gender, “Bathing lifelong synchronized swimmer, identifies synchronized swimming as an important of nexus Swimming” Synchronized in Theatrical has published She popular culture. nationalist spectacle, and bodily display in American feminine labor, in former, Messy Mya, who was shot and killed in 2010. The pool reappears at 3:47 with a seem- The pool reappears at 3:47 with 2010. who was shot and killed in Messy Mya, former, of dancers in a line ingly infinite number Beyoncé repeats the screen. that the dancers continue indefinitely beyond give the appearance bend their the dancers lay on the floor, as now let’s get in formation” ladies, “Okay, the refrain bodies so that they are perpendicular to their knees and lift their legs At the end of the 4). leg (fig. moves in synchronized swimming: a ballet one of the most iconic In creating car. Beyoncé is fully submerged in the water still atop the New Orleans police video, borrow Beyoncé and her choreographers “Formation,” politicized atmosphere of the multivocal, relying on the genre’s long history as aesthetic synchronized swimming’s movement vocabulary, feminine political action. representation of collective, occurred in the late 1930s when audiences flockedlar entertainment and political communication to see Billy Rose’s to reshape the gendered dynamics of national albeit in a very different context, and athleticism, of a popu- Just as Beyoncé utilized the standard structure citizenship and civic participation. the synchronized female empowerment, of black, lar music video to disseminate her message revue to position an swimmers in the Aquacade and their female choreographer used a theatrical part of a prospering nation. active and public femininity as a necessary rhyth- hundreds of swimmers giant sparkling stars, for each of the 50 states and women carried The static women in star formations on surfboards. mically stroked in a circular pattern around formed the periphery of the playing space and the cen- and stripes stars, symbols of the states, suggested the centrality of the mobile female bodies tral location of the splashy choreography athletic labor at the heart of Rose’s theatrical expres- The to the representation of the nation. in eco- white women’s growing participation sion of nation helped to normalize middle-class, just a few a participation that would realize its fullest expression nomic and cultural production, II efforts. War World to years later when women’s labor was critical

X pattern on the black and white–tiled bottom of the waterless pool (fig. 2) bottom of the on the black and white–tiled X pattern playing basketball. the female dancers and a group of men between the images of slowly and gracefully, their fingers fanning out à la Bob Fosse from their tightly clenched their tightly clenched à la Bob Fosse from fingers fanning out their gracefully, slowly and vac- Their arm movements hip rotation. leads into a languid flowing arm interlude The fists. con- music changes as the The motions. willowy and fluid, quick poses tense, illate between dance moves associated animated hip-shaking, into bouncing, transforms trolled choreography hip hop with Southern . She recently completed her PhD in Theater and Dance with an emphasis in Dance with an emphasis in in Theater and completed her PhD recently . She and Culture Movement [email protected] Barbara. of California, Santa at the University Studies Feminist Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00676 by guest on 23 September 2021 Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00676 by guest on 23September 2021

114 Yasmine Marie Jahanmir 3. to synchronized swimming aesthetics. (From Beyoncé 2016a; screenshot by Yasmine Marie Jahanmir) empty pool. The camera’s bird’s eye and the dancers’ view of the pattern athletic fashion bolster the connection Figure 2. Beyoncé, “Formation,” 2016. Beyoncéon the bottom of an an X pattern and her dancers form ognizing thecockfightasanartformthatis “fundamentally adramatization ofstatusconcerns,” (1972) andJohnMacAloon(1984). Geertzdetailedthe “deep play” ofBalinesecockfights, rec- was inlinewithconcurrentworkonsportanthropology, mostnotablybyCliffordGeertz activities thatpeopleexpresstheirsocialbehavior” ([1988]2003:15). Schechner’sprovocation “theater hasmoreincommonwithgamesandsportsthan playorritual[...I]tisinthese gested theinclusionofsportaspartbroadspectrumapproach toperformancestudies: sive fieldofperformanceanddecenteringthe Western theatricalcanon, RichardSchechnersug- performance iscertainlynotnew. As partofacontinued projectaimedatcreatingamoreinclu- and politicalactivism(“Formation”). belonging of femalebodiesmakesvisibleacollectiveimperativetoperformparticularkindfeminine ment ismorereadilyrecognizedaslaborthantheatricalexertion. Secondly, thesynchronization formed aswellthediscursivecombinationsoffemininityandlabor, becauseathletic move- discussion oflabor. Synchronizedswimmingperformanceshighlighttheactuallabor per the duallegacyofsynchronizedswimmingastheatreandsportbringstoforeanuanced unique perspectivesonthediscussionofperformance, particularlyasitrelatestogender:first, of thefemininecollective? synchronized swimminganenduringtropewhenitcomestorepresentingthepoliticalpotential of similarchoreographyintwoartworkscreated80yearsapartprovokesthequestion: Why is posits femininecollectivityasamobilizingforceforpoliticalandsocialchange. The existence eo’s backupdancersandtheirabilitytostate “we slay.” Inbothcases, synchronizedswimming ally state “I slay” inthelyricsof “Formation” isintrinsicallytiedtothecoordinationofvid- to makegrandiloquent, embodieddemandsforsocietalrevision. Beyoncé’sabilitytoindividu- and MSN (2017). Although thereisverylittleacademicanalysisofsynchronized swimming, viewingsportas Existing atthefruitfulintersectionofsportandtheatre, synchronizedswimmingofferstwo (Sidney 1944), Million Dollar Mermaid and the late Kim Jong-Il. For a small sampling, see Gibson and Firth (2005), Erdman (2007), cals to avantgarde French cinema, and Olympic as well as sport, to celebrate political leaders such as Julius Caesar Synchronized swimming has been employed in theatre, for entertainment films from patriotic Hollywood musi- Aquacade The potencyoftheAquacadechoreographycomesfromcoordinationmultiplebodies — and Beyoncé’s “Formation” are just two examples among many that I discuss in my broader project. which canbemobilizedbothintheserviceofnationalcitizenship(theAquacade) 3 What issopowerfulaboutbeing “in formation?” (LeRoy 1952),

Alphaville (Godard 1965), Bean (2005), Coleman (1993), Bathing Beauty - Billy Rose’s Aquacade 115

each one part of a - understand my to foundational all — . Precise formations, an as such Precise . Aquacade Rose’s Billy the analyses often isolate discussions of the political the analyses often isolate discussions of the 4 Figure 3. Rehearsal for Rehearsal 3. Figure of representations performance—corporeal mass of features common “X,”are formto together coming individuals them makes larger—which something Division, Theatre Rose (Billy projects. nationalist in salient particularly PerformingArts) the for Library Public York New The - -

See, for example, Susan K. Cahn’s articleperformance gender non-normative sporton in history Michael (1993), Cahn’s K. Susan example, for See, under- affects gender article how on Feder’s sportto centrality Abigail (1992), masculinity’s on book Messner’s gender, how on book Rand’s Erica and (1994), skating figure ladies’ in “athletic” the and “artistic” the of standing (2012) regulations skating ice influence class and and rules sexuality, race, performancegender society. to relationships sporting of understanding our affects their and how bodies of ing Consideration of sport as Nightclub impresario Billy Rose produced four versions of the Aquacade, 4. an insight based on his notion an insight generate and “art forms that the very subjectiv- regenerate only to display” ity they pretend John MacAloon’s 28). (1972:18, performance at the analysis of the event’s Olympics identifies perfor “ramified nature as a mance type,” a multipronged a mance type,” in performance extravaganza which he perceives multiple occurring genres of performance festi- at the Olympics: spectacle, (1984:259). and game ritual, val, is an This careful distinction of important acknowledgement to how sport has the potential produce various types of perfor mance, particularly at the mas- mance, sive global scale of the Olympics. performance has expanded to sport’s performative effects on our national and interna- In tional political identifications. their work on nationalism and cohe- Sara Brady and Gigliola Gori both show how athletic performances manifested sport, in as a rejection of British dominance engagement, sive national identities through corporeal piece of the burgeoning fascist movement in 1930s late 19th-century Ireland and as a crucial of the Larlham’s brilliant celebration-cum-critique 2004). respectively (Brady 2007; Gori Italy, national, in relationship to the football can inspire” “life-intensifying ecstasies that the art of the Cup deftly highlights World Africa and racial tensions of the 2010 South international, performance reaches well beyond the game’s pitch various ways in which the sporting body’s performs to Rachael Miyung Joo further develops this understanding of how sport (2012:44). in her book, in this case Koreanness, identity, include transnational performances of national also a while there is Additionally, (2012). and Global Korea Media, Gender, Sport: Transnational wealth of literature on gender and sport, from gender, even though, as I hope to show, the social valence of athletic labor differs depend- the social valence as I hope to show, even though, from gender, ing on the gender of the athletes and performers. and economic prog- cultural, larger exposition or fair celebrating the localized technological, The first was in Cleveland as part of the second year of the Great Lakes ress of the nation. Fair (1939 and World’s York The second and third versions played the New Exposition (1937). in San Francisco as part of the second year of the and a simultaneous edition premiered 1940), While each Aquacade was slightly different in Golden Gate International Exposition (1940). Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00676 by guest on 23 September 2021 Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00676 by guest on 23September 2021

116 Yasmine Marie Jahanmir ding herlandvestments, shequickly andgracefullydoveintothewater. Holmwouldalternate revealing ashinyone-pieceswimsuit, flirtingwithsocietalstandardsofmodesty. Aftershed- gold medal–winningOlympian andlaterRose’swife, wouldstripoffherdressandhigh heels and thebleachersfullofspectators (Mantle1937:4). The staroftheshow, EleanorHolm, a mers performedina65-footsliver ofLakeEriebetweenafloatingstagereservedfordryacts Aquacade’s mostuniqueandmemorable featurewasthesynchronizedswimming. The swim - featuring amixofsonganddancenumbers, comedyinterludes, andsolovocalists, the1937 performances ofits7,000-seattheatreeachday(Hoyt1937:45). A standardrevueinstructure, the 1937Exposition’smarketingcampaignandwasincredibly popular, sellingouttwotothree romance ofrubber” (38–47). Inspiteofthiscompetition, theAquacade lery, andtheFirestone Theaterwhichplayed “stage showsandmotionpicturesdepict[ing]the show, ahauntedhouse, amarionettetheatre, TheDrunkard (amelodrama), ashootinggal- (an iceskatingspectacular), Wonderland (aminiaturecircuswitha “monkey speedway”), amagic Aquacade wasjustoneofmanyentertainmentoptions, including butnotlimitedto:Winterland nationality groupsrepresenting40differentcountries”1937:14–24). (Great Lakes The Exposition food, architecture(throughbuildingreplicas), andculturefrom “more than2000peoplesof portation toaninternationalvillage, “Streets of the World,” whereguestscouldsamplethe the “making ofnation” throughexhibitsonagriculture, oilrefining, art, technologyandtrans- tainment exhibitions. The informationaldisplaysrangedfromaHallofProgressshowcasing ration asatown, thevastareaincludedawiderangeofindustry, education, culture, andenter year oftheExposition’ssummerresidence. CelebratingthecentennialofCleveland’sincorpo- festival, of theavailableearth, water, andskywithspectacle. (New York Times 1936). Blimps, planes, divers, andboatswereallinattendance, fillingeverybit were deckedinred, blue, andyellowasthousandspouredintothe135-acrelakefrontgrounds Washington, DC, pushedabuttonthatopenedthegatesofevent. The expositionbuildings At noon, “aerial bombs,” whistles, bells, andhornsweresoundedasPresidentRoosevelt, stillin The openingceremonyfortheGreatLakesExpositionin1936Clevelandwasquiteascene. ure genderedrelationshipsandnationalpoliticsinpopularentertainment. synchronized swimmingcanbeapoignantopportunitytotheatricallyandcollectivelyreconfig- pride areexamplesofhowtheconfluencefemininityandathleticismasimaginedthrough WWII. BothBeyoncé’ssynchro-esquechoreographyandRose’smammothdisplayofnational collective, stagingthechangingpublicfaceofcollectivefemininecitizenryoneve athletic laborinatheatricalcontextthattheAquacadespectacularlyhighlightedvisiblefemale the risingpopularityofsportandpoolculturerevealsthatitisthroughanacknowledgement Aquacade inthegenealogyoflaborunions’massspectacles, militaristicdisplay, girlyrevues, and ity ofeachgenreaswellthegenerativetensionsbetweentheatreandsport. Positioningthe distinct performancegenreswithinthesametheatricalframeexposesuniqueperformativ- relates togenderedpoliticsofthestate, Ihopetoalsoilluminatehowthisjuxtapositionoftwo citizenship, capitalism, andwomen’slabor. Inadditiontolookingatsportasperformanceit chronization, andfemalespectacularityinserviceofburgeoningideasaboutcollective American aquatic athleticsandperformancethatenabledRosetorecastwomen’sathleticism, masssyn- (Nelson 1987:118).Rose’s Aquacades The innovationinBilly now, theAquacadeisconsideredtobe “the mostpopularworld’sfairentertainmentofalltime” bined audienceofover15millionpeople. InitsdayasrenownedBeyoncé’slatestvideois and-dance numbersremainedthesame. The fouriterationsoftheAquacadeattractedacom- terms ofperformersandcontent, theyallsharedarevueformatandmanyofthesong-swim- Mass Ornaments Athletic LaborandFemale Agency While thislargerdisplayofpatriotismwasonlyaone-dayeventtomarktheopening Billy Rose’s Aquacadecarriedthemantleofthisspectacularnationalisminsecond Billy was aparticularjuxtapositionof was acentralfocusof - Billy Rose’s Aquacade 117 - - that had a tremendous effect on his production style (Crowell that had a tremendous effect on his production — movements that comprised the entirety of the water choreography. Sometimes choreography. entirety of the water that comprised the movements —

which coordinated the production of raw materials with economic efficiency for WWI materials with economic efficiency for which coordinated the production of raw — [Dickey:] “What would you call it?” [Dickey:]

There were two girls in the lake, swimming in time to a phonograph record of “The Blue in time to a phonograph record of swimming There were two girls in the lake, the and the more I multiplied, I began to multiply, As I watched them, Waltz.” Danube I said to Dickey “If a water ballet looks that good with two girls,” more excited I became. “imagine what it would look like with two [manager of the Great Lakes Exposition], I’d like to produce a water show for If it’s okay with you and your committee, hundred. your fair.” A hybrid presentation of song, dance, theatre, sport, and aquatic spectacle, the Aquacade was aquatic spectacle, and sport, theatre, dance, of song, A hybrid presentation numbers executed with factory-line preci- Billy Rose was famous for his large spectacular to the and this applied mythologies he invented, Much of Rose’s identity was based upon ent versions of its origin story. It is likely that he borrowed the aquatic choreography from the It is likely ent versions of its origin story. Century’s presentation of Katherine (Kay) Curtis’s Modern Mermaids of Progress (1934) — a pre- instance of sentation that is credited with introducing music to the movement and as the first 15). (Bean 2005:11, coined by announcer Norman Ross “synchronized swimming,” the phrase - his pen , and Words Women, In Rose’s 1948 collection of autobiographical essays entitled Wine, chant for the dramatic undergirds his version of the Aquacade’s origin: as multivariate as Billy Rose himself. Rose was one of the most prominent producers of theatri- Rose was one of the most Rose himself. as multivariate as Billy More of a myth than a man, City. York in the 1930s and ’40s in New cal popular entertainments to be born on a kitchen table in Rumored were incredibly diverse. his showbiz career endeavors Rosenberg often S. William 1899, to Russian immigrant parents in a Lower East Side tenement and success in the varied pro- rags-to-riches life story for his ambition credited his incredible brush with achievement occurred His first live events (Nelson 1987:1–2). duction of large-scale a job as Bernard Baruch’s secre- championship that eventually led to when he won a shorthand Rose’s biog- (2–3). I War World during DC, Washington, Industries Board in War tary for the him to see the world from claims that Rose’s time with Baruch allowed Stephen Nelson, rapher, as a theatri- preparing him for his eventual role man, the vantage of a powerful and successful Industries War of the it was his familiarity with the workings However, cal entrepreneur (3). Board production from 1917 to 1919 and Wilson 1921:1–35). and his knack for maxi- his investment in built spaces tailored to his specific productions, sion, Tin with a group of he fell in York in 1919, On his return to New mizing audiences and profits. delicatessen at 1216 Broadway (Marmorstein Wolpin’s Alley songwriters who hung out at Pan or business acu- eye for collaborators, It is disputed whether Rose’s lyrical prowess, 2013:70). by 1924 Whatever the means, (Nelson 1987:4–6). men led to his successful stint as a songwriter with the written one of the first singing commercials, he was enjoying financial comfort and had This modest (7). its flavor on the bedpost overnight?” “Does the Spearmint lose playful refrain, first play, and in 1924 he purchased the rights to produce his success wasn’t enough for Rose, Rose continued this The Backstage Club (8). and bought his first nightclub, , Wedding The Fatal and nightclub ownership throughout his long career. theatrical production, mix of songwriting, inventing differ He would take sole credit for the idea of the Aquacade, Aquacade story as well. Holm and fellow Olympian Johnny Weissmueller would swim this mix of crawl stroke and back swim this mix of crawl would Weissmueller fellow Olympian Johnny Holm and reveal whole ensemble would the Most spectacularly, de deux. an aquatic pas duet, stroke as a stroking into the water, and dive two-by-two their costumes, from underneath their swimsuits only grow in its which would finale, The patriotic in the water. to form large patterns in rhythm celebration of was a no-holds-barred performances of the Aquacade, bombastic glory in future featuring hundreds of swimmers and and nationalism, theatrical spectacle, athletic achievement, and blue. white, dancers in red, between swimming a smooth and strong crawl stroke with her head above water and a languid water and a languid with her head above strong crawl stroke a smooth and between swimming ­backstroke Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00676 by guest on 23 September 2021 Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00676 by guest on 23September 2021

118 Yasmine Marie Jahanmir 1937 to Nelson, whoalsosuggeststhatRose’sAquacadewasanoutgrowthofthefountainshowsinhis Zimmerman wouldlaterbehiredonRose’sstaffaschoreographerfortheAquacades, the 1936GreatLakesExpositionunderhelmofformerclown/swimmerFloydZimmerman. two women were not randomly in the lake. They were performing a water ballet that was a part of While thislightningflashofinspirationisgoodforsellingstories, whatheleavesoutisthatthese this seemsfarmorelikelythanRosebeingstruckbydivineinspiration fromawaterymuse. synchronized swimmingasasport. Basedontheeventual aestheticsofhisswimmingnumbers, had longbeenpercolatinginRose’smindwasactuallyinspired bytheathleticformationsof Jones1999:30). The ideathat Aquacade, ( Mermaids sohewaslikelyfamiliarwiththeModern finale athisCasaMañanaventurethe1936Fort Worth FrontierCentennialandinthe1940 World’s Fair, ofProgress Rosestagedversionsof theCentury in “The Cavalcadeof World’s Fair” showatthe1934 Mermaids ers creditswimmerNormanRossastheannouncerforModern considered tobethemotherofsportsynchronizedswimming (Wei 2014). While oth- ence. A swimmer, swimming educator, and World’s Fairexhibitorinherownright, Curtisis She goesontolistKatherineCurtisasoneofherreferences. KayCurtisisnoordinaryrefer Show eling watertankonB.F. Keith’svaudevillecircuit, andintheNew York Hippodrome’sTheBig having performedattheLondonHippodrome(1907), Chicago’s White City(1907), inatrav swimming. While nottheonlyunderwaterperformerinthistime, shewasbyfarthebestknown, 1939:13). Infact, mostconsider Annette Kellermantobetheoriginatorofmodernsynchronized Kellerman’s dowdy-lookingone-piecesuitwasthesubjectofindignantsermons” (Considine tor ofthe “strange combinationofswimming, diving, andpeepshowsin1914[...]when Annette paperman suggestedthatitwasswimmer Alexander Ott, notBillyRose, whowastheorigina The letterstates: Fair suggeststhatRosehadencounteredsynchronizedswimmingpriortotheDanubeduet. for awhile(5). However, a1939letterfromwomanrequestinganauditionforthe World’s a marvelofmarineplanningandconstruction” hadbeen “percolating inthefertileRosemind” continued initsgrandioseclaimsofRose’s Rose’s Aquacade1937:3).am noonetobemanacledbythefettersoftradition” (Billy The program grain indoingso: “Women andwaterarenotconventionallylinkedineithersongorlegendbutI for theproduction, Rosenotonlyclaimedheinventedwaterballetbutthatwentagainstthe he producedJumbo attheHippodromein1935. Paintinghimselfasthemaverickinhisprogram 6. 5. My DearMr. Rose: march into the Hippodrome’s large pool and disappear under the water. through its demise as a theatre venue in the mid-1920s. While not synchronized swimmers per se, they would The Hippodrome bathing girl act was a regular feature of the New York Hippodrome from its opening in 1905 1954:175). that he was a young swimmer—not that the two are mutually exclusive (Billy Rose’s Aquacade The program states that Zimmerman was an itinerant clown, whereas John Murray Anderson’s memoirs state member ofthe American RedCross. (Umbra1939;emphasisadded) I wasalsoamemberoftheIllinois Women’s Athletic clubswimmingteamaswella Fair fromJunethroughtheendofseason, andforwhich actyou were theannouncer. Miss MaxineReinhardandswamwiththe “Modern Mermaids” attheChicago World’s the plan. Iamtwenty-fiveyearsold, 5'7 late andmyqualificationsmeetwithyourapprovalIshouldliketoknowmoreabout get fancy, Aquacade.” (1948:24) Casa MañanaventurefortheFort Worth Centennialin Texas (Nelson1987:62). Onenews (1916). PerhapsRosebecameawareofKellermanortheHippodromeBathingGirls I havebeeninformedofthisact, whichwasinthe Times, forswimmers;ifitisnottoo Across theMidwaytherewasapennyarcade. “Watercade,” Isaid, “or, ifyouwantto lone genius, statingthattheideaof “a waterfestival, ¾" inheightandweigh136lbs. Iwasformally 1939:27; Anderson according 6 when - - - 5

- Billy Rose’s Aquacade 119 the use 7 - on the large-scale synchro —

“The Mass Ornament” —

The immense popularity of Billy perhaps undermines Kracauer’s eventual Rose’s Aquacade the political efficacy in theatrical dis- Kracauer acknowledged In spite of this oversight, For more nuanced analysis of German mass ornaments, see Rossol (2010); Buch and Worthen (2007); and and (2007); Worthen and Buch (2010); Rossol see ornaments, mass German of analysis nuanced more For (2005). Warstat Additionally, the aesthetics found in Billy the aesthetics found - to synchro Aquacade were not exclusive Rose’s Additionally, 7. of mass spectacles was quite popular with various labor movements to promote visibility, unity, unity, visibility, movements to promote with various labor was quite popular of mass spectacles use the performance, In terms of stage 2005). (Warstat Period Weimar in the and cooperation performance history by roman- bodies was firmly established in modern of synchronized female Synchronization film musicals. and popularized in musical revues and tic ballet’s corps de ballet theorist Sigmund Kracauer wrote cultural zeitgeist that eminent cultural was so prevalent in the and oft-cited essay his most influential nization spectacle in 1930s performance and its broader cultural relevancies. Writing about Writing relevancies. 1930s performance and its broader cultural nization spectacle in and militaristic precision in kick lines, a British dance troupe known for their Girls, Tiller the Kracauer pro- interwar period, popular in Germany and Russia in the mass gymnastic displays mecha- Taylorist in line with the are vacuous displays of rationality posed that mass ornaments Girls Tiller to the legs of the “hands in the factory correspond procedures: nization of capitalist to which the prevailing economic is the aesthetic reflex of the rationality [...] the mass ornament collusion with capitalist sys- Rather than decry this aesthetic 1995:79). ([1927] system aspires” be the saving Kracauer anticipates that the empty logic of these forms would tems of control, as their rational connection to the mass form, grace of the world as people began to understand upon superstructural lineages for their relevance; for opposed to previous art forms that relied posit humanity. or back-to-nature themes to nation, art forms dependent on religion, example, the mass ornament in popular entertainment serves He imagines that the harsh rationality of so terrifying that it will force participants to flee from but as a wake-up call, not as a distraction, II dashed War World of the destruction However, its sterile logic and into a brave new world. potential, Once seeing their enormous ornaments. any optimism he had for the potency of mass but the anticapitalist ideations of his 1927 essay, Kracauer not only became disillusioned with 1947 Ramsey Burt finds in Kracauer’s downfall. also perceived them to be complicit in society’s that Kracaeur had reevalu- to Hitler, Caligari From book-length critique of German film history, particularly in factor to the rise of fascism, ated the popularity of mass displays as a contributing Germany (see Burt 1998:85). cho- American audiences enjoyed the precise “capitalistic” and “individualist” pessimism as Burt Girls fame just as much as their overseas counterparts. Tiller reography central to the to argue that Kracauer’s rather than a dance theorist, cites Kracauer’s role as social theorist, embodi- lacks attention to German context, analysis is too narrowly focused on the specific genealogy of the mass ornament form and ignores the performance ment and subjectivity, American fac- Girls’ precision to a particular brand of Tiller Kracauer ascribes the (85). of mass ornamentation in military and ballet as rel- tory line enterprise and dismisses the use Girls were actually British and that John Tiller Burt reveals that the However, ics of the past. is recorded as demanding military precision from his dancers and using military jargon Tiller American master of mass ornaments, Even the to describe his choreography (Burt 1998:99). his stint in the spent significant time as a marching display coordinator during Busby Berkeley, the mass ornament its historical lineage in mili- By denying armed forces (Spivak 2010:20–23). synchronization with a particular historical context, Kracauer mistakenly aligns taristic displays, as a rather than allowing for a broader reading of synchronization in this case Nazi Germany, coalition-building force. While his vision of how synchronized movement can affect plays of embodied synchronization. nized swimming, but were prevalent in military marching displays, the precision kick lines of the precision kick lines displays, in military marching but were prevalent nized swimming, Nazi associated with Often in the 1930s. displays popular and mass gymnastic the girly revues, Goebbels, by the infamous Joseph machine headed successful propaganda Germany’s

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120 Yasmine Marie Jahanmir statements Franko seemtoagreethatmassimageryallowsforBerkeleyhimselfmakecursorypolitical the movementoffemalesoloistinspiredbyinternallongingspoliticalchange. Burtand for chorusgirlsbecausetheirprecisionappearstobeimposedfromtheoutsideasopposed ion, morepoliticallyimpactfulmassgymnasticdisplays, Frankosimilarlydeniesthatpotential women inpublicspace. Yet, justasBurtdismissesthe Tiller Girlsinfavorofthe, inhisopin- notions aboutthepublicparticipationinsportandmovetowardsincreasedvisibilityofactive context wasapartofthis “performance mandate” andallowedthemtochallengegendered with performance’smandatetorehearsewhathadnotyethistoricallytakenplace” (49). particular destabilizedgenderedunderstandingsofproductionandreproduction[...]inkeeping spheres becauseoftheircentralityasbothdancersandchoreographers: “The femalesoloistin ern dancewasaparticularlypoignantmediumforreframingwomen’sparticipationinpolitical their laborandremovinganypotentialpoliticalpotency(2002:22). Frankoalsonotesthatmod- in alargerstagepicturetransformstheirparticipationintototalizingexchange Taylorist precisionofBerkeley’schorines, theirmanagedcheerycountenances, andtheirrole politically motivatedmassdancein1920sand1930sNew York City, Frankoarguesthatthe the dancinghordes(1998:117). MarkFrankoviewsBerkeley’sworksimilarly. Writing about ical potentialofcollectiveembodiment, hecreditsonlyBerkeleywithmakingstatementsusing bringing thecountrybackfromGreatDepression, butratherthanacknowledgingthepolit- taposes themassornamentscreatedinBerkeley’sfilmswithNewDealpoliciesaimedat book, or massornamentsdenytheagencyofbothdancersandtheirgrouping. Forinstance, inhis otic femininecollective, Kracauerisuniqueinthatmostotheranalysesofprecisionkicklines societal changeisquitedifferentthanthepoliticalefficacythatIseeinRose’sstagingofapatri- Avery Brundage, thepresidentof USOlympicCommitteeandthe futurepresidentofthe ended upinthebedofamanwho wasnotherhusband. Ininterviews, shewouldoften thank prior tocompetitionbecauseshe supposedlyhadonetoomanyglassesofchampagneand Olympics, Holmwasmostfamous forbeingkickedoffofthe1936USOlympicteamjust York specifically, EleanorHolm. Shewasfeaturedinthe1937Clevelandand1939’40 New towards acommongoal. synchronized swimming, changedconceptionsofhow active femalebodiescouldworktogether insertion ofathleticlaborintheAquacades, andthecollaborationthatisrequiredtoperform tational styleoftraditionalentertainmentmodesworktodeny agencytotheperformers. The reotypes aboutwomen’scapacitytoworkcombinedwiththe performance ofeaseinthepresen- that thechorinesarenotperforminglabor, theyabsolutelyare, butpre-existinggenderedste- express, utter, orperform isdeniedandcededtothebroaderutteranceofdirector. Itisnot individual performerloseshercapacitytoperform chorus lineperformerdisappearthroughparticipationinalarger image. Inthisreading, the resentational pattern” (1993:69–71). Rubinargues thattheindividualbodyandwillofafemale of apatternthattransformsherinto “a deindividualizedunit, asubsidiarypartoflargerrep- poles phée intosetpiecesandaccoutrementsuchasbattleships, fruit, handbags, raindrops, andtotem common theatricalmethodofobjectifyingwomen pictures outofgirls. MartinRubinwritesthatwhileBerkeleydoesnotoftenrelyuponthemost ity, andagencyofthechorusdancersinfavorseeingBerkeleyasageniusauteurwhomakes them oftheirindividualityandthusanypoliticalagency. the machinelikequalities, synchronization, andreproduciblefemininityofthechorusgirlsstrip a cardstunt, eachdancerholdingacardprintedwithsmallpartofthelargerimage The The maindrawoftheAquacade s wasthechancetoseeOlympic starsintheflesh Reading Berkeley’sworksinthisbenevolentlypaternalisticwaydeniesthelabor, individual- Aquacades. An Olympianatage 14 atthe1928Olympicsandagoldmedalistin1932 — Alien Bodies:Representations, ofModernity ‘Race’ andNationinEarly Dance, Modern Burtjux- Aquacade’s celebrationoftheOlympicstars’extraordinaryfeatswithinaperformance he tendstousethefemalebodyasa “form ofattractivebuildingmaterial” orasapart — in thefinalsceneofFootlight Parade , heactuallyevenmanifestsRoosevelt’sfacein — — in whichcostumingtransformsthecory- in the Austinian sense, herpowerto — obscuring — —

but that Billy Rose’s Aquacade 121 - - - If it were not for Brundage’s If it were 8 Olympian, Johnny Weissmuller, was one of the best swimmers of his was one of the best Weissmuller, Johnny Olympian, , making it a continental delight rather than a run-of-the-mill girly show. Secondly, Secondly, run-of-the-milla rather than delight continental a it making , show. girly Aquacade Aquacade program, but interestingly not in the 1937 or 1940 editions. not in the 1937 or 1940 editions. but interestingly Aquacade program, Williams was a US National Champion Swimmer working as a stock girl and model was a US National Champion Swimmer working Williams 9

a 1920s Michael Phelps. Winning five gold medals in swimming and a bronze medal in five gold medals in swimming and a bronze Winning a 1920s Michael Phelps. rather than a Watercade, the French sounded “fancier.” The French nomenclature helped to elevate elevate to helped nomenclature French The “fancier.” sounded French the Watercade, a than rather Aquacade —

1940b). Aquacade Rose’s Billy the status of the of status the gave names French the culture; Fair World’s the of aims international broader the reflected also choice Rose’s Finally, fairs. the of outlook international with the nicely quite in fit that appeal international an Aquacade the performances the around revue for prototype a became which Paris, in Bergère Folies the to homage be could it classes working the of Ziegfeld Florenz the as himself see did Rose all, After Follies. Ziegfeld the including world ( s, Rose also hired athletic performers as fea s, In addition to the athletic stars in the Aquacade time his In history. swimming synchronized to connection only his not is career Holm’s in role Brundage’s Avery for applications multiple reject would he 1952–1972, from Committee Olympic International the of president as dead his sporta become sport, over ever only would it claiming Olympic an become to swimming synchronized became swimming synchronized that 1984, in death, Brundage’s after years nine was It 2005:197). (Bean body sport.official an show the calling like First, performers. his for titles French chosen have may Rose that reasons few a are There an Another Weissmuller and his new counterpart, Esther Williams, were the stars of the Aquabeaux and were the stars of the Williams, Esther and his new counterpart, Weissmuller 8. 9.

tured acts within the show. Aileen Riggen, Olympic diver, performed in the 1937 Cleveland Olympic diver, Aileen Riggen, tured acts within the show. an Olympic Gertrude Ederle, numbers. Aquacade and was director of all the show’s aquatic the stand beating across the English Channel, Gold Medalist and the first woman to swim International Olympic Committee, for her performance career. for her performance Olympic Committee, International refusal to let her compete after the scandal broke, she would not have become a film and stage become a film and she would not have the scandal broke, her compete after refusal to let on capitalizing details, the scandals’ program proffered in the Aquacade Holm’s biography star. - audiences with this titil Enticing the story was never substantiated. but claimed the notoriety, and entertainment toed the line of salacious of how Billy Rose was just one example lating story - the same breath protect gossip and in the juicy details of celebrity providing chaste athleticism, for the choreography in the 1939 Holm was given credit of the Aquacade. ing the moral ground New York time was one of the most deco- Weissmuller and 1928 Olympic Games, water polo over the 1924 At the time of the Aquacade, 2016). (International Olympic Committee rated athletes of his time Tarzan build as MGM’s been best known for showing off his athletic might have Weissmuller in another eight movies Tarzan star as he would go on to the Aquacade, After in four movies. was featured in Weissmuller thirteen-movie series (Bean 2005:12). and Jungle Jim in another Another gold medalist, Aquacades. and 1940 San Francisco York, 1939 New the 1937 Cleveland, Aquacade when Weissmuller York in the 1940 New Weissmuller replace would Buster Crabbe, he also translated his Weissmuller, Like of the show. went to San Francisco for a concurrent run Gordon playing the comic superhero Flash stardom, athletic success (and physique) into film engage- After his 1940 Aquacade in a competing film series. Tarzan and a different version of tour (1949), Aqua Parade Buster Crabbe’s he would go on to produce his own water show, ment, ing the United States and Europe (14). York that ran concurrently with the 1940 New Aquabelles in the 1940 San Francisco Aquacade Aquacade. in a department store. She had qualified to compete in the 1940 Olympics, but her gold medal She had qualified to compete in the 1940 Olympics, in a department store. Her starring turn in the canceled due to the war. dreams were dashed when the games were she was quickly signed as the lead in a series Aquacade caught the eye of an MGM executive and would compete with the successful 20th Century of splashy aqua musicals that MGM hoped get a “Melt the ice, said, the latter M of MGM, Mayer, Louis B. Fox figure skating musicals. able to com- She may not have been Diehl 1999:57). and (Williams make it pretty!” swimmer, one of but she starred in multiple large-budget aqua musicals and became pete in the Olympics, 2005:13). Hollywood’s biggest stars of the 1940s (Bean Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00676 by guest on 23 September 2021 Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00676 by guest on 23September 2021

122 Yasmine Marie Jahanmir chronized, mixed-genderpairing thatemphasizedathleticisminstatesofnearnudity, Rosewas the otherbeingrhythmicgymnastics. with masculinistidealsleftverylittleroomforwomen’sathleticparticipation. For the femalebody. SporthistorianSusanK. Cahnnotesthatmodernsport’sdeepentanglement Aquacades emphasizedathleticlabor, whichallowedfortheinclusionofmultipleversions Unlike atypicalrevueinwhichthesheenofpolishedperformanceisultimategoal, the and Williams, EderledidnothavethesvelteframeusuallyfoundinaBillyRoseproduction. pool s ing malerecord, wascastinRose’sshowtoswimasfastshepossiblycouldacrossthe ditional theatrical spectacle. ration forbade menandwomenfrom competingtogetherin1940eventuallyleadingtoitsincorpo ever since. Synchronizedswimmingwasasacoedendeavor untilthe Amateur Athletic Union existed inthesportworld. Pairfigureskatingbeganin 1908andhasbeenanOlympicevent arately inlate19th-andearly20th-centuryathleticentertainment, butmixed-genderpairings emphasized theirmuscularphysiques(Kattwinkel2012:14). Menandwomenperformedsep ments, advertisedbyhowmuchweighttheycouldlift andpresentedinrevealingoutfitsthat at the ing athleticfeatsinearlypopularentertainment, such as Annette Kellerman’sdivingdisplays today as ment. The included intheseriousworldofsport. a wordabouttheNew York Aquacade, eitherdismissingitastootheatricalorfemininetobe appreciation whichthisdepartmentlacks” (1939:31). But, ofcourse, thesportpagesdidn’tprint “Probably thesportsdepartmentcouldwriteaboutwatersequenceswithaninformed Additionally, famedtheatrereviewerBrooks Atkinson wroteinhisNewYork Times review: intersections ofsportandentertainment: lets inthe1941varietyfilmHellzapoppin’, force forsociety. Inaninterviewaboutherchoreographyforoneofthefirstfilmedwaterbal- Aquacade asaperformanceofathleticachievementandconsideredthatpositive swimmer turnedwaterballetperformerandchoreographeracknowledgedthatshesawthe agential forceofself-identificationasanathlete. Forexample, OliveHatch, anotherOlympian role insocietywasvaried, theswimmer’sroleasideal, feminineathletedidnotunderminethe der” ofothertypesathletes(129). Although thediscursiveunderstandingoffemaleathletes’ “reproductive damage, physicalmasculinity, andlackofsexualappeal” usedto “impugn thegen- have thespurioussocietalsanctionsdirectedatotherathletes(oftenofcolor), suchas mance, asCahnnotesthatswimmingwasdominatedbywhite, middle-classathletesanddidnot athlete, Rosesubtlyadvocatedforthereceptionoftheseactstobereaddifferentlyfromatra traditional genderarrangements” (1994:8). Byplayinguptheroguefigurationoffemale of manlysport, symbolizingboththepossibilitiesanddangersof[...]daringdisregardfor female athlete “stood ontheborderlinebetweennewfeminineidealsandcustomarynotions nearly display ofmaleandfemaleathleticprowess. Justasthere isahistoryofwomenperform But atthetimeofAquacade , thesportwasstillmixed-gendered, andbypresentingasyn- News 1942:3) to newheightsofpopularitythewayiceskatingdidbecauseSonjaHenie. (Logan Daily plus whatHollywoodisdoingonthescreen, Ithinkitislikelythatswimmingmayzoom Rose’s AquacadeinNew WithYork, theimpetusthathasbeengivenswimming byBilly Female swimmersweretheidealathletestoexistinthisliminalspaceofathleticsandperfor Another interestingaspectofRose’sAquacadewasthesimultaneousandsynchronized tage. What isinterestingaboutEderle’sinclusionintheAquacadethatunlikeHolm Hippodrome, menalsohavealongtraditionofperforming athleticfeatsforentertain- nude (Anae2013). Strongmenandstrongwomenwere staplesofvaudevilleentertain as afemale-onlysport(Bean2005:20). The effectsofthisdeterminationcanstill befelt Olympic synchronizedswimming isoneofonlytwosingle-genderedOlympicevents, Fijian cricketteamtoured Australia in1907–1908performing exhibitiongameswhile Hatch isprescientinherunderstandingofthefruitful Cahn, the ------Billy Rose’s Aquacade 123 - public swimming 10 11 particularly important dur —

According to Wiltse, pools were racially integrated until they became gender integrated. As white, working- and and working- white, As integrated. gender became they until integrated racially were pools Wiltse, to According seg- racial provoked miscegenation of fears space, public charged this to access gaining were women middle-class ’30s. and 1920s the in pools swimming at regation of frames and display about statement this time, this during pools swimming of segregation racial the to Due often and historyThe bodies. white to only applies acceptability different, vastly is display bodily of politics and example. notable most the perhaps is Bartmaan Saartije color. of people for exploitative, Municipal pools became public stages for putting oneself on display and public venues for public stages for putting oneself on display Municipal pools became eroticized municipal pools This exhibitionism and voyeurism visually consuming others. Public objectification of American culture. fundamental shift in and contributed to a came to mean exhibiting and public decency became acceptable, female and male bodies (89) rather than protecting one’s modesty. an attractive appearance Departing from Kracauer’s structural analysis, Burt deftly analyzes the possible subjectivi- Departing from Kracauer’s structural analysis, pools become one of the most important venues for understanding identity through visibility: the most important venues for understanding pools become one of 10. 11. ing the interwar period when the United States was maintaining an isolationist stance towards ing the interwar period when the United historical In spite of a long history of mass performance in many different European politics. were the at that time the most circulated representations of synchronized movement contexts, with very specific underlying political agendas. German mass gymnastic displays choreographed Kracauer does not distin- “The Mass Ornament” about when writing as Burt points out, In fact, female revues and the mass gymnastic exercises aimed guish between the precision kick lines of 1998:99). thus conflating two different performance styles (Burt at creating abstract formations, does not Kracauer’s conflation aesthetic similarities, While there is no denying that there are and Chorines are objectified the performers. account for the differing narratives surrounding which people whereas mass gymnastic displays in their mass ornaments are meant to entertain, form abstract patterns have the potential to make big political statements. the possible physical enjoyment experienced by the He acknowledges ties of the participants. focusing on a scene in the women performing in his examination of Leni Riefenstahl’s Olympia, Stars, Stripes, Soldiers, and Swimmers Soldiers, Stripes, Stars, Women of and the Role Nationalist Performance he never lost sight of the entertain- was sport, In spite of Rose’s insistence that the Aquacade bottom line, In addition to keeping his eye on the ment value of his most profitable venture. the coalition-building properties of synchro- Rose’s sensational style helped to maintain while denying specific political references nized embodiment, Wiltse credits swimming pool culture for shifting societal norms of acceptable bodily display as for shifting societal norms of acceptable credits swimming pool culture Wiltse The body was no longer something conceptions of subjective embodiment. well as changing the and sport were when health Unlike in previous eras, but something to show off. to cover up, swim culture helped normalize the carnal plea- body, used as the excuse for exposing the female visuality coupled with the earlier connotations of pools This sure in desiring and being desired. the swimming pool as the ideal venue for Rose’s as sites of pleasure and athleticism positioned entertainment project. ’s swimming scenes within a sporting history, rather than a the- rather history, scenes within a sporting ’s swimming the Aquacade again positioning pub- rising popularity of inspired by the pairing was also likely This mixed-gender atrical one. in white working class relationships of the gendered social their impact in shifting lic pools and culture shifted pool Age,” “The Swimming Pool calls Wiltse In what Jeff and 1930s. the 1920s of pools fueled by growth in the number including exponential 1920s and 1940s, between the - trend toward communi and a general time, increased leisure economic prosperity, “expanding that with shrink- argues Wiltse (2007:91). to recreation facilities” ties devoting public resources in public spaces, and gender integration class lines, blurred ing swimsuits, Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00676 by guest on 23 September 2021 Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00676 by guest on 23September 2021

124 Yasmine Marie Jahanmir to goHolm, Rose’swife, forhelp. Wright recalls: ity amongthewomen. Thus, whenworkingconditions werepoor, thewomendidnothesitate tice ofcoordinatedstrokinginrehearsalandperformancehelped tosolidifyfeelingsofsolidar of timethattheswimmersworkedtoperfectprecision the stroking. The embodiedprac- Harriet Wright, describesherroleasan Aquabelle inhermemoir. Sheemphasizesthe amount synchronized embodimentpropagatedacollectiveidentitythat ledtoaction. Oneswimmer, more readilybecauseitrequiredathleticlaborandcultivated a senseofstrength;second, the ter salariesandconditions? There aretworeasons:first, theysawtheirperformanceaswork taken bytheperformers. The medianarrativeofahopeful, naïvefemininityundermined theunderlyingpoliticalactions political solvencyoftheextrastrikesandcreateda spite ofaprettyevensplitmaleandfemalelaborers, allowedforthemediatoundermine women headingtoHollywoodtrytheirhandatfame. Feminizingtheideaofextra, in media hadafascinationwithyoungwomenasextras, coveringthemassimmigrationofyoung standing ofthe1916extrastrikeinmultipleHollywoodstudios(2011). The early20th-century extras andchorusgirls. DeniseMcKennaalsodiscusseshowmediaandgenderaffectedunder poor workingconditionsinHollywood, particularlydisenfranchisingthosemosteasilyreplaced: For Clark, thesuppressionofactors’laborinserviceartistryledtocontinuation the actresswhoasksforanewcontractaslesstalentedperformerandmoneygrubber(17). that of laborresultinginthedisenfranchisementchoralmembers(1990:4). Clarkdemonstrates ground performerslowanddidsobygivingspecialcontractstostaractors, creatingadivision Hollywood studioindustryhadafinancialinterestinkeepingthepayratesforchoralandback- ing FDR’spresidencyandtheestablishmentofNationalRecovery Administration, the (1993). InspiteofgrowingawarenesslaborconditionsandcollectiveactionintheUSdur Clark showshowtheplotlineoffilmmirroredHollywood’sworkingconditionsattime era. Inananalysisof42ndStreet, aBusbyBerkeleyfilmabouttheunionizationofactors, Danae remove theimaginativepoliticalpotentialofsynchronizedmovement. to distinguishmassdisplayfromitscontemporaneousauthoritarianconnotations, butdidnot tal control. Rose’stheatricaltakeonmassgymnastics jective experienceofunfetteredmovementasanaccomplicetoothermethodsgovernmen- potentially servesashegemoniccontroloftheparticipants’bodies. Burtcaststhepositive, sub- antithesis ofnotionsthedelicacynineteenth-centuryfemininehealth” (95–96). ornamental movementexpressedidealsofenjoyable, healthy, physicalactivitythatwerethe strained, publicbodilymovementwasnoveltothetimes: “Performances bywomenofmass and morewomenalldoingthesameexercise” (101). Physicalenjoymentderivedfromunre- exercise swingingclubs, andthenthecamerapulledbacksothatspectatorcouldseemore second partofthefilmthatshows “aclose-upofasmilingyoungwomandoinggymnastic said sickornotyougotfinedif youmissedeither. We felt thatwasunfair, sowe griped ting colds, fluandwere too sicktorehearseorperform. We complainedaboutarulethat A gruelingrehearsalschedule(for whichweweren’tpaid!)meantallthegirlsbeganget- In lightofthishistory, howwereBillyRose’s Aquabelles abletosuccessfullynegotiatebet- underclass ofworking-classagitators. (2011:15) a dreamdeferredandalignedextraworkwithfantasyofsuccess, notwitharadicalized tial wasmutedbythequestforfame, whichdefinedtheextragirl’simageinrelationto much moremanageableimageofearlyHollywood’sunderclass[...H]erdisruptivepoten- The activistundertonesofcollectivemovementcanbeseeninactuallabordisputesthe Using aFoucauldianframeofbiopoliticalpower, Burtacknowledgesthatthisenjoyment 42nd Street’s narrativereliesonafalsedistinctionbetweenartistryandlabor, positioning — patriotic, butnotpolitical — helped him - - - Billy Rose’s Aquacade 125 - Figure 4. Beyoncé, “Formation,” 2016. The dancers perform a “bent knee,” perform dancers The 2016. knee,” “bent a “Formation,” Beyoncé, 4. Figure very synchronized of a deployment clear figure, leg” “ballet the in move first the Yasmine by screenshot 2016a; Beyoncé (From choreography. swimming Marie Jahanmir) an architectural performance of a promised American prosperity, albeit American prosperity, an architectural performance of a promised —

about it. Nothing happened until Eleanor took up our case with Billy, and when he didn’t and when he didn’t our case with Billy, until Eleanor took up Nothing happened about it. (2005:31) authorities. took it to the health she of relenting, show any sign created a space for a vig- athletic labor and theatrical entertainment Rose’s distinct mix of In the midst of America’s worst crisis since the Civil War, these fairs were designed to War, the Civil America’s worst crisis since In the midst of restore popular faith in the vitality of the nation’s economic and political system and, and intellectual scientific, business, in the ability of the government, more specifically, promised racially exclusive, leaders to lead the country out of the depression to a new, (9) land of material abundance. This action resulted in the women receiving rehearsal pay as well as the removal of the fine. removal of the fine. pay as well as the receiving rehearsal resulted in the women This action there is no first-hand York, than in New Cleveland were worse the conditions in Even though for debris that plans cold and so filled with The lake water was an earlier dispute. account of to all the trash at the bottom were discarded because it drew attention underwater lighting “Blue a dead crow during the even emerged from the water with One swimmer at the lake. When Rose increased the amount a dress rehearsal (Anderson 1954:177). number in Danube” After a two-month negotia- the swimmers began to resist. week to 21, of performances per 36 dancers and 46 swimmers, Rose acquiesced to the a sit-down strike, tion and the threat of 1937). salaries to $28.50 (Variety bringing their weekly $3.50 per week, giving them a raise of to fight the Aquacade swimmers were willing as athletic labor, Recognizing their performances work. securing fair pay for their enlist help in, or for, of 1930s audience mem- that acted as a salve for the social anxieties orous feminine collective feelings of abundance in the amount of performers provoked much-needed The copious bers. synchronized movement performed a patriotic aftermath of the Great Depression and the World’s The Aquacade’s participation in the II. War World unity for a country on the brink of motivations for the proliferation and popular Fair was very much in line with the underlying ity of World’s Fairs during the World’s ity of Fair World’s interwar period. esti- Rydell W. historian Robert mates that a total of 100 mil- Americans attended the lion 1933–1934 Chicago Century of the 1935– Progress Exposition, 1936 San Diego California the 1936 Pacific Exposition, Centennial Dallas Texas the 1936–1937 Exposition, Cleveland Great Lakes the 1939–1940 Exposition, San Francisco Golden Gate and the International Exposition, World’s 1939–1940 New York In addition to those who Fair. Americans watched footage from he estimates that 220 million attended these fairs in person, Rydell disseminated throughout the country (1993:1). these fairs on the 236 newsreels that were they pro- argues that the proliferation and success of these fairs was due in large part to how vided a beacon of hope for the future in the wake of the Great Depression. fears of Not only did these fairs display industrial and technological exhibits to assuage the this material abundance with the new construction of they also promoted the national public, ­futuristic buildings exclusively for white, working- and middle-class citizens. citizens. working- and middle-class exclusively for white, Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00676 by guest on 23 September 2021 Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00676 by guest on 23September 2021 (Photo by Arie Van of Paul courtesy Dort; Van Dort) the 1939 New York World’s Fair after Billy Rose was forced to remove his name lest Figure 5. 126 Yasmine Marie Jahanmir Aquacade’s popularity detract from the other New York State exhibits. Aquacade sign towering above the New York State Building at the French Riviera, andintypicalBillyRose fashion, thelastscenewas setat “the Aquacade,” posi fested iconiccoastal landscapes, bothpastand present:Miami, Coney Islandcirca1905, the past. Rosecapturedthis idea beautifullyinhisshow. The scenesinthe 1939Aquacademani ent abreakfromthepast, but rather aimedatshowcasingabetterfuturebuiltuponshared 2006:664–66). The messages ofhopethroughtechnologicalprogresswerenotintended topres- combat societalanxietycaused by theeconomicdepressionandimpendingwarfare(Duranti rian, acknowledgethestrange combinationofnostalgiaandutopiausedbythefairexhibits to with themesofnationalidentity. BothRydell andMarcoDuranti, another World’s Fairhisto- Rose’s Aquacade1939:7). and entertainment” (Billy theatre stage. ItisnowonderthattheAquacade’staglinewas “a masterpieceofmasonry, beauty, with built-inorchestraplatformsflankedacrescent-shapedpool thathuggedthemainamphi- Times 1939). Fairgroundpoliticsaside, theamphitheatrewas spectacular in amandatedsignchangeJune1939sothatitread: “New York State Aquacade” (NewYork who claimedthatthe Aquacade wasovershadowingtheNew York Stateexhibition, resulting as: cites it advertisements andinformationaboutBillyRose. The program’sdescriptionofthetheatre souvenir program, adetaileddescriptionofthebuildingconstructionwasonlyprecededby performance spacesimilarlyevokedfeelingsofgrandeurandabundance. Inthe1939Aquacade influenced thedesignwithAquacadeinmind(Gray1995). Roseneededtoensurethathis the New York StateMarine Amphitheatre asapermanentpublicstructure, Rosesignificantly est, mostwell-attended, andperhapsclosesttoRose’soriginalvision. Although thestatefunded In additiontocultivatingnationalpridethrougharchitecture, theshowalsoexplicitlydealt Aquacade 1939:7) outdoor theatreboaststhelargestseatingcapacityofanystructureatFair. (BillyRose’s inations ofthefertileRosemind. Popularlyreferredtoasthe Aquacade, thismammoth sions whenitwasplannedforhadtobeofvastproportionsaccommodatethemach- may wellbeaforerunnerofthetheatrefuture. There wasnoskimpingindimen- one oftheoutstandingcontributionsFairtopresentdayengineeringefforts. It Rose’s AquacadeattheNew Of thethreelocations,York theBilly World’s Fairwasthelarg-

Commissioner RobertMoses, months’ longbattlewithParks bold moveembroiledRoseina York StateBuilding(fig. 5). This which toweredovertheNew Rose’s Aquacade,”tising “Billy erecting agiantneonsignadver tage ofthiscentralpositionby the southeast. Rosetookadvan- the largeamusementdistrictto tal buildingsandexhibitions ing industrialandgovernmen- between thecentralmallfeatur theatre attheheartoffair “commanding location” ofthe in buildingthisspacewasthe gram, thesecondconsideration others. According tothepro- technologically superiortoall cal lightingthatmakethisspace capacity, andadvancesintheatri- describe thedimensions, gallon The programcontinuesto — two divingtowers - - - - Billy Rose’s Aquacade 127

in Cleveland, Cleveland, in Aquacade examining the horrify- the examining

—as a way to class up up class to way a —as Here Happen Can’t It and , Here Happen Can’t It , see Jan Jones (1999). (1999). Jones Jan see , Mañana Casa 13 Figure 6. Dancers portraying a generalized idea of fascism in the isolationist isolationist the in fascism of idea generalized a portraying Dancers 6. Figure 1937 the from Here,” Happen Can’t “It number, finale the for Library Public York New The Division, Theatre Rose (Billy OH. Arts) Performing — for a a for Capitalism of Overthrow the and Rational Fascism BlackshirtsReds: and - - after some controversy surrounding the 1936 version’s inclusion of burlesque burlesque of inclusion version’s 1936 the surrounding controversy some after Mañana Casa taken from the 12

Aquacades was in the show, and Casa Mañana show,

The title references Sinclair Lewis’s 1935 novel and 1936 play 1936 and novel 1935 Lewis’s Sinclair references title The See all their hopes come tumbling down; [...] The time has come for us to prepare AIR! On LAND and SEA and up in the If we can guard our own back yard, (Rose 1937?) HERE. IT JUST CAN’T HAPPEN OVER popular from scenes four included imaginaryan of consequences ing Rose president. American authoritarian Horizon, Lost Live, and Up Wake Wind, the With Gone novels— dancer Sally Rand and her Nude Ranch. For more on more For Ranch. Nude her and Rand Sally dancer A notable change between A notable change between of edition 1937 the of brink the on Europe in forces armed national various for nicknames the to reference a as this understand I for nickname a Brownshirts the Italy, Mussolini’s of regiment armed an Blackshirtswere The II. War World communist uprisings or army Bolshevik the to shirtscrimson the and reference a troopers, storm Nazi Germany’s Parenti’s Michael See generally. more paramilitaryfascist (1992). groups communist and history broader interwarof rise the of Europe’s Let cannon thunder over the sea, Let men be slaves who used to be free; but never fear Let Hell appear, (boom) IT CAN’T HAPPEN HERE! Let men in black and crimson and brown, The patriotic ditty emphasizes the cultural and spatial distance from Europe as a call for sepa- The patriotic ditty emphasizes the cultural were other while there Thus, 1930s across the sea. ration from what was occurring in the late the metonymic impact of the water makes this point patriotic displays occurring at this time, various of the The last song finale. “It Can’t Aquacade was called Happen Here,” 12. indirectly broached the growing The political tensions abroad. song lyrics repudiated involve- based on lumping them differentiation, us vs. ment in the war overseas through a simplistic a racially exclusive national identity:together all other countries in order to solidify 1937 13. tings. The 1940 edition changed 1940 edition changed The tings. (but not the song- the settings numbers) to more and-dance Aquacade specifically place the Fair legacy: The within World’s Fair World San Francisco’s Fair The Paris World’s (1915), Century of The Chicago (1925), and the Progress (1933–1934), Aquacade (1940). tioning his built space as some tioning his as much historical thing with previous three set import as the Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00676 by guest on 23 September 2021 Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00676 by guest on 23September 2021

128 Yasmine Marie Jahanmir rather asactiveparticipantsinthisspectacularcollectivenationalimage (fig. 7). Through theirathleticlabor, femaleperformerswerenotperceivedasdecorative objects, but but ratherthroughanabundanceofsymbolsperformedbyhundredsswimmersanddancers. terns. Nationalidentityinthisfinalewasnolongercreatedthroughdisassociationfromothers, mers splashedinthewateramidstbattleshipsand Aquabelles onsurfboardsfloatinginstarpat- woman wearingagigantic American flagdressthatcoveredtheentirestage. Meanwhile, swim- helmets andwomendrapedinflowingred, white, andbluegownsheldgiantstars, flankinga sage abouttheUnitedStatesidentity. MendressedasRomanesquewarriorswithlargecrested diers, andswimmerscreateabarrieraroundthewaterevokingprovocativepatrioticmes- “Yankee Doodle’sGonnaGoto Town Rose’s Aquacade1939:23).Again” Stars, (Billy stripes, sol- for thelaterversionsofAquacadefromanisolationistsongtoapatrioticsuperfinaleentitled, win thewar(fig. 6). Asthenationedgedclosertoengagingin WWII, Rosechangedthefinale the messagethatwehadartillerytechnologyandproductivecapabilitiestofight The symbolicdominationoverthewaterinfinalimageofAquacadehelpedsendhome particularly salient. “Our backyard” istheoceanandwemustbeabletoguardprotectit. Billy Rose Theatre Division, The New York Public Library for theArts) Performing of a prospering part nation. (Photo by Murraynecessary of the Murray courtesy Korman; estate. Korman NY. The central position of the splashy choreography established an active and public femininity as a Figure 7. “Yankee Doodle’s Gonna Go to Town Again” from the 1939 and 1940 entertainment. The focusonathleticismdiscouragedinterpretationsthatreducedthewomento Rose’s Aquacadeestablishedanaestheticlineageoffemininecollectivityinpopular ments ofBilly Through auniquecombinationofsportandperformance, thesynchronizedswimmingseg- Feminine, Feminist Formations Aquacades in Flushing, Billy Rose’s Aquacade 129 Australasian Drama Studies 63:33–51. Drama Australasian Figure 8: Beyoncé, “Formation,” 2016. A tilted “ballet leg.” The tactile connection connection tactile The leg.” “ballet tilted A 2016. “Formation,” Beyoncé, 8: Figure the of materialize relationship the choreography swimming synchronized the and Jahanmir) Marie Yasmine by screenshot 2016a; Beyoncé (From collective. - . Directed By Kahlil Joseph, Beyoncé Knowles Carter, Melina Matsoukas, Todd Todd Melina Matsoukas, Beyoncé Knowles Carter, Directed By Kahlil Joseph, Lemonade.

2016b. 2016b.

Cricket Team in Australia, 1907–1908.” 1907–1908.” in Australia, Cricket Team . New York: Library Publishers. Library York: New . Anderson Abercrombie Hugh by Written to and . /LrCHz1gwzTo New Carter. Mark Romanek; Produced by Beyoncé Knowles Åkerlund, Jonas Dikayl Rimmasch, Tourso, HBO On Demand. Good Company. York: Parkwood Entertainment and New York: The Great Lakes Exposition. OH: Fair. World’s New York NY: Fair. World’s New York NY: Golden Gate International Exposition. 3:28–43. 2:215–39. 59, Journal Theatre Berlin).” 1934 (9–16 December, Tanzfestspiele Deutsche London: Routledge. doi:10.2307/3178373. 2:343–68. Studies 19, Feminist Sport.” Women’s Homophobia in U.S. - The Rose brand of synchro References Art of Burlesque and the Fijian The Body’: Scanty Covering for the Chocolate “‘Very 2013. Nicole. Anae, Out Without My Rubbers: The Memoirs of John Murray Anderson As Told Told As Anderson Murray of John The Memoirs My Rubbers: Without Out 1954. Abercrombie. Hugh Anderson, 5 May:31. , Times New York “The Play.” 1939. Brooks. Atkinson, Synchronized NC: McFarland. Swimming: An American 2005. Jefferson, Dawn Pawson. History. Bean, https://youtu.be Accessed 6 February 2016. 6 February. YouTube, “Formation (Explicit).” 2016a. Beyoncé. Beyoncé. Cleveland, Arts. Library for the Performing Public York New Souvenir program. Billy 1937. Rose’s Aquacade. Flushing, Arts. Library for the Performing Public York New Souvenir program. Billy 1939. Rose’s Aquacade. Flushing, Arts. Public Library for the Performing York New Souvenir program. Billy 1940a. Rose’s Aquacade. CA: San Francisco, Personal collection of the author. Souvenir program. Billy 1940b. Rose’s Aquacade. New Hibernia 11, Review and Migration.” Gender, Games, The Gaelic Away: “Home and 2007. Sara. Brady, The “Ideology in Movement and a Movement in Ideology: 2007. Worthen. and Hana David J., Buch, Modern Dance. and Nation in Early “Race,” of Modernity, Alien Bodies: Representations 1998. Ramsay. Burt, and Lesbianism, Ballplayer: Mannishness, “Butch” to the “Muscle Moll” “From the 1993. Susan K. Cahn, rent femininity and strength, rent femininity and strength, swim- solidifying synchronized - ming as an abiding representa tion of the female collective’s when Thus, political potential. synchronized swimming aesthetics to she uses “get in formation,” to “ladies” Beyoncé calls for ath- agency of the feminine, for action that acknowledges the performative make a feminist call the impact of the political message beyond the letic performers while simultaneously extending of a mass formation theatrically realize the power of The synchronized movements individual. the collective as it is mobilized for change. nized swimming offered an nized swimming offered the the- enduring artistic legacy, concur atrical performance of objects while the self-conscious the self-conscious objects while untangled the form theatricality political valence from a specific that would deny the or control collective action on potential of performers. behalf of the Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00676 by guest on 23 September 2021 Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00676 by guest on 23September 2021

130 Yasmine Marie Jahanmir International OlympicCommittee. 2016. “Johnny Weissmuller.” Olympic.org. Accessed 1June2016. Great LakesExposition. 1937. SouvenirProgram. Cleveland, OH:GreatLakesExposition. Accessed Gray,Christopher. 1995. “Streetscapes/NewYorkOld Aquacade,Marine Amphitheater;At Things State Gori, Gigliola. 2004. ItalianFascism andtheFemale Body: Sport, submissive women andstrongmothers. London: Godard, Jean-Luc, dir. 1965. Alphaville. Lionsgate. Gibson, Emily, andBarbaraFirth. 2005. TheOriginalMillionDollarMermaid: The . Story Annette Kellerman Geertz, Clifford. 1972. “Deep Play:NotesontheBalineseCockfight.” Daedalus101, 1:1–37. Franko, Mark. 2002. The Work ofDance:Labor, Movement, andIdentityinthe1930s. Middletown, CT: Feder, Abigail M. 1994. “‘A RadiantSmilefromtheLovelyLady’:OverdeterminedFemininityin ‘Ladies’ Erdman, Andrew L. 2007. Blue Vaudeville: Sex, Morals andtheMassMarketing of Amuseument, 1895–1915. Duranti, Marco. 2006. “Utopia, Nostalgiaand World War atthe1939–40New York World’s Fair.” Crowell, Benedict, andRobertForrest Wilson. 1921. TheGiantHand:OurMobilizationandControlof Considine, Bob. 1939. “On thelinewithCONSIDINE.” Washington Post,12 August:13. Coleman, K.M. 1993. “Launching intoHistory: Aquatic Displaysinthe EarlyEmpire.” TheJournal of Clark, Danae. 1990. “Acting inHollywood’sBestInterest:Representationsof Actors’ LaborDuringthe Cahn, SusanK. 1994. ComingonStrong:GenderandSexualityin Twentieth-Century Women’s Sport. Mantle, Burns. 1937. “Letters BringMantleNewsofExpositions: Tell of Wonders toBeFoundBothat MacAloon, JohnJ. 1984. “Olympic Gamesandthe Theory ofSpectacleinModernSocieties.” InRite, Logan DailyNews. 1942. “Coming tothe Logan,” 9February:3. LeRoy, Mervyn, dir. 1952.. MillionDollarMermaid Burbank, CA: Warner Home Video, 2007. DVD. Larlham, Daniel. 2012. “On Empathy, Optimism, andBeautifulPlayattheFirst African World Cup.” Kracauer, Siegfried. (1927)1995. TheMassOrnament: Weimar Essays . Translatedby ThomasY. Levin. Kattwinkel, Susan. 2012. “The Tradition oftheEccentricBodyin Vaudeville: SubversionandPowerin Joo, RachaelMiyung. 2012. Transnational Sport:Gender, Media, andGlobalKorea. Durham, NC:Duke Jones, Jan. 1999. BillyRosePresents...Casa Mañana. Fort Worth: TCU Press. Hoyt, HarloweR. 1937. “Officials SumUpClevelandSuccess.” Billboard, 9October:45. www.olympic.org/johnny-weissmuller 2017.17 April http://www.ohiomemory.org/cdm/ref/collection/p267401coll32/id/3102. -t-going.html. /1995/05/28/realestate/streetscapes-new-york-state-marine-amphitheater-old-aquacade-things-aren Aren’t GoingSwimmingly.” NewYork Times, 28May. Accessed 20 April 2017. http://www.nytimes.com Routledge. Crows Nest, Australia: Allen &Unwin. Wesleyan UniversityPress. Figure Skating.” TDR38, 1(T141):62–78. Jefferson, NC: of Contemporary 41, History 4:663–83. andNaturalIndustry Resources, 1917–1918. NewHaven, CT: Yale UniversityPress. Roman Studies83:48–74. Recovery Administration.”National Cambridge, MA:HarvardUniversityPress. Dallas andCleveland Fairs.”Daily Tribune Chicago , 27June, Part 7:4. 241–75. Philadelphia:InstitutefortheStudyofHumanIssues. Drama, Festival, Spectacle:Rehearsals Toward a ofCulturalTheory Performance, editedbyJohnJ. MacAloon, TDR Cambridge, MA:Harvard UniversityPress. Performance.” University Press. 56, 1(T213):18–47. The Journal of American Drama and Theatre 24, 3:5–22. McFarland &Company. Journal ofFilm and Video 42, 4:3–19. . Journal Billy Rose’s Aquacade 131 . https://youtu.be/d-jCY15ufHg?list=PL8wpbHEcPhdc851dgPRcMzw0X3hyU9STI 1936. “Cleveland Opens Lakes Exhibition,” 28 June:30. “Cleveland Opens Lakes Exhibition,” 1936.

30, 3:262–73. International 30, Research Theatre 1918–1933.” Germany, the New York. Arts, Performing www.biography.com/news/inventor Accessed 14 June 2016. 14 July. , Biography a Splash.” -synchronized-swimming. of North Carolina Press. University Press. Public Library. York 4:616–38. European History 43, Central University Press. Press. York. New Public Library, York 1 September:65. 17 April 2017. 23, 1:5–19. 23, An InternationalJournal History: Film /en-in/news/photos/pomp-and-propaganda-in-north-korea/ss-BBy5KAf#image=51. VHS. New York Public Library for York New VHS. Swimming and Diving. Synchronized 1939–1941. dir. R., Lucia Wayne, Who Made Synchronized Swimming Woman “‘ModernThe Mermaid’: 2014. Whitney. Jordan Wei, Simon and Schuster. York: New The Million Dollar Mermaid. 1999. and Digby Diehl. Esther, Williams, Chapel Hill: University America. in A Social History of Swimming Pools Waters: Contested 2007. Jeff. Wiltse, NE: iUniverse. Lincoln, A Memoir, Again!: I’d Do It 2005. Austin. and Brie Harriet, Wright, Warstat, Matthias. 2005. “Community Building within a Festival Frame: Working-Class Celebrations in Working-Class “Community Building within a Festival Frame: 2005. Matthias. Warstat, Rose, Billy. 1937?. “It Can’t Happen Here.” Billy Rose Collection, Billy Rose Theatre Division, The New The Division, Theatre Billy Rose Billy Rose Collection, “It Can’t Happen Here.” 1937?. Billy. Rose, Simon and Schuster. York: New . and Words Women Wine, 1948. Billy. Rose, 1926–1936.” Aesthetics in Germany, and Spectacles, “Performing the Nation: Sports, 2010. Nadine. Rossol, Columbia York: New of spectacle. and the tradition Berkeley Busby Showstoppers: 1993. Martin. Rubin, Chicago: University of Chicago Expositions. The Century-of-Progress of Fairs: World 1993. W. Robert Rydell, London: Routledge. Theory. Performance (1988) 2003. Richard. Schechner, DVD. 2007. Video, Home Warner Bathing Beauty. 1944. dir. George, Sidney, Lexington: University Press of Kentucky. . Berkeley Art of Busby The Life and Buzz: 2010. Jeffrey. Spivak, New 27 March. Fair 1939 and 1940 Incorporated records. World’s York New Letter. 1939. Maxine. Umbra, Aqua Swimmers’ Squat Strike.” Bacon’s Orchid Dance is Storm Center at Cleve’s Expo “Faith 1937. . Variety Accessed 13 March. YouTube, s Fair.” World at the NY Aquacade Show The “1939 40 2014. Footage. War . 1939. “Drastic Changes in Signs Ordered,” 15 June:21. Signs Ordered,” “Drastic Changes in 1939. . Times New York NC: Duke Durham, on and off the Ice. and Pleasure Cash, Skates: Gender, Black Red Nails, 2012. Erica. Rand, . New York: Simon and Schuster. Simon and York: New Hart. of Lorenz The Life a Sail: Without A Ship 2013. Gary. Marmorstein, in early Hollywood.” and labour gender, extras, photoplay or the pickaxe: “The 2011. Denise. McKenna, Press. Boston: Beacon and the Problem of Masculinity. Sports at Play: Power 1992. A. Michael Messner, www.msn.com 2017. April 18 Accessed January. 10 in North Korea.” “Pomp and Propaganda 2017. MSN. Press. Arbor: UMI Research Ann . of Billy Rose Theatre The Moon”: “Only a Paper 1987. Stephen. Nelson, Times. New York Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/DRAM_a_00676 by guest on 23 September 2021