Collection of Master's Theses

Collection of Master’s theses Master’s of Collection March2012

and Geosciences and Faculty of Civil Engineering Engineering Civil of Faculty

Collection of Master’s Theses March 2012 +31(0) 15 27 85440 +31(0) 15 27 87966 Civil Geosciences Engineering and 1 Stevinweg 5048 PO Box 2600 GA Delft The Netherlands T F 2 | Master’s Theses March 2012 Master’s Theses Civil Engineering and Geosciences March 2012

Civil Engineering and Geosciences Stevinweg 1 PO Box 5048 NL 2600 GA Delft The Netherlands

Telephone: +31 (0)15 2784023 E-mail: [email protected] 2 | Master’s Theses March 2012 Table of Contents

Preface 7 What is the graduation book exactly? 9

Civil Engineering theses 11 Building Engineering 11

Connecting Modular Floating Structures 12 Student: M.J. Koekoek

Adaptibility of structures 13 Student: A.J. van Westenbrugge

Reinforcement Toolbox 14 Student: J. Lauppe

Timber stadium Engineering 15 Student: T. van den Boogaard

Medium rise timber buildings in the Netherlands 16 Student: S. van Egmond

Structural feasibility of a demountable football stadium 17 Student: M. Loosjes

Prestaties van thermisch comfort installaties in NL 18 Student: P.C.M. Zegers Structural Engineering 19

Vortex-induced vibrations of suspended floating pipelines 20 Student: N.E. Oikou

Torsion in ZIP bridge system 21 Student: E. van Vliet

Feasibility of using activated paper sludge recycled minerals 22 Student: M. Ahammout

Progressive collapse in design of bridges 23 Student: S. van Wijk

Interaction between plate and column buckling 24 Student: A. van Ham

Most cost effective connection between arches Blalobridge 25 Student: H.R. van der Land

Feasibility of Tall Timber Buildings 26 Student: S.G.C. Timmer

3 | Master’s Theses March 2012 Hydraulic Engineering 27

Primary dikes in Limburg 28 Student: L.M. Groendijk

Flooding and sediment management on the Koshi alluvial fan 29 Student: E.M. Hooning

Erosion in the tide-influenced Rhine-Meuse delta 30 Student: T. Smits

The Lagos coast 31 Student: K.M. van Bentum

Impact of re-surfacing groins on hydrodynamics and sediment transport 32 Student: A. Hendriks

Probabistic Modelling of Extreme Beach erosion using XBeach. 33 Student: M. Riesenkamp

Edge scour around an offshore wind turbine 34 Student: E. Simoons

Process-based modelling of morphological response to submerged breakwaters 35 Student: R.J. Vlijm

Dune erosion near sea walls 36 Student: B.B. de Vries

Flexible scour protection around cylindrical piles 37 Student: G. van Velzen

Pre-Posterior Bayesian Analysis 38 Student: S. Al-Baz

Baggerpluimen – Ecologische risicoanalyse 39 Student: J.H. Becker

The floating construction method 40 Student: R. Hendriksen

The feasibility of a commercial osmotic power plant 41 Student: R. Kleiterp

Differences between a 3 dimensional probabilistic and the traditional method of berthing structure design 42 Student: J. Kool

Risk to life due to Flooding in post-Katrina New Orleans 43 Student: A.L. Miller

Rip Current Characteristics at the Dutch Coast 44 Student: G. Winter

4 | Master’s Theses March 2012 Port of Rotterdam Anchorages Study 45 Student: S.B. Devillé

Sedimentation in the Botlek Harbour 46 Student: A. El Hamdi

Coal transport Kalimantan 47 Student: B.C. Joppe

Analyzing the hydraulic design for the new basin in the IJmuiden outer harbor 48 Student: P. Kaufmann

Pump jets in inland vessels 49 Student: J.R.C. Manaois

Optimizing the passage of fast ferry navigation at the Schellingwoude lock complex 50 Student: M.J. Rispens

Flexible Port Infrastructure on Maasvlakte 2 51 Student: R. Ros

Development Plan Dordrecht Seaports 52 Student: M.J. Verhage Geo-Engineering 53

Time dependent processes on passive loaded piles 54 Student: K. Siderius

Modelling and Effects of Rapid Impact Compaction 55 Student: J. Vink Watermanagement 57

Analytical Modeling of Salt Intrusion in the Kapuas Estuary 58 Student: F. Gevers Deynoot

Moisture Recycling and the effect of land-use change 59 Student: R. Nikoli

Memstill for wastewater: Effects of surfactants in the feed solution 60 Student: N.T.T. Hung

5 | Master’s Theses March 2012 Biofouling and organic micropollutants rejection 61 Student: N.T. Quach

Operationalization of SoilDTS 62 Student: J.H.A.M. Jansen

The world’s freshwater resources are threatened 63 Student: M. Hegnauer Transport & Planning 65

Study of evacuation behaviour during a flood 66 Student: S.L. Hek

Last year’s Theses 67

Master’s Theses October 2011 68

Master’s Theses June 2011 70

Master’s Theses February 2011 72

Master’s Theses October 2010 74

Research groups and professors within the faculty of Civil Engineering and Geosciences 76

6 | Master’s Theses March 2012 Preface

Every four months we publish a collection of abstracts of the theses produced by our recent Master’s graduates. In this collection you will find the theses of students who graduated in March 2012.

We train our students to be more than just communi- cators of theoretical knowledge. We also teach them to be critical, make thorough problem analyses and take account of social contexts. We are convinced that a combination of theoretical knowledge and practical skills is needed to find effective solutions for social problems.

The graduation project and associated thesis form the culmination of our students’ degree programme. In their graduation projects they examine a concrete problem and are required to employ all the knowledge they have gained during the previous years. By successfully completing this last step they have proven that they deserve to carry the title of Master of Science and that they are ready for the challenges of professional practice.

In an age when the role and qualities of engineers are subject to more and more critical scrutiny, our graduates are still being welcomed with open arms by the labour market. They disperse to find jobs in various industries and most of them are offered work almost straight after their graduation. I see this as proof that a demand exists for the knowledge and skills of our graduates.

So it is with pride that I present you with this collection of thesis abstracts. They demonstrate the high level that our graduates have attained and the breadth of the subject matter they have mastered. I would like to thank all those colleagues who contributed to this work with such energy and commitment.

I wish our graduates every success with their careers and I trust that they will be just as enterprising in their future roles as they were during their studies. I hope that they continue to learn and create and keep testing the boundaries of the civil engineering industry.

Professor B.M. Geerken Dean of the Faculty of Civil Engineering and Geosciences

7 | Master’s Theses March 2012 8 | Master’s Theses March 2012 What is the graduation book exactly?

“Master’s Theses March” contains summaries of the theses The aim of the book produced by various students who obtained a Master of The main purpose of publishing these Master’s theses Science degree at the Delft University of Technology. is to ensure that the outside world is better informed The students in question graduated in “Civil Engi- about the research that is carried out at the Faculty neering”. of Civil Engineering and Geosciences. It is also hoped that this book will enhance communication with profes- The purpose of this publication is to inform professionals working in this field, and help them to become sionals working in these fields about recent develop- better informed about the capacities of current gradu- ments in teaching and research at the Faculty of Civil ates. Engineering and Geosciences. In many cases, the subject of the Master’s thesis is based on a request Further details from professionals working in the field in question. In Contact the department in question if you require other cases, such individuals will collaborate in the real- further details about one or more of the published isation of a Master’s thesis. Alternatively, the thesis may summaries (the phone number is given at the end of be part of a wider research project within the depart- each summary). A small charge is sometimes levied to ment itself. The primary goal of the Master’s thesis is cover the costs of printing and posting a thesis. It is not to round-off a student’s course of study at the TU, and always possible for us to send complete theses. If you to enable them to graduate as a Master of Science. As so wish, you can also make an appointment to view a the regulations stand, this requires an investment of 22 particular thesis. to 26 weeks of study. The summary of every completed thesis is published in “Master’s Theses March 2012”, Department of Education & Student Affairs whether they are merely average or truly outstanding. 015-27 81199 / 81765

The book’s layout Department of Marketing & Communication The summaries of the various theses are published per 015-27 84023 Master’s programme and specialisation: Further information: •• The Civil Engineering Master’s programme has six Delft University of Technology specialisations: Faculty of CEG, Department of Communications •• Structural Engineering PO Box 5048 •• Building Engineering 2600 GA Delft •• Hydraulic Engineering The Netherlands •• Geo Engineering •• Water Management •• Transport & Planning

All of the summaries have a similar layout. Email the department in question if you require further details about a specific thesis (the email address is given at the end of each summary).

The section containing the new summaries is followed by a comprehensive list of those produced last year. The layout of these summaries reflects that of the previous publications.

A Master’s programme spans several different depart- ments, each of which corresponds to a specialisation within the programme in question. At the end of this book is a comprehensive list of specialisations, which includes the names of their respective professors.

9 | Master’s Theses March 2012 10 | Master’s Theses March 2012 1.

Civil Engineering theses Building Engineering 1 Building Engineering

Connecting Modular Floating Structures A General Survey and Structural Design of a Modular Pavilion

Introduction largest self weight by far, so these are the main deter- The changing climate results in increasing water prob- mining factors of the draught of 0,88m. lematics for the Netherlands; too much water at one The normative waves resulted in internal forces which moment and water shortage at another. An answer to are in the same range as the internal forces by imposed these water problematics is water storage, which could loads. It is not necessary to decrease the internal forces be realised with more surface water. However, more by movement allowing connections, thus the connec- space for water conflicts with other area-claims. tions between the beams can be executed as rigid Building on water is an answer to this conflict of interests. connections. This one of the reasons why building on water has taken a flight in the Netherlands. The expectation is that building Designed connection on water will increase further, as there are already plans The designed connection between the floating bodies for living quarters existing of floating structures. consists of the following: However, the experience with building on water is still Trapezoidal ridges, for self alignment and shear forces limited and new floating projects counter multiple prob- A vertical steel pen with a wedge shaped point, for the lems. tension connection at the bottom side. This pen will be Connections in between floating structures are for the easily to insert and to fix from the top of the floating Dutch construction industry still a rather unmapped terri- bodies. tory. In this thesis a general survey is done on building A longitudinal bolt as tension connector on the top side on water with all relevant issues. Connections have been and for pre-stressing the connection. researched more elaborately. With a case study of a Elastic material in between, for amongst others floating pavilion this knowledge has been applied. preventing small relative movement (which will exist by allowing deviations) and for impact damping. Case study floating pavilion The floating pavilion, with dimensions of 24x46 metres, has already been constructed, but it has been constructed in one piece. In this thesis a structural design has been made for a modular pavilion, in a way the separate spheres should be switchable and remov- able.

A combination of EPS and a concrete framework has been found the best floating system for the pavilion, since this results in an unsinkable and light floating body with a low draught. It appears that the concrete beams and floor of the floating body result in the

This design has resulted in a connection easy in execution, since it provides self alignment and only actions from the top are needed. The connection does allow tolerances but will still provide a very rigid connection, since it can be tightened.

Student: M.J. Koekoek Thesis Committee: Prof.dipl.ing. J.N.J.A. Vambersky, Ir. W.J.M. Peperkamp, Ir. K.C. Terwel, Ir. W.F. Molenaar, Ir. B. Hofmans-Karatay

For further information, please contact the section of Building Engineering tel. 015 - 27 83990 Email: [email protected]

12 | Master’s Theses March 2012 1 Building Engineering

Adaptibility of structures Optimization of the use of materials in new, adaptable and sustainable structures

Due to growing environmental problems on our earth, the relevance Within the context of the case study the use of an (steel or timber) of an optimized use of materials within the building industry becomes adaptable bearing structure results in a lower environmental impact increasingly relevant. However, building structures are often not per square meter compared to the concrete flexible and steel, timber designed for changes to allow such material optimizations or other and concrete traditional building structures. Between the adapt- desired structural changes. In flexible structures the use of materials able bearing structures the timber (laminated redwood) adaptable is not optimized due to the over-dimensioned structure, resulting in a structure performs best environmentally. It should be pointed out surplus of material in the structure. that when using timber in the adaptable structure, sustainably grown Adaptable bearing structures could overcome the limits of the tradi- timber should be used. If standard grown timber would be applied the tional structures and surplus of materials of flexible structures, in that steel adaptable structure environmentally performs better than the adaptable structures could be changed to the likings of the user and timber adaptable structure (see figures 1 to 3). in addition allow the optimization of the amount of used material to comply with the desired structural changes. Inspired by the concept Overall, it can be concluded that within the context of the case study of ‘Trias Materia’ and the Cradle to Cradle philosophy, a research is an adaptable structure would be more sustainable to apply, regarding done to ‘adaptability of building structures’. the use of material, compared to a flexible or traditional structure. The amount of material can be optimized in an adaptable structure Within this MSc thesis different building-structure models are gath- and in addition the adaptable structure is the only type of structure ered and the variable quantities in and around building structures to ‘evolve’ into different building volumes without a surplus of used are analysed, subsequently the most relevant changes in society that materials. The elements and components used in an adaptable struc- impact buildings and building structures are examined. Currently ture are available for reuse elsewhere when becoming obsolete in a frequently occurring desired changes to buildings include an altera- structure. tion of the building volume or a change of function within a building volume.

Although currently lots of office buildings experience the limits of static building structures, the solution sought within this thesis is only relevant for the future since a new adaptable structure is designed. In the future educational buildings could very well suffer the same fate as the current office buildings. A solution might be to design Figure 1: The environmental costs per m2 for different types of struc- the contemporary educational buildings with an open vision towards tures in case of a scenario without any structural changes. the future; incorporating lots of scenarios without using a surplus of Figure 2: The environmental costs per m2 for different types of struc- building material, using an adaptable structure. tures in case of a scenario with a contracting building size.

The educational building of the ‘Haagse Hogeschool Delft’ is used as a case study for the design of adaptable bearing structures that can change in time, following various scenarios while maintaining an optimized use of the amount of material in time. The adaptable structures are designed to be ‘changeable’ in the bearing capacity of structural members within the adaptable structure; optimizing the structure to the circumstance it finds itself in. Subsequently the adaptable Figure 3: The environmental costs per m2 for different types of struc- structures are compared to flexible and traditional structures in the tures in case of a scenario with an expanding building size. similar context of the ‘Haagse Hogeschool Delft’, to investigate any differences in the material related environmental impact caused by the application of any of these types of structures.

Student: A.J. van Westenbrugge Thesis Committee: Prof.dr.ir. E.M. Haas, Ir. S. Pasterkamp, Ir. S. Van Dijk, Ir. T.J.J. Huijsmans

For further information, please contact the section of Building Engineering tel. 015 - 27 83990 Email: [email protected]

13 | Master’s Theses March 2012 1 Building Engineering

Reinforcement Toolbox A Parametric Reinforcement Modelling Tool for Curved Surface Structures

Recent years have witnessed the realization of multiple concrete curved surface structures. The often complex geometry of these structures led to new challenges in the final design and production phase: design of the reinforcement is one of these challenges. Current reinforcement modelling software is not capable eted design process of reinforcement in curved surface of properly dealing with NURBS curves and surfaces. The structures. It builds on existing 3D modelling software, absence of proper reinforcement tools for curved surface Rhinoceros and Grasshopper, by adding custom compo- structures renders the structural engineer less effective in nents. designing the reinforcement. This can lead to missing out The Reinforcement Toolbox has been developed using on potential through ill-informed design decisions. Microsoft Visual Studio 2008 and written in C#. In accordance to the possibilities offered by this object The computational strategy proposed in this thesis oriented programming language, the Reinforcement provides a way of improving the design process of rein- Toolbox uses a collection of custom objects which can forcement in curved surface structures. It includes all be considered the building blocks of the Toolbox. For the necessary steps of raising an architectural curved surface first version of the Reinforcement Toolbox several compo- model to production level in terms of reinforcement. nents have been developed. Together they offer the Three design aspects have been distinguished: geomet- necessary functionality for a structural engineer or CAD rical control, structural analysis, and production. Corre- draftsman to design longitudinal reinforcement groups sponding to these design aspects, three concepts have and reinforcement meshes for curved surface structures. been developed: the SolidModel, FEM Analysis visualiza- tion and Rebar DNA which help to control them. A first version of the Reinforcement Toolbox has been developed and tested. It can be applied to both complex The developed curved surface structures as well as non-complex struc- Reinforcement tures, making it a widely applicable design tool. Users can Toolbox supports apply the Reinforcement Toolbox at their own discre- the strategy by tion within any given stage of the reinforcement process offering structural either to quickly research different reinforcement design engineers a tool alternatives, or use it to build extensive reinforcement which can be used models. The parametric reinforcement models are easily to control the adaptable to design changes, which makes them valuable design aspects throughout the entire reinforcement process. of reinforcement in curved surface structures. It sets out to help remove the current split between draftsman The Toolbox has been designed considering user friend- and structural engineer by offering a design environment liness, and freedom of use. The modular setup allows which offers the possibility to simultaneously model and users to combine components at their own discretion verify reinforcement for curved surface structures. allowing for the intended freedom when designing rein- Functional requirements which emerged from the forcement. It has been demonstrated to a group of struc- computational strategy formed important input for the tural engineers, who recognize the potential it can bring developed architecture of the Reinforcement Toolbox. to the reinforcement process, especially when its current Use cases helped to identify different scenarios in functionality and scope will be expanded. which the software application is likely to be used. The system architecture of the Reinforcement Toolbox has been developed with strong attention to the multifac-

Student: J. Lauppe Thesis Committee: Prof.dr.ir. J.G. Rots, Dr.ir. J.L. Coenders, Ir. H.R. Schipper, Ir. A. Borgart

For further information, please contact the section of Building Engineering tel. 015 - 27 83990 Email: [email protected]

14 | Master’s Theses March 2012 1 Building Engineering

Timber stadium Engineering A feasibility study

In recent years, various types of plate-like timber Evaluating the preliminary design phase, an expert on materials have been introduced to the building industry, construction technology posed questions on the erec- offering a wide range of new possibilities. Due to a lack tion of timber cores with the proposed dimensions. It of knowledge on these possibilities, in the Netherlands, has therefore been investigated what structural conse- the material is not used as often as could be expected. quences it holds when the core is divided in storey- high segments. It appeared that several measures are In this thesis, it is investigated whether it is feasible to required to transfer the acting stresses at the horizontal engineer a stadium structure that is composed of timber joints. A feasible solution is acquired by applying a elements to the utmost extent. The focus is on the combined system consisting of glued-in rods and shear structural system, the floors and the grandstands. As a plates. reference, use is made of the architectural design of the Euroborg stadium, which was designed and engineered Subsequently research has been performed on the by BAM Advies & Engineering in recent years. distinct connections that are present at the LVL core. Due to the limited dimensions of the LVL elements The first part of the thesis provides an introduction to (max 2.5 m), a large number of fasteners is required the most important aspects concerning the design and to obtain the required wall width of 5 m. The above is engineering of a stadium structure. In addition, refer- considered undesirable, wherefore it was investigated ence projects are discussed to provide insight in the whether the core walls could be compiled from CLT possibilities of timber as a structural material. elements, which are available in widths up to 4.8 m. Accounting for the results obtained, it was concluded Thereafter, there is elaborated on the preliminary that the structural behaviour of these elements is less design. Investigating several structural systems it is beneficial than for LVL, but that they do comply with all found that a timber core system proves to be most requirements. beneficial. Decisive factors are the excellent fitting to the architectural design and the ease of erection. As a final check, the core walls have been checked on The proposed cores have a height of 19.22 m and are buckling and their behaviour under fire conditions. compiled from 4 walls, having a width of 5 m each, It appeared that the proposed core complies with all which are made from LVL elements. requirements.

Analysing various floor products that are available on With regard to the research question it is concluded the market, timber hollow core elements called Lignatur that, from a structural point of view, a stadium of which appeared to be most beneficial to be implemented the structure is compiled from timber elements is a in the design. These span 14.4 m between the front feasible solution. The results as presented in this thesis and the back façades of the stadium structure and are are still preliminary, wherefore several recommenda- supported by glued laminated timber support beams. tions are made to improve the design.

When the grandstands are concerned, 4-tier elements made from LVL are introduced. Accounting for grandstand elements with an increased riser height the maximum span-width becomes 10.4 m, where vibrations are governing and under the condition that the grandstand support beams are infinitesimally stiff. Accounting for Glulam support beams, the maximum span-width decreases to a certain extent.

Student: T. van den Boogaard Thesis Committee: Prof.dr.ir. J.W.G. van de Kuilen, Ir. G.J.P. Ravenshorst, Ir. P.A. de Vries, Ir. S. Pasterkamp, Ir. V. Van der Wal

For further information, please contact the section of Building Engineering tel. 015 - 27 83990 Email: [email protected]

15 | Master’s Theses March 2012 1 Building Engineering

Medium rise timber buildings in the Netherlands

Introduction Building with timber is gaining in popularity throughout the world. Increasing environmental awareness and interesting new products from the timber industry provide a basis for new construction designs.

Due to the environmental advantages of timber construction, a worldwide interest in medium rise timber buildings is expected. A lot of research is conducted and pilot buildings are made in order to gain more insight in the performances and structural behaviour of medium rise timber buildings.

Problem definition Knowledge is also gained by studying three existing In the Netherlands, timber is rarely used as primary medium rise buildings comprising a CLT load bearing material in medium rise buildings. With only a few erected structure. The studies show the utmost importance of a medium rise timber buildings, the production of these good preparation and understanding of the material for buildings in the Netherlands is still very small compared to acquiring a high performance building. the total medium rise production. Conclusion Because of this, timber as a construction method is an The research proofs the technical feasibility of timber as uncommon choice for designers and contractors to make. a load bearing structure in Dutch medium rise buildings. This results in a little and slow growing experience with Buildings which are most suitable for a timber load bearing timber. Therefore this research examines the technical structure are buildings which have little deviations in the feasibility of timber as a load bearing structure in medium structure and where enough space is reserved for shear rise buildings based on Dutch design requirements. walls, like apartment buildings. Buildings where large open spaces are required, like office buildings, are less suitable Research for timber construction because it is more difficult to comply The use of timber as the main load bearing structure in with the stability requirements. Dutch medium rise buildings is examined by designing a 12 storey high hotel (Inntel hotel, Zaandam) using timber as the primary load bearing structure. The design of the structure is based on the massive timber construction, consisting of cross laminated timber (CLT) panels. CLT panels consist of several layers stacked on one another at right angles and glued together in a press over their entire surface area to obtain both wall and floor panels. The material is extremely strong and stiff considering its low density and is also quite easy to process and assemble with ordinary tools making the use of CLT in medium rise buildings very suitable.

Student: S. van Egmond Thesis Committee: Prof.dr.ir J.W.G. van de Kuilen, Ir. S. Pasterkamp, Ir. G.J.P. Ravenshorst, Ir. P.A. de Vries, Ir. W. van Winden

For further information, please contact the section of Building Engineering tel. 015 - 27 83990 Email: [email protected]

16 | Master’s Theses March 2012 1 Building Engineering

Structural feasibility of a demountable football stadium

During this master thesis, research is done on the struc- In addition to structural behaviour, research is done on tural feasibility of a demountable football stadium. the assembly, demountability and transportability of the To avoid derelict stadiums after one-off events such as stadium. Transportation limitations cause the stadium the World Cup or Olympic Games, a solution is found in to consist of many small elements that are designed the application of a demountable stadium that can be to create maximum uniformity. The order of assembly relocated once a year. is based on direct stability, together with shell and The goal of the research is to present a preliminary ring action providing stiffness during assembly. This is structural design of a demountable and transportable achieved by erecting the stadium layer by layer. (football) stadium based on the flying shell concept of Zwarts & Jansma Architects. The structural system is based on the principle of shell action. Within this principle, double curvature is a Based on ideal lines of sight and a limited viewing very important criterion to ensure structural stiffness. distance to the centre of the field a distinctive stadium Results of the models that are investigated showed a results with an undulating upper edge. The applicability lack of structural stiffness resulting in a low natural of shell action to create an efficient structural system to frequency of the total structure. This has major conse- the stadium is researched with the help of the method quences regarding the grandstand structure, as the of graphic statics. The 2D results of this study are load spectrum of dynamic crowd loads lies within the placed in a 3D context to examine the usefulness to the response frequency of the grandstand. Either natural stadium. frequencies should be increased, or severe measures should be taken regarding the increase of damping Based on these results, four configurations are exam- capacity, monitoring oscillations in the stadium or ined with the help of a computer model to check design for a dynamic amplification, to rectify this. hypotheses and to gain further insight to allow the design of a final model. A final model is chosen on the In order to increase the natural frequency of the basis of behaviour under loading, functionality, ease of stadium the stiffness needs to be increased. The most assembly and appearance. This final model is tested efficient way to do so with regards to shell action is on ultimate limit situations and serviceability limit state to increase (double) curvature. Tangential curvature situations. Dynamic behaviour happened to be a critical is based on ‘C’ values and preferably should not be issue that needed further research. Adjustments to the altered. Radial curvature is almost absent and needs to final model are made to improve the dynamic behaviour be increased. of the stadium. In the situation where natural frequency will not be increased, damping capacity should be increased dramatically by means of the application of dampers at connections or integrated into preassembled elements. The response of the stadium should be monitored and measures taken whenever predefined movements are exceeded.

Regarding finance, recurring and non-recurring costs are taken into account. The structural system should be proven to be feasible before financial implications are investigated in more detail.

Student: M. Loosjes Thesis Committee: Prof.ir. R. Nijsse, Ir. K.C. Terwel, Ir. A. Borgart, Ir. J. Arts, R.J. Torsing MSc., Dr.ir. R.D.J.M. Steenbergen

For further information, please contact the section of Building Engineering tel. 015 - 27 83990 Email: [email protected]

17 | Master’s Theses March 2012 1 Building Engineering

Prestaties van thermisch comfort installaties in NL

Heden ten dage zijn er onoverzichtelijk veel verschillende WTW kent echter minder energieverbruik, omdat deze ook klimaatinstallaties. Deze installaties geven vaak problemen bij aanwezigheid functioneert en dan ook tot 70% van de in verschillende fasen van het bouwproces, zo ook in warmte terugwint. de ontwerpfase. In dit werk is een selectie van meest Onderzoek naar gebruikerspatronen heeft opgeleverd dat voorkomende installaties in de woningbouw integraal het continue laten aanstaan van de verwarming in een goed onderzocht in haar omgeving om de thermische en geïsoleerd gebouw 10 tot 15 % meer energie kost. Het kost energetische prestaties vast te stellen. slechts 1% wanneer ook WTW wordt toegepast. Om deze installaties te kunnen onderzoeken is er voor Tenslotte blijkt voor de zomer van belang dat er warmere gekozen om zelf een computermodel op te zetten op zomers bestaan dan waar de normen nu rekening mee basis van de Eindige Elementen Methode, waarin zowel houden en die dus regelmatig overschreden worden. het bouwfysische als het installatietechnische onderdeel Verder blijkt het vermogen van koeling ontzettend van zijn gemodelleerd. Het model is iteratief in overleg met belang, omdat temperatuuroverschrijding vaak met grote bouwfysische en installatietechnische adviseurs tot stand warmtelasten gepaard gaat. Men moet tevoren preventief gekomen. Het model is gevalideerd met behulp van VABI, koelen om aan de normen te voldoen. Als het koelvermogen door handmatige nacalculaties, en door vergelijkingen met dan ook nog gering is, zoals bij een WP het geval is, is andere reeds voor handen zijnde referenties. het moment dat de WP aanvangt met koelen vaak al te laat. Daarbij blijkt elektrische koeling bij een hogere Resultaten setpoint (dus niet preventief) vergelijkbare energetische en Uit het computermodel blijkt dat de thermostaat van thermische prestaties te behalen als een WP-koeling. grote invloed is op het gewenste binnenklimaat. Veel thermostaten meten enkel de luchttemperatuur en Conclusies regelen de installaties dus niet op basis van de operatieve Een regeling op basis van de operatieve temperatuur kan 10 temperatuur. Hierdoor slaan luchtverwarmingsinstallaties tot 20% energie besparen bij veel verwarmingsinstallaties. te snel af, terwijl vloer- en wandverwarming te laat afslaat. Het verdient aandacht om regelingen door te ontwikkelen Bij een regeling op basis van de operatieve temperatuur en aan te passen. Elektrische installaties blijken een is de opwarming bij vloerverwarming nog steeds traag betere thermische prestatie te kunnen leveren voor de ten opzichte van radiatoren, terwijl (lokaal opgewekte) opwarming. In combinatie met aanwezigheidsdetectie wand- en luchtverwarming 15 tot 30% sneller verwarmt. kan het 10 tot 15% energie besparen te opzicht van Dit komt doordat de laatste twee de warmte direct andere verwarmingsinstallaties. Het is echter gunstiger om afgeven aan het vertrek, terwijl de ‘zware’ installaties continue te verwarmen met bijv. aardgas of zelfs een WP, in eerst een watervoerend pakket en andere massa moeten combinatie met WTW, gezien het primaire energieverbruik verwarmen. ‘Zware’ installaties kennen dan ook nog steeds van elektrische energie. Zo hoeft dan helemaal niet meer meer overshoot en energiegebruik als gevolg daarvan. opgewarmd te worden en dit kost slechts 1% meer energie. Luchtverwarming gebruikt meer energie, omdat deze een Voor koeling is er nog geen comfortabel alternatief voor ventilator gebruikt. Elektrische wandverwarming kent handen. Verder verdient het aanbeveling om andere vergelijkbare energetische prestaties als radiatoren. Een klimaatjaren als referentie te gebruiken. In een eventueel warmtepomp (WP) verbruikt de minste primaire energie, vervolgonderzoek kan luchtkwaliteit worden meegenomen maar kent zo een laag vermogen dat ze continue aan moet in het computermodel. staan voor een goede verwarming. Tevens hebben ventilatie-installaties als warmteterugwinning (WTW) en vraagsturing (VS) invloed op de opwarming en het energieverbruik. VS zorgt ervoor dat er voor dat er bij afwezigheid maar 10% warmte verloren gaat t.o.v. 30% bij WTW en warmt dus sneller op.

Student: P.C.M. Zegers Thesis Committee: Prof.dr.ir. A.A.J.F. van den Dobbelsteen, Ir. A.C. van der Linden, Ir. J.F.E. van der Vliet, ing. S.R. Kurvers, Ir. H.R. Schipper

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18 | Master’s Theses March 2012 2.

Civil Engineering theses Structural Engineering 2 Structural Engineering

Vortex-induced vibrations of suspended floating pipelines

The major changes that took place in the offshore industry during the last decade led to the need for design of suspended floating pipelines. Once installed the pipe may vibrate due to vortices that occur due to flows around it. These vortices induce the pipe vibrations, which are called vortex-induced vibrations (VIV) and may damage the pipeline and limit its fatigue life. These vibrations are considered as one of the most crucial threats for pipelines and their management is critical to the pipe design and operation.

Project objective The thesis is devoted to the development of appropriate models to describe vortex-induced vibrations of suspended floating pipelines. Main objectives of this thesis were:To study the phenomenological modelling of vortex-induced vibrations of an elastically mounted rigid cylinder in fluid In these lock-in ranges the in-line versus the cross-flow oscillation revealed flow. To develop an appropriate model that predicts the hydrodynamic a figure-eight pattern and the cross-flow oscillating frequency has been behaviour of a free spanning suspended floating pipeline. found to be equal to the vortex lift force oscillation frequency and equal to half the in-line vibrating frequency, as expected. At the lower band of Research reduced velocities the in-line versus the cross-flow oscillation were found In the first part of the thesis the vibrations of an elastically supported rigid to be crescent-shaped, while at the unlocked ranges it was not found to circular cylinder constrained to a stationary and uniform flow were studied. maintain a certain pattern. The boundary conditions have been found to Main goal of the modelling was the development of a model able to predict influence significantly the lock-in range, with the latter being longer in the measure-ments of free and forced vibration experiments. To this case of an elastically mounted pipe than in the simply supported cylinder. end, four different phenomenological models have been employ-ed. The Above a certain reduced velocity, the improved Ogink-Metrikine model models were analysed numerically in the time domain and the predicted predicted large oscillations in the in-line vibration, which has to be verified amplitudes and frequencies of the cross-flow oscillation were compared to experimentally. existing experimental data from free vibration tests. The vortex lift force coefficient has been analysed in two components, one with in phase with Conclusions and recommendations the body velocity and one in phase with the body acceleration and contour The comparison of the predictions of the different phenomenological plots have been created over a range of amplitudes and reduced velocities. models showed that the introduction of the fifth order model for the lift The obtained graphs have then been compared to contour plots of vortex force did not lead to significant improvement of the results compared to force coefficients that correspond to forced vibration experiments. In the the frequently used Van der Pol model. Further research in this direction is second part the vibrations of a free spanning suspended floating pipeline recommended and might lead to a simple one-oscillator model that could were studied. To this end a model that predicts coupled cross-flow – in-line efficiently describe both the upper and the lower branches of free vibration vibrations of a free spanning suspended floating pipeline was developed. experiments. The improved Ogink-Metrikine model was found to better For the vortex lift force acting on the pipe the models that have been describe the main characteristics of free vibration experiments over a wide shown to match better with free and forced vibration measurements of range of mass ratios. Moreover, it succeeded in describing the jump from elastically mounted rigid cylinders have be considered. The system has positive to negative values of the vortex lift force coefficient in phase with been solved in the time domain and model results were presented over a the body acceleration and the modelling of the width and height of the range of flow velocities considering different boundary conditions. region with negative vortex lift force coefficient in phase with the body velocity. The model successfully predicts two regions of negative values of Results vortex lift force coefficient in phase with the body velocity, separated by a In both systems of equations the frequency power spectra of the cross- small region values, just as in the experimental results. flow oscillation at the midpoint of the pipeline, showed that vibration occurs in well-defined frequency bands for certain reduced velocity ranges.

Student: N.E. Oikou Thesis Committee: Prof.dr. A.V. Metrikine, Dr.ir. W.T. van Horssen, Ir. H. Hendrikse, Ir. R.H.M. Ogink

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20 | Master’s Theses March 2012 2 Structural Engineering

Torsion in ZIP bridge system

In skew bridges torsion occurs. This leads to a substan- To be sure that the computer model is correct a calcu- tial amount of reinforcement stirrups. Kassahun Minalu lation of the principal stresses is carried out at the already did research to torsion in bridge decks with ultimate limit state. The stresses due to prestressing, different types of finite element models. The question own weight and the weight of the fresh poured concrete when torsion cracks will really occur is still unanswered. can be calculated by hand. The calculation of the force This question is the main subject of this research. distribution of the loads on the deck can be carried out using finite element methods. Scia Engineer (ortho- The focus of the research is on a skew bridge with a tropic plate model) and ATENA 3D (volume elements) skew angle of 45 degrees. The bridge is made using are used for this calculation. Especially the determina- the ZIP girders made by the company Spanbeton. In tion of the torsional moments from ATENA by using an that skew bridge the largest torsional moments will analysis of the rotations is interesting. This calculation occur. Beside that also a straight bridge is analysed, results in the torsional moments, bending moments en the torsional moments in a straight bridge are always shear forces acting on the ends of the girder. lower than in a skew one under the same loading. The loads of Eurocode 1991-2 are used. Two important load configurations governing for torsional moments and shear force are used: a configuration which is used in daily practice at Spanbeton and a configuration developed by Minalu.

An attempt is made to model the whole bridge including physically non-linear behaviour with the program ATENA 3D to analyse the torsion effects. With the current state-of-the-art modelling technology that appeared to be impossible. For that reason a simplified model is developed to simulate the stress state and cracking in one ZIP girder. It was concluded that it is important The main conclusion of this research is that in ulti- to use more quadratic elements over the thickness of mate limit state no cracking will occur in the end of the the web to obtain correct torsion shear stresses. From considered girder in the skew bridge. This means that the simplified model it is concluded that, despite some only the minimal shear reinforcement must be applied shortcomings, clearly a substantial length at the ends of and the full torsional stiffness can be used in finite the girder is uncracked. element calculations. A practical method to check this for other bridges using ZIP-girders is proposed.

Student: E. van Vliet Thesis Committee: Prof.dr.ir. J.C. Walraven, Dr.ir. C. van der Veen, Dr.ir. P.C.J. Hoogenboom, Ir. C. Quartel, Ir. L.J.M. Houben

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21 | Master’s Theses March 2012 2 Structural Engineering

Feasibility of using activated paper sludge recycled minerals As a partial cement replacement

Global warming, which is mainly caused by mankind with Both physical and chemical effects of Top-Crete on concrete the emissions of greenhouse gases, is nowadays one properties were studied experimentally. The results show of the major topics in the world. The reduction of these that the addition of Top-Crete leads to a decrease in greenhouse gas emissions has become a primary focus workability, setting time, bending strength, compressive of environmental organizations and the government in strength and calcium hydroxide content. The greater many countries. Since Portland cement production is water demand of Top-Crete is mainly attributed to its accompanied by a significant CO2 emission, which is a large specific surface area and high pozzolanic activity principle greenhouse gas, it is useful to look for ecological compared to that of fly ash and Portland cement. The alternatives of cement. results indicate that partial replacement of cement with Top-Crete decreases chemical shrinkage with 25% or The use of thermally activated paper sludge minerals more, particularly at higher replacement levels. It was also (Top-Crete) as ingredient for artificial building materials is observed that the replacement of Portland cement by 5% studied. By calcination and dehydration of paper sludge, Top-Crete substantially decreases the pore structure of which is a by-product of recycled paper waste, a non- the blended cement paste compared to that of the control toxic mineral with a highly pozzolanic activity is formed. paste. Besides the pozzolanic activity this mineral also shows hydraulic potential. The replacement of cement with these activated minerals (Top-Crete) is proposed to reduce the environmental burdens that are associated with the concrete productions and with the disposal of paper sludge waste. The main goal of this study was to examine the feasibility of Top-Crete (TC) as a partial replacement for cement, and especially as a leverage to use more supplementary cementing materials, such as fly ash.

Student: M. Ahammout Thesis Committee: Prof.dr.ir. K. van Breugel, Dr. G. Ye, Dr.ir. S.A.A.M. Fennis–Huijben, B.M. Piscaer, Ir. L.J.M. Houben

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22 | Master’s Theses March 2012 2 Structural Engineering

Progressive collapse in design of bridges

The Eurocode requires that a structure shall not be local damage and thus analysing the behaviour of struc- damaged to an extent disproportionate to the original tural systems. cause, but it provides no guidance at all for the design The efficiency of risk mitigation measures, such as of bridges. It leaves bridge engineers with questions providing specific local resistance and providing alterna- on the definition of disproportionate, on the maximum tive load paths, is evaluated by comparing the costs level of acceptable risk and on how to deal with mali- of a measure with the potential reduction of the risk cious attacks such as impact and explosions. of failure. The consequences of a bridge collapse may include a large number of fatalities, major social impact and high economic damage.

This report shows that the probability of a (progressive) collapse can best be calculated in two steps: the probability of component failure and the probability of system failure given component failure. These are coupled to consequences: direct risk is defined as the cumulative risk of all direct damage states (e.g. component failure) and total risk is defined as the cumulative risk of all total damage states. Distinguishing between the direct risk and the total risk makes it possible to indicate the sensitivity of a structure to local failure, by taking the economic consequences as a measure for the propor- Minneapolis, USA tionality between damage states. The robustness should be measured by selecting the disproportionate damage The main objective of this report is to present a general states and comparing the risk of disproportionate design approach for bridges, in order to efficiently damage to a norma-tive monetary value. The presented reduce the potential of progressive collapse. This has design approach has been implemented on a case- been done by carrying out an extensive literature study. It includes the modelling of a structure, failure study, creating a framework to describe the reliability mode analysis, risk analysis, design optimisation and a of structural systems and applying the framework in a calculation of robustness. case-study. Design requirements of many codes of practice are The main conclusion of this report is that potential mainly based on load and resistance models for struc- damage should be separated between direct damage tural elements. Every element of a structural system and indirect damage in a progressive collapse analysis. should be checked to have a lower probability of failure An engineer is then able to better understand the than prescribed. In addition, provisions are needed effects of risk mitigation measures on the reliability to specifically safeguard the reliability of the system, and robustness of a structural design. The presented among which is robustness. A robust structure is methodology can be used as a tool to evaluate risk defined as a structure that is able to withstand events mitigation measures and thereby efficiently reduce the like fire, explosions, impact or the consequences of potential of progressive collapse of bridges. However, human error, without being damaged to an extent further research is needed to validate the proposed disproportionate to the original cause. The design strat- robustness index and to account for dynamic effects in egies to increase robustness are local damage control the model. and spread of failure control. The latter involves the modelling of collapse scenarios from initial states of

Student: S. van Wijk Thesis Committee: Prof.ir. A.Q.C. van der Horst, Prof.drs.ir. J.K. Vrijling, Dr.ir. C. van der Veen, Ir. L. Groenewegen (BAM Infraconsult)

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23 | Master’s Theses March 2012 2 Structural Engineering

Interaction between plate and column buckling

Dimensioning and verification of steel structures is A design recommenda- often governed by the demands for stability and the tion has been done on plastic capacity of the material is not fully utilized. how to design a class 4 There are a few different forms of instability such as cross-section. It is not column buckling, lateral-torsional buckling and plate very efficient to include buckling. longitudinal stiffeners to the web for the effective Interaction of plate and column buckling has not been cross-section method. extensively studied before and that is the main goal of Only the effective area this master thesis. In present verification codes in The of the web is increased Netherlands it is allowed to separately calculate the which is in general small effects of both and then combine them in a certain way. and for bending moments Question is whether this is indeed correct. Analytical also close to the centre of calculations have been done on an I-shaped column gravity. to derive the theoretical buckling load combining the effects of plate and column buckling. A design tool is developed which checks a class 4 Also calculations have been done using a finite element cross-section according to method. For some types of cross-sections the results the verification regula- are significantly different compared to the verification tions in NEN-EN1993-1-5. regulations. This is for uneconomic cross-sections with The tool can check I a large area of the web compared to the area of the cross-sections as well as flange. The difference can be up to 20% of the bearing a box or a cross-section. capacity. In general a designer is free to design any sort Longitudinal stiffeners to of structure. After that the structure should be veri- the web, through decks fied for structural safety using the regulations. These and concrete toppings regulations should either provide the correct verification can be added. regulations or inform that a certain type of structure is outside the scope of the regulations. Neither is done in the current verification regulations. A formula is developed to calculate the reduced bearing capacity for this type of cross-sections.

Student: A. van Ham Thesis Committee: Prof.ir. F.S.K. Bijlaard, Ir. R. Abspoel, Dr.ir. P.C.J. Hoogenboom, Ir. J.H. Reusink, Ir. L.J.M. Houben

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24 | Master’s Theses March 2012 2 Structural Engineering

Most cost effective connection between arches Blalobridge

Introduction of these connections proved to have a large influ- Common practice for arch bridges is to use almost the ence on the calculation results. The next step was to same diameter for the connecting girders between design eight variants with a diameter varying between different arches as the diameter of the arches them- 610 mm and 193.7 mm and a wall thickness varying selves. There are different reasons for this, one of these between 25 mm and 8 mm. These variants have been reasons is that it saves calculation time because these checked according to the Eurocode standards regarding girders will not be the critical component of the bridge. maximum stresses and (local) stability. The result was some minimum cross sections that still passed the Problem definition checks of the Eurocode. The results of the check of The objective of this thesis is to design the most cost these variants are used to create sixteen more variants effective connection between the arches for the planned with a diameter of 323.9 mm and 298.5 mm and a wall arch bridge in Zwolle, the Blalobridge. In the design thickness varying between 25 mm and 7.1 mm. The all possible forces acting on the connection should be next step was to calculate the costs regarding the most taken into account. This design has to be compared favourable design variant and the reference variant to with the reference variant calculated by ARCADIS. be able to compare the results. A distinction can be made in costs concerning the purchasing of the material, the fabrication, conservation and maintenance. Besides these costs, costs will be made concerning transport, guidance and engineering.

Conclusion and recommendation A variant, with a connecting girder 298.5-16 at the end portals to ensure stability and connecting girders 298.5- 7.1 at the other positions to ensure a sufficient fatigue lifetime and static strength has been proven to be the most slender solution. The total costs of the reference connecting girders were about € 49,416 while the total costs of the most favourable design variant were about € 12,580 resulting in a reduction Research of cost of around € 36,836. Besides this small reduc- First, research has been done into the forces acting tion of building costs, the reduced connecting girders on the arch bridge, the mechanics of the arch bridge could also provide an aesthetic improvement because and the mechanics involved when using circular hollow of the lighter and more open structure. More research sections. This research resulted in an understanding of is recommended in out-of-plane buckling behaviour the mechanics of arch bridges, design rules regarding because of large differences between calculation the connection between connecting girders and arches methods. Besides this, more advantages could be and design rules regarding fatigue behaviour of achieved by reducing the arch diameter and/or using circular hollow section joints. Especially the connection another connection system between the arches. strength, connection stiffness and fatigue behaviour

Student: H.R. van der Land Thesis Committee: Prof.ir. F.S.K. Bijlaard, Prof.dr.ir. J. Wardenier, Dr.ir. M.A.N. Hendriks, Ing. H.M.F. Beertsen, Ir. L.J.M. Houben

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25 | Master’s Theses March 2012 2 Structural Engineering

Feasibility of Tall Timber Buildings

Advantages of timber as a building material are: small dead In the second part of the thesis these proposed solutions weight, good thermal characteristics and in some cases low are investigated. Four variants where created consisting of overall building costs. Nature has created large cantilever a set, corresponding to the geometry of the proposed types structures of 150 m high in the form of eucalyptus trees. of bracing and associated joint solution. Three-dimensional History shows furthermore manmade structures as timber models where created with finite element software of radio towers of 190 m high and wooden religious structures these variants. Of these models, parameters are modified of almost 1000 years old, towering 67 m in the air. The in order to investigate: the influence of the joint stiffness, most recent modern tall timber building is about 29 m the building core stiffness, and the support stiffness on the high, contains nine storeys, is located in London, UK, and is global behavior. The investigation on the global behavior called “the Murray Grove Tower”. What is discussed above of the systems focuses on the deflection at the top, the leads to the question: “What is the height limit for tall development of bending moments within members and the timber buildings”. To answer this question, the objective dynamical behavior. An optimisation of the cross sections of this thesis is twofold. The first objective is to determine of structural members was also conducted in order to the influence factors on the height of timber buildings. investigate the competition of feasibility between variants. The second objective is to create proof through analysis The fire behaviour of variants was determined for a of a case study design of at least 100 m high within a combination of structural solutions, fire safety concepts and determined set of boundary conditions. fire suppression measures.

A preliminary study was conducted to realise the first The deflection at the top of the timber building satisfies the objective. This preliminary study contains a problem limits of the building code for all variants. It was derived analysis in which the influence factors are determined and that the deflection at the top of the building is for 14% to a definition is found for tall timber buildings. The main 20% due to the joint stiffness, for 39% to 56% due to the influence factors are part of architectural requirements, stiffness of the cross laminated timber building core and for structural issues, fire safety and building physics. The 16% to 23% influenced by the stiffness of the foundation of influence factors are quantified to achieve the highest concrete bored piles. The results of the dynamical analysis potential. are strongly dependent on the used method. The dynamic behavior of some combinations of structural system and This deduction of influence factors resulted in a set of calculation method does not satisfy the requirement stated boundary conditions and proposed solutions. First a in the Dutch standard, NEN 6702. universal floor plan was designed as a starting point. A minimum wall-window ratio of 15% and a building It is concluded that a tall timber building structure of 112 m slenderness of 1:4 were set as architectural boundary high is possible on a fundamental level. Several structural conditions. The material applied to the load bearing systems can be applied in combination with an appropriate structure was chosen to consist of timber laminations fire concept. of strength class D70 which has a positive effect on the structural and fire characteristics. The proposed stability system consists of a braced tube-in-tube structure. The investigated types of bracing are the Diagid geometry, simple diagonal bracing and a solid timber shear wall bracing. To realize a fire safe design, relevant objectives are satisfied through the choice of a fire concept, in combination with fire suppression measures, resulting in compartment burn out.

Student: S.G.C. Timmer Thesis Committee: Prof.ir. R. Nijsse, Ir. G.J.P. Ravenshorst, Ir. K.C. Terwel

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26 | Master’s Theses March 2012 3.

Civil Engineering theses Hydraulic Engineering 3 Hydraulic Engineering

Primary dikes in Limburg

Overview differences Other differences between the primary In this study the differences between the primary dikes in Limburg and the rest of the dikes in Limburg and in the rest of the Netherlands are Netherlands mapped and the consequences a possible removal of In addition to the floodability requirement, doubt rises these differences are investigated. These differences about the remaining differences in the primary dikes are diffferences in: safety standard, determination in Limburg and the rest of the Netherlands. design water levels, wind set-up, floodability, freeboard, robust design, expandability, wave run-up and wave Hydraulic boundary conditions overtopping, hydraulic structures and pipelines. It is not required to keep to the old hydraulic conditions of the HR2001, because the primary dikes in Limburg Conclusions according to the ‘Maasmodellen 2020’ meet the water Formation of the differences levels of the ‘Bestuursovereenkomst 2010’ . Deter- Limburg has lower safety standards than the rest mining the recent conditions (TMR2006) will not cause of the Netherlands. This standard is not based on a adverse effects on the high water levels mentioned in detailed cost-benefit analysis and safety risk. the ‘Bestuursovereenkomst 2010’.

Limburg primary dikes Influence of actors The design height of the primary dikes in Limburg The informal reporting structure differs from the formal according to the ‘Bestuursovereenkomst 2010’ are reporting structure. The reporting structure also differs high enough based on an analysis using updated from the financial responsibility. Directoraat-Generaal assumptions. Water is financially not in the top of the hierarchy, but he has authority on the reports. Downstream effects The model simulations for the situation in 2020 does not result in a water level rise downstream in North- Brabant and Gelderland, not even if the safety standards in Limburg are increased up to 1 / 1250 per year.

Floodability requirement in Limburg Based on this study it can be concluded that maintaining the existing floodability requirement in Limburg is not necessary, because the water level downstream does not increase.

Student: L.M. Groendijk Thesis Committee: Prof.dr.ir. H. J. De Vriend, Dr.ir. E. Mosselman, Dr. J.H. Slinger, Ir. L Loomans, Ir. D.G. Meijer

For further information please contact the section Hydraulic Engineering, 015-2783348 Email: [email protected]

28 | Master’s Theses March 2012 3 Hydraulic Engineering

Flooding and sediment management on the Koshi alluvial fan

Introduction The braided channel pattern and The flood of the Koshi River in 2008 is the motive to measures applied execute this study. This flood is described as one of To be able to test the effectiveness of the recurrent enormous proportions, a disaster which severely influ- measure to manage the sediment, a 2DH-model of enced the life of hundred thousands of people in Nepal the Koshi River is developed. Before this measure can and millions of people in India. be tested, smaller scale hydrodynamic and morphodynamic processes of the Koshi have to be modelled Large scale morphological changes and explained. Firstly, an effort is made to model the This study investigates the natural aggradation of the braided plan form of the Koshi River. Furthermore, river system and the influence of the barrage on the different settings for important parameters are applied, river system. The occurring hydraulic and morphologic to determine the sensitivity of the model. After this, processes during the flood of 2008 and the influence of the narrowing of the river with recurrent measures this flood on the river system are studied as well. Since is tested; by the application of porcupines in certain reliable data about many aspects of the Koshi River are channels. Also narrowing with permanent structures is not available, it was decided to make a one-dimensional performed. The results can be seen as exploratory. model, to simulate the large scale morphological and Koshi, braided river, sediment, morphology, flooding hydrodynamic processes and in addition to gain insight in the one-dimensional processes, such as retrogressive erosion and the propagation speed, during the flood of 2008.

Promising measures Insight in the hydrodynamic and the morphological processes in the Koshi River are also of great importance for understanding the shifting behaviour of the river and to perform suitable measures. Closely related to this shifting behaviour is the high sediment load of the river. A key factor in the flooding problem approach is a strategy to deal with the sedimentation. This is a very challenging task due to the huge amounts of sediment and since the sediment is infertile, it has no utility. Only a small percentage is used as construction material. An exploration for possible technical solutions is performed. The most promising measure is the construction of sleeper dikes, to reduce the risk of flooding and narrowing the Koshi River with recurrent measures, to manage the sediment.

Student: E.M. Hooning Thesis Committee: Prof.dr.ir. H.J. de Vriend, Dr.ir. E. Mosselman, Dr.ir. C.J. Sloff, Dr. T.A. Boogaard, Ir. G.J. Klaassen

For further information please contact the section Hydraulic Engineering, 015-2783348 Email: [email protected]

29 | Master’s Theses March 2012 3 Hydraulic Engineering

Erosion in the tide-influenced Rhine-Meuse delta Erosion processes and bed level maintenance strategies

Due to the closure of the Haringvliet in 1970 as part for the whole Rhine-Meuse delta. The uncontrolled of the Delta works and the opening of the Beerdam character of this strategy can also cause navigation in 1997, the course of the tidal flow in the Rhine- nuisance. Meuse delta has changed. The tidal flow from and towards the Haringvliet is now completely taking place The other type of maintenance strategies considered is through the branches that connect the Haringvliet the reduction of erosive flow in the system. A situa- with the Nieuwe Maas and Nieuwe Waterweg. This tion where the Haringvliet gates are always opened, causes these branches to erode by the increase of the even during high tide, leads to a remarkable reduc- tidal prism. The erosion problems occur in the central tion in erosion. The scour holes still undergo erosion, parts of the Rhine-Meuse delta, which, amongst other but at a slower rate, and the erosion of the clay layer rivers, includes the rivers Spui, Oude Maas, Noord and decreases to a negligible amount. A combination of Dordtsche Kil. The presence of sand, clay and peat fixing scour holes and opening the Haringvliet gates is layers in the branches causes the erosion mechanism also considered, which solves the problem for long-term to be rather complex. The alternation of sand and erosion and the local scour, but comes at a high cost to clay layers in the area causes the erosion to be non- implement. Besides in the Oude Maas, the erosion in uniformly distributed, resulting in deep local scour the Spui branch is also alarmingly severe. In order to holes. The goal of this research is to determine an reduce erosion in this river branch, an option is to close adequate maintenance strategy for the problem area. it off. This causes the flow velocity in the Oude Maas In order to do so the erosion processes are modeled in to increase with approximately 10% and to reduce the an existing Delft3D model flow velocity in the river Spui by half.

In this study, the morphodynamics in a depth aver- It is strongly recommended to investigate the effects aged model, covering the Dordtsche Kil and a part of and possibilities of opening the Haringvliet sluices the Oude Maas, are calibrated in such a way that it further. Further research should also be done with the quantitatively fits the existing long term erosion trend extension of the Delft3D model to the Spui river, the and that the qualitative processes of scour in the model downstream part of the Oude Maas and the Noord. simulations comply with the erosion occurring in reality. Since the numerical model can become (even more) This is achieved by implementing multiple sediment extensive with the implementations of 3 more domains, layers simulating a bed topography where clay layers much more insight in the problems can be obtained with and local sand packages alternate. the interaction of the different eroding branches in a Delft3D model. Subsequently modeling a variety of possible maintenance strategies has shown that several effective strategies are possible to deal with the erosion problems. Two strategies are suggested regarding the shortage of sediment in the system. The best way to deal with the local scour problems is to prevent further scouring of existing holes by fixation with riprap. Continuous nourishment in scour holes prevents the holes from scouring any further and moreover provides a solution for the long-term problem due to the fact that out flowing sediment diffuses and spreads out over the whole length of the river. A disadvantage of this strategy is the future obligation of continuous maintenance and monitoring

Student: T. Smits Thesis Committee: Prof.dr.ir. H.J. de Vriend, Dr.ir. C.J. Sloff, Dr.ir. E. Mosselman, Dr. G.J. Weltje

For further information please contact the section Hydraulic Engineering, 015-2783348 Email: [email protected]

30 | Master’s Theses March 2012 3 Hydraulic Engineering

The Lagos coast Investigation of the long-term impact of Eko Atlantic City

Abstract the coastal system. As sediment is extracted from the The Lagos coast has been suffering high rates of longshore current, the volume of sediment bypassing erosion since the construction of three harbour moles, the East Mole is limited. Therefore, the downstream Bar i.e. the West Mole, East Mole and the Training Mole, Beach erodes, to provide for a sediment source for the between 1908 and 1912. The moles were constructed longshore sediment transport. to stabilize the harbour entrance channel, located at the tidal inlet connecting the Lagos Lagoon to the Future morphological development South Atlantic Ocean. West of the West Mole, which is updrift, the Lighthouse Beach is located and east of the East Mole the Bar Beach is positioned. The persistent, high-energy swell waves, propagating to the coast from a south-southwest direction, induce a mean eastward longshore sediment transport.

The Eko Atlantic City project Over the last fifty years, already a lot of erosion mitigation measures have been undertaken at the eroding Bar Beach, of which the most frequently applied one is the Further, using the numerical simulation model Unibest, performance of sediment nourishment on the beach. the long-term morphological impact of Eko Atlantic City However, none of the measures proved completely is investigated. It is concluded that the construction successful. So, to provide for a permanent erosion miti- of Eko Atlantic City will not change the total erosion gation measure and to create residential and commer- volumes occurring downstream of the inlet. However, cial area for circa 400,000 people, the Eko Atlantic City as the revetment of the project retains the coast, the project has been initiated in 2008 by the private project erosion will be shifted towards downstream. Downdrift developer South Energyx Nigeria Ltd. (SENL). In front of the project, the erosion rates are locally relatively of the eroded coast, approximately 9 km² of land will be high. Therefore, mitigation measures are recommended. reclaimed and protected by a revetment. Since at the Lagos coast already over fifty years nourishments have been performed, it will be a suitable Conceptual model option to apply a nourishment scheme in the future In this study the long-term and large-scale morpholog- as well. Also a monitoring strategy is recommended to ical behaviour of the Lagos coast is investigated. Subse- monitor the coastal development downstream of the quently, the long-term morphological impact of the Eko project and to instruct coastal protection management Atlantic City project is assessed. First, a conceptual actions to be implemented. model is created, in which the historical development of the coast is discussed. It is concluded that the long- term morphological behaviour of the coast downstream of the inlet is determined by two main factors: sediment accumulation at the West Mole and sediment import into the tidal inlet and the lagoon. The sediment import is induced by disturbance of the morphological equilibrium of both the tidal inlet and the lagoon, due to sea level rise and dredging activities. The sediment accumulation at the West Mole and the sediment import into the tidal inlet and the lagoon both function as a sink in

Student: K.M. van Bentum Thesis Committee: Prof.dr.ir. M.J.F. Stive, Dr.ir. M. van Ledden, Dr. J.E.A. Storms, Ir. C. Hoyng, Ir. A.P. Luijendijk

For further information please contact the section Hydraulic Engineering, 015-2783348 Email: [email protected]

31 | Master’s Theses March 2012 3 Hydraulic Engineering

Impact of re-surfacing groins on hydrodynamics and sediment transport Re-surfacing groins at the Delfland Coast

Due the coastal protection program along the Dutch Results coast, the groins that first defended the coast against From this follows that the groins do not affect the erosion, are now covered under sediment. Due to alongshore current velocity significantly when the erosion the covered groins will resurface however. The groins are relatively small, in the order of 50 meters objective of this study is to investigate the effect of the or less. The offshore directed currents are considered resurfacing groins on the hydrodynamics and sediment more dangerous and are present and increasing with transport. increasing groin length, although they are also small when groins are relatively small. When the groin length Modeling increases to 150 meters, both the longshore and the A schematized model is made to reduce effects due to offshore currents become significantly larger. In the a complex bathymetry and to get a clear view of the test case the increase in alongshore velocity is around occurring processes. Three profiles are schematized at 15% compared to small or no groins. The increase in a suitable location based on the 1990, 2009 and 2010 current velocity depends largely on the bathymetry and Jarkus transects. Also a test case is modeled with a the position of bars however. The sediment transports constant slope to get a view on the effect that groins decrease quite constantly with increasing groin length have on several hydrodynamic properties and trans- when the foreshore has a constant slope, in case of a ports. The effects due to the bathymetry and the groin profile with bars the decrease of transport may not be can now be separated. constant anymore. In the schematized cases the sand transport in 1990 with groins of 140 meter is in the order of 50% smaller than in the 2010 situation without groins. Scour holes can increase the offshore directed transports and velocities, but further research is needed here.

Student: A. Hendriks Thesis Committee: Prof.dr.ir. M.J.F. Stive, Ir. P.K. Tonnon, Ir. A.P. Luijendijk, Ir. M.A. de Schipper, Ir. P.B. Smit

For further information please contact the section Hydraulic Engineering, 015-2783348 Email: [email protected]

32 | Master’s Theses March 2012 3 Hydraulic Engineering

Probabistic Modelling of Extreme Beach erosion using XBeach.

Return Period of Erosion Volumes using XBeach and The long series (>30 year) of measurement data of 95% confidence interval based on 1000 *10 4 simula- erosion events at Narrabeen beach (NWS, Australia) tions (red line and red shaded area). Analysis done provides insight in erosion volumes and their return with measured storm-frequency of period 1976-2006. periods in this area. The aim of this study was to repli- Compared to JPM method using K& D (orange line) cate these data using XBeach in order to assess the with 95% confidence interval indicated by the orange validity of both the Joint Probability Model (JPM) and shaded area, and SBEACH (blue line) with 95% XBeach on beaches such as Narrabeen. confidence interval indicated by the blue shaded area In this study, a large number of different storms were (after Callaghan et al. 2008a end 2008b).The gray simulated using XBeach. The probability and thus return lines represent the 95% confidence interval of the period of the resulting erosion volumes were deter- data (Consecutive volumes method). mined using the JPM. XBeach was calibrated against two individual erosion When calibrated against the erosion volumes with low events, one at Narrabeen beach and one at Hasaki return periods (<2 year), XBeach slightly underpre- beach (Japan). The best fit for the Narrabeen beach, dicted the erosion volumes at higher return periods. obtained using a stationary mode, led to an overestima- Depending on the method of determining confidence tion of erosion volumes at lower return periods (< 3 levels, the results were outside or well within the year) but fell within the boundaries implied by a 95% confidence interval of the measurements. This could confidence interval of the measurement data for higher suggests that this method is a valid way to predict return periods. erosion volumes and their return periods, in cases where long term erosion volumes measurements are absent.

Student: M. Riesenkamp Thesis Committee: Prof.dr.ir M.J.F. Stive, Dr. R.W.M.R.J.B. Ranasinghe, Dr. P.H.J.A.M. van Gelder , Drs. F. Baart , Ir. C. den Heijer, Dr. D. Callaghan

For further information please contact the section Hydraulic Engineering, 015-2783348 Email: [email protected]

33 | Master’s Theses March 2012 3 Hydraulic Engineering

Edge scour around an offshore wind turbine

Wind energy has experienced an enormous growth in The research reveals that tidal asymmetry is of major the last years and is becoming more and more popular concern in the development of edge scour. Edge scour as an alternative for conventional power. Large growth develops mainly downstream of the wind turbine for the numbers are also expected for the coming years, for dominant tide. In addition, lee-wake vortices down- onshore as well as for offshore wind energy. stream the wind turbine play an important role in the The first offshore wind park in The Netherlands is formation of the edge scour holes. Offshore Wind park Egmond aan Zee (OWEZ). The performance of Delft3D-Flow is rather poor in this In order to reach the large growth numbers for the specific situation. A lack of resemblance between the offshore wind energy, some engineering challenges bed levels computed with Delft3D-Flow and the meas- need to be overcome. One of these challenges is the ured bed levels in OWEZ exists. Most likely this is due bed protection around the turbine foundations. to mediocre performance of the two-dimensional model Surveys of the bed levels around the wind turbine foun- with respect to the hydrodynamics in this specific situ- dations in OWEZ have shown that just beyond the scour ation. protection edge scour develops. This can cause damage to the electricity cables buried in the bed. A damaged In order to calculate the edge scour depth, the Edge electricity cable results in down time of the wind turbine Scour Prediction Model (ESPM) has been developed. and the wind turbines connected to it further in the This is a model based on mathematical relations of string. The required burial depth of the cables is there- development towards an equilibrium in time and empir- fore governed by the location and depth of the edge ical relations for the equilibrium edge scour depth and scour hole. characteristic timescale. Results of the Delft3D-Flow The present exploratory study revealed that more model are applied as input for the ESPM. The ESPM has research is needed to compute edge scour develop- proven to reproduce the edge scour depth as function ment correctly with the software package Delft3D-Flow. of time in OWEZ reasonably well. In addition, it can be However, even if the model results in Delft3D-Flow a valuable tool for a first impression of the edge scour would be perfect, considerable or even unacceptable depth in new designs at other locations. computational times need to be overcome. Therefore, a less time consuming method to calculate the edge scour depth would be very valuable. In order to develop such a method for calculating edge scour depth, the following objectives have been studied: 1. Gain insight in the hydrodynamic and morphodynamic processes around the foundation of an offshore wind turbine with bottom protection, focussing on edge scour. 2. Explore the possibilities of applying Delft3D-Flow for modelling the hydrodynamic and morphodynamic processes around the foundation of an offshore wind turbine with bottom protection, focussing on edge scour. 3. Develop a model to predict the depth and rate of edge scour around the foundation of an offshore wind turbine.

Student: E. Simoons Thesis Committee: Prof.dr.ir. M. J. F. Stive, Ir. H. J. Verhagen, Ir. M. L. A. Segeren, Ir. T. C. Raaijmakers, Ir. A. P. Luijendijk, Dr. Bai W.

For further information please contact the section Hydraulic Engineering, 015-2783348 Email: [email protected]

34 | Master’s Theses March 2012 3 Hydraulic Engineering

Process-based modelling of morphological response to submerged breakwaters

Submerged breakwaters (SBWs) are becoming increas- As a result, a computationally efficient depth-averaged ingly popular as alternative coastal defence system due Delft3D model is obtained, which is capable of simu- to the lack of impact on beach amenity and aesthetics lating SBW induced processes accurately compared to compared to common emerged beach protection meas- published literature. From the idealized simulations, ures. However, the recent significant amount of failing more insight is given in two distinct SBW induced SBWs resulting in additional shoreline erosion reported processes driving morphological response. These in [Ranasinghe and Turner 2006], indicates the impor- processes reducing nearshore water level set-up are tance of understanding the driving processes of salient the spatial distribution of wave forcing (commonly development before routinely adopting SBWs in prac- referred as wave sheltering effect) and the momentum tice. The main objective of this thesis is to gain more balance between wave forcing and bottom stresses insight into single shore-parallel detached SBW induced over the SBW. In addition to the parameters presented hydrodynamic processes driving morphological changes. in [Ranasinghe et al. 2010], the breakwater roughness and directional spreading of waves are important In order to study SBW induced hydrodynamic conditions parameters to take into account when constructing resulting in morphological response, a depth-averaged SBWs. Morphological simulations confirm the relation Delft3D model is used. By online coupling of Delft3D- between the hydrodynamic processes described and the FLOW and SWAN, the wave-current interaction is morphological response to SBWs. The ability of Delft3D accounted. To exclude site-specific conditions, an ideal- to simulate morphological response to SBWs, enables ized approach is used, including an alongshore uniform a powerful numerical tool for future studies on SBW beach profile and shore normal short wave forcing. For induced (morphological) processes. this idealized situation, a sensitivity analysis of numerical parameters is performed, as well as a validation on individual SBW induced processes based on published literature.

By examining the cross- and alongshore momentum balance for a variety of results from numerical simulations only changing alongshore length and offshore distance of the SBW, dominant SBW induced alongshore differences in water level and resulting currents are explained in detail. In addition, SBW design parameters are studied using the same momentum balances. Besides offshore distance, alongshore length of the SBW and directionality of the incoming waves, these include the crest width, crest height, incoming wave height and breakwater roughness. To confirm the findings from the hydrodynamic analysis as the important driving processes of SBW induced morphological changes, additional morphological simulations are included and morphological SBW induced response is compared to initial hydrodynamic conditions.

Student: R.J. Vlijm Thesis committee: Prof.dr.ir. M.J.F. Stive, Associate professor Dr. R. Ranasinghe, Ir. A.P.Luijendijk, Dr.ir. G.J. de Boer

For further information please contact the section Hydraulic Engineering, 015-2783348 Email: [email protected]

35 | Master’s Theses March 2012 3 Hydraulic Engineering

Dune erosion near sea walls XBeach validation

Storm impact on a dune-dike system aimed at 4 different connections between a dune and a During a storm dunes erode and provide sediment to structure. Two configurations of dunes and structures the beach. The foreshore rises and the wave height were investigated. Each configuration was tested with 2 decreases. Subsequently the wave-induced water level different wave periods Tp. The experiments proved the setup increases. Seawalls do not erode. The waves in development of additional erosion near structures. The front of the seawall remain high throughout the storm connections investigated in the experiments were: and the wave-induced water level setup hardly changes. The connection between a dike and an unprotected Over a dune-dike connection a water level gradient dune, drives a current which transports sediment from the The connection between a dike and a dune that is dunes to the seabed in front of the seawall. The loss of protected by a dune revetment, sediment to the dike causes the foreshore of dunes near A breach in a dike with a body of sand, the connection to rise slower resulting in more erosion. A breach in a dune revetment. Obliquely incident waves generate a longshore current which transports sediment along the shore. In front Model-data comparison of a seawall the velocity and transport capacity of the The measurements of the experiments are compared longshore current is limited. In a dune transect the the with XBeach predictions. In XBeach the erosion in a transport capacity of the longshore current is larger. dike breach is a function of the breach width and the Subsequently there is a longshore gradient in the trans- wave period. The erosion increases for a smaller breach port capacity in the transition zone. width. The breach erosion increases for an increasing The amount of additional erosion near structures wave period. XBeach underestimates the erosion depends on the angle of wave incidence w.r.t. the above the dune revetment. To erode the dunes above shore. Dunes situated downstream of the connection the revetment wave runup is an important process. experience a significant increases in erosion. Near the Currently XBeach only simulates long wave runup. The upstream connection sediment is deposited on the erosion in the revetment breach is predicted well. For seabed in front of the structure. Sediment will pile up experiments V1 & V3 with a wave period of Tp = 2.07 against the structure resulting in less erosion near the seconds the predictive capabilities of XBeach in dune connection. sections are very good. The performance of XBeach for experiments V2 & V4 with Tp = 1.55 seconds is rela- Experiments in the Delta Basin tively good. The influence of structures on dune erosion was inves- The peak frequency has a relatively large influence on tigated in a series of experiments. They were carried the amount of dune erosion predicted by XBeach. The out with normally incident long-crested waves and were effect of the wave period for 2DH models with a large depth scale (nd = 60) is not properly simulated by XBeach.

Student: B.B. de Vries Thesis Committee: Prof.dr.ir. M.J.F. Stive, Dr.ir. J.S.M. van Thiel de Vries, Dr.ir. A.R. van Dongeren, Ir. P.F.C. van Geer, Ir. P.B. Smit

For further information please contact the section Hydraulic Engineering, 015-2783348 Email: [email protected]

36 | Master’s Theses March 2012 3 Hydraulic Engineering

Flexible scour protection around cylindrical piles

This research focuses on the behaviour of a granular scour protection around piles when the bed is subjected to bed degradation. Furthermore, engineering guidelines are provided to account for bed degradation in the design of the initial scour protection. To address the behaviour of the protection, a physical model is used and to obtain the engineering guidelines, a theoretical approach is used which includes the phenomena that are observed during the physical model tests.

As stated by many authors [Breusers et al., 1991; The theoretical approach that is used to develop a Chiew, 2004; Melville et al., 2000], a granular scour design formula focuses on the side slopes, where the protection around a pile can fail due to several mecha- flow is parallel to the interface between stones and nisms. In clear-water conditions these mechanisms base material and the varying thickness of the protec- include shear failure, winnowing and edge scour and tion on the slope is mainly the result of a varying load in live-bed conditions two other mechanisms can be along the slope, introduced by the pile. added, namely bed degradation and bed form induced A balance between the volume of the initial protection failure. This research focuses the effect of the bed and the required volume of stones after bed degrada- degradation mechanism on the granular scour protection has led to the formulation of the internal slope tion around a pile. angle, γ. This angle describes the assumed linearly decreasing thickness along the slope, starting with a

Just like Van der Hoeven [2002] observed during his certain required thickness at the top, Df,A, to a thickness research on falling aprons, the stones spread evenly of only 1*df,50 at the bottom. over the front and side slopes of the mound, which form after undermining of the protection has led to the ‘falling’ of the edge stones of the protection. This coverage of stones on the slopes of the mound effectively rearmoured the slopes and prevented further erosion. At the back of the mound this rearmouring is not observed, because the high turbulence levels, introduced by both the mound and the pile, caused stones to become unstable in this area. Furthermore, at the front and side slopes, where the slope of the mound was totally covered by the stones of the protec- Because the hydraulic load decreases with increasing tion, the slope angles were constant and comparable distance from the pile and the thickness of the initial to the slope angles that Van der Hoeven found in his protection is based on the maximum load near the pile, research, namely 1:2,0. However, a remarkable differ- the assumption that Df,A is equal to the initial thick- ence between the observations of Van der Hoeven and ness of the protection, leads to a conservative design the observations of the current research, concerns formula. This approach is however taken in the devel- the layer thickness of the protection on the slope. Van opment of the simplified design formula, which results der Hoeven observed that the layer thickness after in a linear relation between the bed degradation and launching of the apron was only 1*df,50 thick, while the the extra extent of the initial protection that should be current observations show a decreasing layer thickness constructed to deal with that bed degradation. from the top of the slope to the toe of the mound.

Student: G. van Velzen Thesis Committee: Prof.dr.ir. W.S.J. Uijttewaal, Ir. H.J. Verhagen, Ir. H. J. Verheij, Ir. B. de Sonneville, Ir. K. Dorst

For further information please contact the section Hydraulic Engineering, 015-2783348 Email: [email protected]

37 | Master’s Theses March 2012 3 Hydraulic Engineering

Pre-Posterior Bayesian Analysis Applied to inspections of hydraulic structures

Existing structures are deteriorating. The deterioration depends on many factors, including workmanship, and therefore it is difficult to predict the exact deteriorating in time. By inspections it is possible to measure the deterioration and create a model with statistics and curve-fitting. Because of the high consequences C F of failure of hydraulic structures, it is important to keep the probability of failure P F low. This follows from the definition of risk:

Risk = PCFF× The method above is applied to the reinforcement bars in a concrete plate of a bridge. The effective diam-

Here is P F not the true probability of failure, because eter of the reinforcement bar is uncertain due to the presence of corrosion. Therefore the strength of the this is unknown, but it represents our perception about reinforcement bar is uncertain. With the present condi- the probability of failure. The probability of failure tions the risk can be to such a degree, that it is cost consists of aleatoric and epistemic uncertainties about efficient to inspect and/or maintain the bridge. The the resistance of and the load on the construction. The effective diameter can be determined by a destructive epistemic uncertainties can be reduced by inspections, and expensive method, of which a number of n can be so we will be more certain about the reliability, without executed. The total costs exist of the inspections costs changing the structure physically. A low probability of and the expected maintenance costs belonging to a failure for existing structures can be realized by inspec- number of n inspections. The optimal number of inspections and maintenance. With the inspection results one tions n follows from the minimization of the total costs. can determine the condition of the structure and the necessity for maintenance. But what determines the Because the inspection results are unknown before- necessity for inspection? hand, these results are treated as random variables, according to prior knowledge (the deterioration model). This is an interesting question when the inspections Then the cost optimal decision is chosen belonging to are destructive or very costly. When it comes to rela- a number of inspections n. This is possible because tively cheap inspections, this will also play an impor- we know that the diameter of the reinforcement bar is tant role, if they have to be executed a great number uncertain, and that this uncertainty can be reduced by of times. Especially if a lot of unnecessary inspections inspections. are executed. With the pre-posterior Bayesian analysis one can determine value of certain types and numbers of inspections beforehand. By weighing the value of inspection against the inspection costs, it is possible to develop an optimal inspection strategy.

Student: S. Al-Baz Thesis Committee: Prof.drs.ir. J.K. Vrijling, Prof.ir. A.C.W.M. Vrouwenvelder, Dr.ir. P.H.A.J.M van Gelder, Ir. A. Willems, Ir. W.D. van der Wiel

For further information please contact the section Hydraulic Engineering, 015-2783348 Email: [email protected]

38 | Master’s Theses March 2012 3 Hydraulic Engineering

Baggerpluimen – Ecologische risicoanalyse

Tegenwoordig worden ecologische effecten van bagger- van blootstelling, wat kan worden geïnterpreteerd als pluimen meestal gemanaged op basis van het ‘voorzorg- de `belasting’. Wanneer effecten en blootstelling zijn principe’. Voorspellingen van concentraties van gesus- ingeschat, moet het risico worden gekarakteriseerd. Er pendeerd sediment worden gemaakt en vergeleken zijn verschillende manieren om dit te doen, wat afhangt met grenzen die zijn gesteld door de verantwoordelijke van de behandeling van de onzekerheden. Een proba- autoriteit. Wanneer men zich niet houdt aan deze bilistische analyse neemt variatie in blootstelling- en grenzen, kan een project vertraging oplopen met extra effectschattingen mee en een deterministische analyse kosten als gevolg. Het voorzorgprincipe is echter vaag schat _e_en representatieve waarde voor blootstelling en incorrect, want het neemt de voordelen van een en vergelijkt dit met één representatieve dosis-effect baggerproject niet in beschouwing. De correcte vraag relatie. Een probabilistische aanpak maakt het mogelijk die moet worden gesteld is of een baggeractiviteit mag een faalkans te bepalen. Dit geeft betrouwbaarheidsin- worden gehinderd door een ecosysteem of dat een tervallen voor de verkregen resultaten en geeft hiaten ecosysteem mag worden gehinderd door een bagger- in kennis aan. Over het algemeen wordt aangenomen project. Om deze vraag te kunnen beantwoorden moet dat meer inzicht in kansen leidt tot een betere inschat- ecologisch risico worden geanalyseerd op een kwanti- ting van het risico. tatieve manier. Een geschikte methode om dit te doen is de Ecologische Risicoanalyse (ERA), die het voor een Wanneer deze methodes in de praktijk worden toege- risicomanager mogelijk maakt onzekerheden expliciet past, is het afhankelijk van de situatie ter plaatse te behandelen. Een ERA bestaat uit de beschrijving welke methode het meest geschikt is om het risico in te van het systeem en zijn componenten, identificatie van schatten. In de ontwerp- en planningfase van bagger- gevaren, analyse van effecten, analyse van blootstel- werken is een probabilistische analyse te verkiezen om ling, karakterisering van het risico en een evaluatie die nieuwe gebieden van onderzoek aan te wijzen of de leidt tot feedback voor een mogelijke nieuwe systeem- ontwikkeling van een monitorstrategie te ondersteunen. beschrijving. Het is echter duur qua rekenkracht om een Monte Carlo analyse uit te voeren om lange termijn-blootstelling te De analyse van effecten relateert de gesuspendeerd analyseren. Anderzijds, wanneer baggerwerken inmid- sediment concentratie en duur van blootstelling aan dels zijn begonnen, is een deterministische analyse het effect bij de gevoelige flora en fauna. Een grafische te verkiezen om snel een inschatting van het risico te weergave van deze relatie is een dosis-effect kromme, kunnen maken. Uitvoeringsmethoden kunnen in die fase die de weerstand van een soort weergeeft, ofwel de nog worden aangepast en mitigerende maatregelen `sterkte’. Veldwerk of laboratorium experimenten kunnen nog steeds worden genomen. Tot slot, voor moeten zorgen voor de ontwikkeling van dosis-effect een kwantitatieve analyse van ecologisch risico is het krommen voor belangrijke gevoelige natuur. De analyse noodzakelijk een probabilistische analyse uit te voeren. van blootstelling begint met de formulering van de Kosten en baten van een baggerproject kunnen dan baggerpluim bronterm. De complexe dynamische worden vastgesteld, wat een complete economische fase van de pluim wordt niet gemodelleerd, maar analyse en een transparant besluitvormingsproces meegenomen in de bronterm door middel van bepaalde mogelijk maakt. empirische relaties. De passieve fase wordt gemodelleerd door een hydrodynamisch en transportmodel, wat resulteert in een tijdreeks van gesuspendeerd sediment concentraties ter plaatse van gevoelige ora en fauna. Dit wordt vertaald in een concentratie en een duur

Student: J.H. Becker Thesis Committee: Prof.ir.drs. J.K. Vrijling, Dr.ir. G.J. de Boer, Dr.ir. P.H.A.J.M. van Gelder, Ir. C. den Heijer, Dr.ir. Z.B. Wang, Prof. C.F. Leung, Associate professor V.M. Babovic, Dr.ir. M. van Koningsveld

For further information please contact the section Hydraulic Engineering, 015-2783348 Email: [email protected]

39 | Master’s Theses March 2012 3 Hydraulic Engineering

The floating construction method

Parking problems in cities become more significant every day. Parking tariffs are going through the roof and parking spaces are limited. Therefore, cities are researching alternatives for parking on ground level and underground. One of these alternatives is parking underwater.

Amsterdam The parking garage One of these cities is Amsterdam. This city ranks The parking garage is constructed directly on top of the number 5 on the list of most expensive cities to park Flexbase floor. The parking garage has two floors and in Europe. To create more parking spaces, the city of 750 parking spaces. It is 129 meters long, 76 meters Amsterdam is researching the possibility of parking wide and 6,5 meters high. This does not include the garages underwater at several locations. One of these 2,05 meter thick Flexbase floor. When the garage is locations is the Oosterdok near the central train station. finished, it still floats and has a draught of 6,05 meters. A feasibility in 2009 study showed that a parking garage underwater with 350 parking spaces and constructed Immersing the parking garage with the traditional construction method is not finan- When the garage element is completed, it is immersed. cially feasible. [Oosterdok, 2009] Ballast tanks are placed inside the element and filled with water. When the element is at the desired depth The floating construction method and level, grout anchors are drilled through the floor This situation is used to determine whether or not a to keep the element immersed. The ballast tanks are new construction method could be the solution, namely emptied and the garage element is coupled to the the floating construction method. With this construc- entrances for cars and pedestrians. The entrances are tion method, the structure is constructed directly on constructed separately. the water. The base consist out of a floor of EPS and concrete. This floor floats and makes it possible to Conclusions construct the rest of the structure on top. This process The floating construction method is technically and is shown in the figure below. The advantage is the financially feasible for this situation. The floating fact that an expensive temporary construction pit isn’t construction method is approximately 11,5% cheaper needed, which normally forms 20 to 30% of the total than the traditional construction method. construction costs! When the benefits come exclusively from parking fees, the floating construction method becomes financially Flexbase floor feasible for this situation with hourly parking tariffs of The floating floor consist of the patented Flexbase €2,16. system and is shown in the figure below. It starts with This research shows that the floating construction constructing a 800mm thick EPS floor consisting of 4 method could be a better and cheaper alternative for layers of glass fibre reinforced EPS250. Directly on top traditional construction methods. of this EPS floor the concrete floor is poured. When this floor is hardened the formwork, consisting of EPS60 blocks, for the beam grid is placed. When the beam grid is poured and hardened, the second and last floor is constructed to end up with a floating sandwich structure.

Student: R. Hendriksen Thesis Committee: Prof.drs.ir. J.K. Vrijling, Ir. W.F. Molenaar, Ir. W.J.M Peperkamp, Ing. W.J. Schilder

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40 | Master’s Theses March 2012 3 Hydraulic Engineering

The feasibility of a commercial osmotic power plant

Osmotic power is a form of renewable energy which The research question is answered by conducting is currently not used at a commercial scale, but it multiple case studies with a varying capacity. By consid- might have the potential to be exploited in a sustain- ering the revenues and investments over the lifespan able manner in the near future. It uses the principle of the power plant, the energy unit rate of each power of osmosis, which is known for over a century and is plant is obtained. The general conclusion is that, with used since recent years for several membrane applica- the present technology and knowledge, the energy unit tions. The salinity gradient between fresh river water rate deviates too much from a marketable energy unit and salt sea water, separated by a membrane, causes rate. The high capital costs of the intake and outfall an osmotic flow which can be converted into electricity system and pre-treatment facility, and the low power by using one of the two types of osmotic power genera- plant efficiency ensure that a commercial osmotic tion, PRO or RED. power plant is not economically justified. The commercial exploitation of an osmotic power plant is therefore Interested parties have already concluded, by far from being feasible. However, when a number of conducting laboratory studies and operating pilot expected and recommended developments are consid- plants, that osmotic power is a promising source of ered, the energy unit rate will approach a marketable renewable energy in the future. An energy unit rate of value. The commercial exploitation of an osmotic power 8 cents/kWh should be possible for a commercial-scaled plant could therefore be feasible in the near future. power plant. However, what is lacking in these studies Though, the occurrence of these recommended devel- is the actual design of the osmotic power plant. Scaling opments seems to be an utopia. The answer to the up of an osmotic power plant to a commercial scale research question is therefore that the future commer- will have a major impact on the design of the main cial exploitation of osmotic power is not feasible. infrastructure. The question is whether a commercial osmotic power plant is feasible if the capital costs of the main infrastructure are included. Answering this question is the objective of this thesis.

Student: R. Kleiterp Thesis Committee: Prof.drs.ir. J.K. Vrijling, Ir. W.F. Molenaar, Dr.ir. J.H.G. Vreeburg,

For further information please contact the section Hydraulic Engineering, 015-2783348 Email: [email protected]

41 | Master’s Theses March 2012 3 Hydraulic Engineering

Differences between a 3 dimensional probabilistic and the traditional method of berthing structure design

Jetties are designed by the guidance of the deter- In this thesis only the berthing of the mooring point 2 ministic standards. These standards are based on (large sea vessel) is considered. First the question if the the standardized values of safety factors (semi-prob- developed 3 dimensional simulation technique is appli- abilistic) and use the load and the capacity of every cable answered and second whether the application of element as a standard value. The interaction of every the model leads to differences in capacity. separate element as a part of a whole is not taken in to The soil model developed in Scia-engineer has the account. The use of deterministic standards can result same behavior as in M-pile and the structure shows the in a design that is not economically optimal. A probabil- expected behavior according the rules of mechanics. In istic approach gives a better insight in the occurrence the model relating to the energy load the variables of of an unwanted events and leads to more insight of the length, width, depth, mass, angle of berthing and the optimizing of the structure. coordinates of impact are described as a stochastic. In the resistance of the structure the volume weight, The “Lyondell jetty” in the Europort in Rotterdam is internal angle of friction, cohesion, yielding stress and used as reference structure. This jetty is constructed in wall thickness of the tubular segments are described as 1997 and is in use by a manufacturer of chemical deriv- a stochastic. atives for all kinds of synthetic products. It concerns a continues berthing structure founded on piles and is From the results it appears that the loads occurs covered with fender wood, with a double deck jetty, only very locally. Consequently there appears an over that offers space to berth two large sea vessel and two capacity in the reference design relating to the length smaller barges. of all the piles and the diameter of the piles. The five most loaded piles in the structure are checked due to The failure of the berthing structure is a conditional the energy loading of the bow at Mooring Point 2. It chance for functioning of the jetty. The berthing struc- appeared that the diameter of these piles can have ture is submitted to further examination by means of a a smaller fitted diameter. In length a reduction of Monte Carlo simulation. Using the Monte Carlo simu- 9% is found. A trend can be distinguished that indi- lation a measure of failure of an event is expressed cates a large reduction of capacity in length over the in strength and resistance. In this study this event whole structure. The critical variable in the design is consists of reaching the yielding stress in the structure the velocity of the vessel. The critical element in the or the exceeding of a determined boundary of deforma- structure is the berthing beam self. The sensitivity tion during the berthing of a vessel. The energy loading analysis of strength indicates that the chance of failure is introduced with the equation of Saurin. The soil is in strength can be diminished by the strengthening of modelled as a spring and meets the requirements of the berthing beam and reducing the thickest wall thick- the Winkler model. In analysing the deformations of the ness’s of the piles. structure the soil needs to have elasto-plastic characteristics (p-y curves that were developed by Reese).

The actual structure that was designed with the Blum method, the design was recalculated, using help of p-y curves. This becomes the Kool model that is used for comparison with the results of the Monte Carlo simulation.

Student: J. Kool Thesis Committee: Prof.drs.ir. J.K. Vrijling, Prof.ir. A.Q.C. van der Horst, Dr.ir. J.G. de Gijt, Dr.ir. P.H.A.J.M. van Gelder, Ir. L. Groenewegen, Ir. D. Dudok van Heel

For further information please contact the section Hydraulic Engineering, 015-2783348 Email: [email protected]

42 | Master’s Theses March 2012 3 Hydraulic Engineering

Risk to life due to Flooding in post-Katrina New Orleans

After the catastrophic flooding of New Orleans due to Finally, the effect of various risk reduction measures on hurricane Katrina in the year 2005, the city’s hurricane the risk level is investigated. Strategies for which costs and protection system has been improved to provide protection risk reduction effects are discussed, including: elevated against storms with at least a 100 year return period. homes, improved evacuation and increased protection This thesis investigates the risk to life in the post-Katrina (relocation of population to higher areas). While decisions situation for the New Orleans metro bowl. The risk to life is regarding flood risk are complex and involve many factors evaluated through a ‘scenario’ based approach simulating such as perception and economic considerations, the results defined flood events. indicate the necessity of further discussion regarding the management and reduction of the city’s risk to flooding. Several scenarios are identified that could lead to flooding within the Metro Bowl and including the failure of hurricane protection or the river levees. The probability for each scenario is determined based on existing design guidelines and expert judgment. A two-dimensional hydrodynamic model is used to simulate flood characteristics and these outcomes are used as input for the loss of life estimate. In addition, the evacuation effectiveness has been considered. Results indicate that the estimated loss of life in case of flooding ranges from about 100 to nearly 500. The highest life loss value is found for breaching of the river levees.

The probability and consequence estimates are combined to evaluate the individual risk and societal risk for New Orleans. The individual risk (IR) refers the probability of an individual residing in a given area perishing as a consequence of flooding. The IR for large parts of New Orleans metro is larger than 1/100,000 per year. The evaluated risk is compared to risk levels that have been found to the risks of other large scale engineering systems (e.g. other flood prone areas in the US and other regions, dams and the nuclear sector) as well as existing criteria for evaluating acceptable levels of individual and societal risk. The evaluated risk determined in this study exceeds tolerable or acceptable risk criterion as discussed in literature and other industries. Despite the major improvements to the flood protection system, the societal flood risk of New Orleans is still expected to be significant at a national (US) scale.

Student: A.L. Miller Thesis Committee: Prof.drs.ir. J.K. Vrijling, dr.ir. O.A.C. Hoes, dr.ir. S.N. Jonkman, dr.ir. M. van Ledden

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43 | Master’s Theses March 2012 3 Hydraulic Engineering

Rip Current Characteristics at the Dutch Coast At the example of Egmond aan Zee

Background eters tested were channel width and depth. A reduction Rip currents are narrow, seaward directed flows in the of the hydrodynamic parameters along with simplifica- surf zone that can pose a serious threat to swimmers. tion of the model bathymetry allowed for identification This issue has received attention particularly on swell of the governing rip current parameters. dominated coasts (such as the US, Australia, France Sensitivity of Rip currents to Hydrodynamic and and UK) where numerous field experiments have been Geometric Parameters undertaken. However, the threat of rip currents is less The sensitivity analysis demonstrated that rip currents recognised on wind-sea dominated coasts such as the strengthen with increasing wave height, decreasing North Sea, even though a consistent number of swim- water depth over the updrift bar and increasing mers drift offshore (in rip currents) and require rescue channel depth. The influence of the wave period was of by surf lifeguards each year (for example at Egmond secondary importance and the wave angle did not affect aan Zee, The Netherlands). the offshore rip current velocity for site specific channel dimensions. The wave angle was observed to only have Field experiment an impact for relatively narrow channels (relative to the In August 2011, a five day field experiment was forcing). conducted at Egmond aan Zee. Lagrangian velocities in the surf zone were measured with drifter instru- Particularities of Rip Currents at the ments and human drifters that were tracked via GPS. Dutch Coast An extensive dataset of measurements was collected This study revealed similarities and differences of rip from which parameters that govern the strength of rip currents at the Dutch coast and rip currents at previous currents and affect their mean flow properties were field sites. The driving parameters of rip currents were identified. identical; however, the flow patterns differed. While in Three flow patterns were observed in the experi- previous field experiments drifters were predominantly ment: (1) a locally governed circulation cell, (2) a retained within the surf zone, most drifters at Egmond aan pattern in which the drifter initially floats offshore and Zee were ejected from the surf zone and did not return then is advected by a strong long-shore current and shoreward. Offshore of the channel the drifter behav- (3) a meandering longshore current. A variety of rip iour was governed by the tidal current that advected the current velocities were measured with the strongest drifters alongshore. In case of weak tidal currents (slack being approximately 0.6 m/s. A statistically significant water) the rip currents extended far offshore. correlation between the ratio of offshore wave height over water depth on the bar and rip current speeds was established from the data.

Numerical Modelling of Rip Currents A 2-dimensional hydrostatic XBeach model was validated against laboratory rip current experiments and field data from Egmond aan Zee. A sensitivity analysis was performed to test a range of hydrodynamic and geometric parameters. Various hydrodynamic scenarios of wave height, wave period, wave angle and tidal water level were tested to evaluate the influence on rip current initiation and mean flow properties. Addition- The picture shows GPS tracked drifters floating ally, the importance of wave and tidal driven longshore offshore in a rip current at Egmond aan Zee. The currents was investigated. The key geometric param- photo was taken by Prof.dr.ir. Dano Roelvink.

Student: G. Winter Thesis Committee: Prof.dr.ir. M.J.F. Stive, Dr.ir. J.S.M. van Thiel de Vries, Ir. M.A. de Schipper, Ir. R. Morelissen, Dr.ir. M. Zijlema

For further information please contact the section Hydraulic Engineering, 015-2783348 Email: [email protected]

44 | Master’s Theses March 2012 3 Hydraulic Engineering

Port of Rotterdam Anchorages Study An occupancy evaluation using Simulation

The Dutch part of the North Sea is one of the most inten- containing various types of vessels, each with its own sively used seas worldwide with some 110.000 shipping characteristic distribution of length, draught, origin, inter movements per year. Apart from international shipping arrival time and dwell time, of which the average dwell routes that run along the Dutch coast it contains busy time seems to depend on external economic indicators. shipping routes to and from the ports of Rotterdam, The occupancy within these anchorages at present is Antwerp, Zeebrugge, Amsterdam and Eemshaven/Delfzijl. low, with a maximum instantaneous occupancy of 44.7% Besides shipping, it has many other functions, such as oil of the anchorage located nearest to the port entrance and gas extraction, production of wind energy, fishing, in 2010. This suggests there is ample space available etc. All these functions take space and hence spatial plan- for more vessels to anchor, however, the capacity of an ning at sea involves lots of stakeholders with different anchorage is not 100%, but rather a range of occupan- and often conflicting interests. cies depending on the mix of arriving vessels, anchorage configuration (size and shape) and the vessels already Anchorages are required for smooth and safe shipping anchored in the anchorage. As the rejection of vessels and hence efficient port operations and are therefore occurs at high occupancies, the capacity of the anchorage an indispensible part of port logistics and infrastructure. needs to be sufficient to deal with peaks in occupancy. The Port of Rotterdam Authority, however, can only partially substantiate the claim of space for anchorages in the North Sea, introducing a risk of anchorages being neglected in planning policy on the North Sea, while due to increased shipping there may be a need for more (space for) anchorages. Using historical data of anchoring vessels a simula- Anchorages are used by vessels to wait for orders, tion model is constructed that correctly and accurately available mooring, tidal window, do repairs, etc. Within simulates the anchoring of vessels and the corre- an anchorage, a captain is free to choose its anchoring sponding decisions made by captains in choosing a position and drop its anchor on that location. The most specific anchorage and an anchoring position within the important aspect of the anchoring manoeuvre is that anchorage. The simulation model is versatile and can be the vessel has to be able to anchor heading into the used as a decision support tool for the Port of Rotterdam resultant of wind and current. Once anchored, the vessel Authority, to e.g. assess and compare different configura- ´occupies´ a circle in the anchorage with its anchor as tions of the anchorages, anchorage assignment rules and midpoint, as it has to be able to swing around its anchor anchoring algorithms can be tested. unhindered if wind and current change direction. The radius of this circle depends on the water depth in the With the simulation model the occupancies of the anchor- anchorage, the length of the vessel and a safety margin, ages for two future scenarios were evaluated. Although to allow for some anchor drag. increases up to 109.7% were seen (72% on average), the absolute occupancy levels remain acceptable, indicating In the offshore approach of the port of Rotterdam there that no anchorage capacity problem is expected in the are currently 9 anchorages in use. The Port of Rotterdam near future. If capacity shortage is expected though, the Authority does not assign vessels to a certain anchorage, testing of two anchoring capacity improving algorithms but merely gives recommendations, as a captain is free with the simulation model shows that the capacity can to anchor wherever he likes. Specific anchorages are be improved op to 14.3% when the WALLPACK algorithm mostly recommended based on origin and draught of the is used for allocating anchoring positions to incoming vessel. The anchorages in the offshore approaches of the vessels. Implementation of this in practice would require port of Rotterdam were visited by 8130 vessels in 2010, legislation and policy changes.

Student: S.B. Devillé Thesis Committee: Prof.ir. T. Vellinga, Dr.ir. W. Daamen, Ir. M. De Jong, J.W. Verkiel.

For further information please contact the section Hydraulic Engineering, 015-2783348 Email: [email protected]

45 | Master’s Theses March 2012 3 Hydraulic Engineering

Sedimentation in the Botlek Harbour A research into driving water exchange mechanisms.

Problem to the configuration of the CDW. While sometimes it Siltation of harbour basins and navigation channels is a would lower the exchange flow, at other cases it would serious problem in the port of Rotterdam as well in many even make the problem worse. The second solution was other harbours all over the world. Due to siltation, basins to make a gap in the Geulhaven dam. However this was and channels require frequent maintenance dredging to not a good solution as high exchange flows occurred. guarantee safe navigational depths. The costs associated The last proposed solution, the filling of the underwater with these dredging activities are quite high. dam, seemed more feasible as it would decrease the exchange flow according the numerical models. Costs To keep the channels and harbours in Rotterdam The research has first order results which can be used navigable, Rijkswaterstaat and the Port of Rotterdam in further studies. According to this results, certain are dredging approximately 15 million m3 of sediment solutions will decrease the exchange flows. On turn it a year. The dredging cost of the Botlek Harbour only is would very likely result in lower sedimentation rates in already about 3 million Euros a year. It is a task to keep the Botlek Area. It is expected that some CDW configu- the costs in the Port of Rotterdam as low as possible rations and the filling of the underwater dam would to compete with other ports. Reducing maintenance have a positive effect when it comes to sedimentation. dredging costs is in line with the goal of the Port of However, this research is the first step of an extensive Rotterdam to be the most competitive, innovative and study that must made to deal with the problem. sustainable port in the world. Recommendations Most sedimentation within the maintenance area of the First of all many things can be done to improve the Port of Rotterdam occurs in the Botlek. According data, models, for example by using a higher spatial reso- between 1.5 and 3 million m3/year is dredged in the lution. Secondly, other sets of conditions must be Botlek Harbour. Although the current dredging philos- modelled to see what kind of effect this has on ophy more or less works, the question arises whether exchange flows. In addition, sediment must be included there are solutions that are more cost-effective. in the models to have more insight on the sedimenta- However, the problem is so complex that it narrowed tion itself. The next step would be a feasibility study, down for the sake of research quality. including a cost benefit analysis. It would be wise to improve the models further and to make a scale model Research and results for the most feasible solution. In the ideal case, were all The main causes of siltation in general and specifi- steps are positive and hard conclusion can be made, it cally in the Botlek Area form an important part of the would be a good idea for the Port of Rotterdam to start study. Hydrodymical models (SIMONA & Delft3D), were a pilot. used to gain insight in the sedimentation problem. The focus in this thesis was more on the hydrodynamics. The exchange mechanisms between the river and Botlek Harbour were investigated, which were needed to examine the effectiveness of certain solutions. In practice a lot of solutions are proposed in literature, however in this study only a couple of ‘hard’ measures are investigated. The first possible solution that was examined was the use of a Current Deflecting Wall. It turned out that the hydrodynamics were very sensitive

Student: A. El Hamdi Thesis Committee: Prof.ir. T. Vellinga, A. Noordijk, Prof.dr.ir. H. Winterwerp, P. Taneja, Prof. Cheong Hin Fatt, Dr. M. Chui Ting Fong

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46 | Master’s Theses March 2012 3 Hydraulic Engineering

Coal transport Kalimantan

This master thesis focuses on the transportation of coal The current transport system consists of several cycles from two coalmines in South Kalimantan to the Java of barges, where full barges sail one way and empty sea. Coal has to be transported from the coal mine barges sail the other way back. Two different cycles area, situated hundred kilometre land inward, to a loca- have been investigated. A cycle with barge transport tion with sufficient water depth, at the mouth of the between two terminals and a cycle with barge transport river Barito. between a terminal and an anchorage for loading coal carriers. The objective of this master thesis is summarized in two research questions. What are the possibilities to Hydraulic transportation of coal is an unconventional transport coal from the mine hundred kilometre land transport mode. Hydraulic transportation of coal is very inward to a location with sufficient water depth to similar with the transportation of sand in the dredging load Cape-size coal carriers? Which of the alterna- industry. The coarse coal is first mixed with water and tives are most feasible from a technical and financial then transported through a pipeline by means of a point of view? number of centrifugal pumps in series. The main differences between a coal-water slurry and a sand-water slurry are the density of the particles and the average

particle size (dm50).

Sands consists mainly of quarts with a density of 2650 kg/m3, while coal has a density between 1100 kg/ m3 and 1500 kg/m3, depending on the quality and the origin of the coal. The particles are transported in water, therefor the relative density underwater determines the tendency of settling. The relative density is 1650 kg/m3 for sand, respectively 300 kg/m3 for coal particles. This means that the tendency of settling is around 5 times higher for sand than for coal.

The particle size of coal, when it is exported, is much The biggest challenge for the new transport system is larger than the average particle size of sand (between to increase the throughput capacity five times in five 63µm 2000µm). Larger particle sizes will increase the years. Three different transport modes have been inves- turbulent behaviour of the slurry. Different formulas tigated in this thesis. Those are; transport by barges, for a coal-water slurry are analysed. In the analysis is conveyor belt transport and hydraulic transport. investigated which influence the particle density and particle size have on the friction head in a particular A comprehensive logistics study is performed with the formula. use of a simulation model. The simulation model is written in Matlab and is a so-called event based model. The transport configuration which is lowest in transport costs, is determined with the results from the simulation model. A transport configuration is a combination of the number of barges, number of berths and the loading capacity of the berths.

Student: B.C. Joppe Thesis Committee: Prof.ir. T.Vellinga, Ir. P.Quist, Dr.ir. W.Daamen, Ing. M.G.M.Huijsmans

For further information please contact the section Hydraulic Engineering, 015-2783348 Email: [email protected]

47 | Master’s Theses March 2012 3 Hydraulic Engineering

Analyzing the hydraulic design for the new basin in the IJmuiden outer harbor

To improve the lightering conditions of bulk carriers in island. Especially in the Hoogoven harbor and at the the outer harbor of IJmuiden, the lightering facility will Noorder ship lock wave agitation decreases. However, be transfered to a new harbor basin that will be imple- standing waves may arise between the new basin and mented at the location of the dredging depot in the the opposing IJmond harbor if sufficient wave energy is former Averij harbor. The Dutch Directorate-General for present in the incoming wave climate. Public Works and Water Management (RWS) demands that down time of the lightering operations inside the The results of the coupled system of basin resonance new basin does not exceed 5% of the operating time of and bulk carrier vertical response do not result in 365 days a year, 24 hours a day. a contribution to the down time criteria. Although Down time of the lightering operation can be caused amplified waves can become a factor 4.5 larger than by several issues. This thesis investigates the contribu- the incoming wave heights, earlier investigation and tion of long waves with wave periods between 10 and observations and analyses in this study show that the 250 seconds to the down time conditions. Theoretically incoming wave energy for long waves is low and the this long wave climate can cause high ship response as probability of incoming waves amplifying into waves of incoming wave periods are close to the bulk carrier’s critical wave heights that cause down time to the light- natural periods. The long waves can also cause reso- ering process is very little. The contribution to the down nance in the new basin or in the outer harbor as a time of the new basin is very small in comparison to the whole. A coupled system of basin resonance and ship contribution of wind and locally generated wind waves. response is also investigated as the two separate resonance systems can enforce each other for certain wave periods.

Investigating a 200.000 DWT bulk carrier’s Response Amplitude Operators for an open water situation concludes that the bulk carrier experiences enforced movement in its horizontal motions for wave periods around 250 seconds and in its vertical motions for wave periods between 15 and 20 seconds. In the real time situation the ship’s horizontal motions will be damped by the mooring system and the high resonance periods will not be met. The numerical wave model PHAROS has been used to analyze whether resonance patterns arise in the outer harbor basins for a wave period band between 10 and 250 seconds. It is concluded that the new basin can experience resonance for wave periods between 100 and 250 seconds. The highest wave amplification of 4.5 times the incoming wave height at sea occurs for an incoming wave period of 147 seconds. The amplified wave height inside the new basin will not contribute to down time conditions as the amplified wave height is lower than the critical wave height of 0.80 meter. The implementation of the new basin has a positive ffect on the area of the outer harbor behind the Fort

Student: P. Kaufmann Thesis Committee: Prof.ir. T. Vellinga, Dr.ir. R.J. Labeur, Ir. M. de Jong, Ir. B. Wijdeven

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48 | Master’s Theses March 2012 3 Hydraulic Engineering

Pump jets in inland vessels Use and effect on bed material

The traffic intensity at the Amsterdam-Rijnkanaal has not grown is based on the free propeller theory. In the case of a pump jet, in the past decade. However, the maximum transported tonnage part of the contraction takes place inside the unit. Furthermore, has increased substantially. Thus, the average loading capacity the flow field has been subdivided in three parts: initial outflow of ships has been increased. In other words, bigger ships have velocity, axial flow velocity and the flow velocity distribution in been replacing the small ships. A direct consequence is the use the region of the established flow. The coefficients in the model of larger main propellers and increased installed engine power have been empirically determined using a simulation with a CFD in order to realize acceptable ship speeds. To improve the model. The non-linear least-squares method has been applied. maneuverability, the power of auxiliary bow and stern propul- This model has been compared to flow fields induced by different sion systems has increased as well. This results in higher flow other propulsion systems. It results in a similar axial flow velocity velocities and thus more damage to bed protections at berthing decrease as a low-powered water jet. However, the pump jet places. Especially pump jet thrusters as a bow propulsion system diverges faster and with a greater angle than any other jet. may attack the bed protections more severely due to a vertical component of the flow field induced by the pump jet which is The derived model has been used to investigate the stone directed towards the bed. stability at the toe of a sheet pile wall. Firstly, the flow velocities at the bed have been evaluated by looking at berthed ships in The Dutch Department of Waterways and Public Works has different conditions (fully loaded, partly loaded and unloaded). detected scour holes at berthing places at the Amsterdam-Rijn- Secondly, a stability analysis of the bed material has been kanaal. The question has arisen whether pump jets are respon- executed by using a method presented by Deltares. However, in sible for the scour holes. Therefore, the aim of this research is order to protect the bed against the high flow velocities, large to develop an analytical model for the flow field induced by the stone diameters are required. pump jet thruster. Subsequently, the required dimensions of a An alternative is allowing scour holes to occur, but the length of bed protection has been determined as well as an investigation the sheet piling should be extended in order to maintain stability on the possible scour effects in case of an unprotected bed of the of the entire quay wall. The predicted maximum scour depths Amsterdam-Rijnkanaal. (by using a time independent method) caused by a pump jet are in the same range of measured scour depths at the Amsterdam- In order to meet this goal, an inventory of the bow propul- Rijnkanaal. This means that scour holes may cause instability sion systems in inland vessels has been made by conducting an problems of the existing sheet pile walls. inquiry. Subsequently, the different propulsion systems have been compared qualitatively. Since existing formulas are based on the circular free jet, this system is also treated in the comparison. In addition, a water jet (hydro jets can be distinguished in low-powered and high-powered jets), often used as propulsion system by ferries, has been taken into account due to the strong analogy with the circular free jet. As a result, both the ratio of decrease of axial velocities and diffusion of the jets in radial direction of a circular free jet strongly correspond to a high- powered water jet. However, the free propeller and transverse tunnel thrusters are considered to have a faster decrease of axial velocities and a faster diffusion of the flow field. The applied power and the induced turbulence seem to be the main reasons for the flow field characteristics.

An essential part of this research is the derivation of an analytical model for the pump jet thruster induced flow field. The principle

Student: J.R.C. Manaois Thesis Committee: Prof.ir. T. Vellinga; Ir. H.J. Verheij; Dr.ir. H.J. de Koning Gans

For further information please contact the section Hydraulic Engineering, 015-2783348 Email: [email protected]

49 | Master’s Theses March 2012 3 Hydraulic Engineering

Optimizing the passage of fast ferry navigation at the Schellingwoude lock complex

Traditionally, water based public transport has a large •• Alternative 3 – Priority arrangement and reservation contribution to the accessibility of rural areas in the of one lock chamber; Netherlands. Initiated by the industrial revolution a •• Alternative 4a – Additional minimal lock chamber; major shift from water based to land based public •• Alternative 4b – Additional CEMT-class Vlb lock transport occurred. Until recent history water based chamber; public transport was considered unfeasible. Nowadays •• Alternative 5 – Additional innovative structure. land based transport modes are threatened by their own success. The shortage of land available for land The performance criteria determining the feasibility of based public transport in rural areas creates congestion the proposed lock system alternatives are based on the on highways and endangers the accessibility of many target conditions associated with water based public city centres. City centres which adopted their metro- transport derived from a travel time analysis on the politan status due to their location near the waterfront. preferred route between Amsterdam Central Station and This fact gives rise to investigate the feasibility of water Almere. The actual performance analysis is elaborated based public transport in existing city centres and areas using the SIVAK2 simulation model. From the perfor- to be developed. The expansion of Almere, being part mance analysis it is concluded that reservation of one of the Amsterdam metropolitan region, outside the lock chamber (Alternative 2a) and the construction of existing flood defence system in lake Markermeer is an additional lock chamber with minimal dimensions a strong example showing a large potential on acces- serving fast ferry navigation (Alternative 4a) are the sibility by means of fast ferry navigation. An integral best performing alternatives. Both alternatives lead to planning of water and land based infrastructure serving an average passage time of fast ferry navigation within commuter related passenger transport, among other the target conditions associated with fast ferry naviga- success factors, increases the success of tackling tion and within the prescribed target conditions applied bottlenecks in the existing hydraulic infrastructure. For for commercial and recreational navigation. The best the water based public transport connection between performing alternatives are further investigated using Amsterdam Central Station and Almere the passage of a social cost-benefit analysis. This analysis shows that the Schellingwoude lock complex is considered to be the alternative 4a involves the least costs associated with most significant bottleneck causing previous attempts of direct effects compared to alternative 2a during a life shipping companies on this route to fail due to a lack of span of 100 years. This is mainly due to the effect of feasibility. Contradictory functional demands present at large financial consequences of additional waiting time this lock complex in combination with the large yearly of commercial and recreational navigation passing the volume of commercial and recreational navigation Schellingwoude lock complex. passing this lock complex during the normative month (August) causes the lock operation process to involve an average passage time of fast ferry navigation outside the target conditions associated with water based public transport. In order to optimize the passage of fast ferry navigation at the Schellingwoude lock complex the feasibility of multiple lock system alternatives is investigated, being: •• Alternative 1a – Priority arrangement; •• Alternative 1b – Priority arrangement and separate locking method; •• Alternative 2a – Reservation of one lock chamber; •• Alternative 2b – Reservation of two lock chambers;

Student: M.J. Rispens Thesis Committee: Prof.ir. T. Vellinga, Ir. M. Wolters, Dr.ir. W. Daamen, Ir. H. van Hees

For further information please contact the section Hydraulic Engineering, 015-2783348 Email: [email protected]

50 | Master’s Theses March 2012 3 Hydraulic Engineering

Flexible Port Infrastructure on Maasvlakte 2

Port of Rotterdam Authority decided to construct Maas- costs and revenues are lower than the present value. vlakte 2 to cope with demand for port areas. Maasvlakte A discount factor reduces future to present values. The 2 is a business case driven project. The outcome of the net present cost savings cumulates the discounted cost business case has led to the construction of an entire savings and losses in rent of all postponed expansions. sea defense and the realization of port areas in phases, in response to client demand. The phased develop- The net present cost savings for Port of Rotterdam ment results in the creation of a temporary inner lake. Authority are larger than 15 M€, if the: inland vessels The temporary use of this inner lake by port activities is that call with 50 TEU or less are handled at the hampered by the large investments generally required for common barge terminal, discount rate is at least 8.5%, port infrastructure. This research examines the possibility percentage transshipped in call sizes <50 TEU is at of allocating temporary activities to the temporary inner least 4.2% of the total throughput and the increase in lake of Maasvlakte 2, using flexible port infrastructures. container throughput is at most 6% OR the small call size percentage is at least 2.1% and the throughput Potential activities are inventoried and ranked in a increase is at most 3%. brainstorming session. Potential structures are investigated through a literature study. Activities are coupled Port of Rotterdam Authority not only saves cost with with structures to create alternatives. These are allo- a common barge terminal, but also has to invest in a cated on the inner lake, depending on their functional quay and receives rent from the common barge terminal requirements. The common barge terminal is the only operator. Several structures are compared by their activity that requires a quay type structure. The objec- whole lifecycle costs. Containerland consists of several tive of this research is to examine the financial viability containers sandwiched between two concrete slabs and of an activity using a flexible structure. The common has the lowest whole lifecycle costs. barge terminal concept is examined in detail. The service life of the inner lake is considerably shorter A common barge terminal is a neutral transshipment than the technical lifetime of the structures. Structures point that enables inland vessels to transship their can be reused, sold or demolished. Reuse-possibilities containers at one inland quay instead of at several deep have to be considered in case the rest value after the sea quays. Its results in a win, win, win situation: Inland service life of the inner lake is large. Port of Rotterdam vessels operators do not have to hop from one terminal Authority can generate 3 M€ rest value in case the to the next. They sail shorter distances and can reduce service life is 10 years and the discount rate 8.5%. The their turnaround time in the Port of Rotterdam. Container rest value is 5 M€ in case the service life is 5 instead terminal operators have more time and space to handle of 10 years and 7 M€ in case a discount rate of 4.5% is sea going vessels. Sea going vessels are served by more used instead of cranes and can transship more containers per time per 8.5%. Reuse- quay length. The additional quay capacity enables to possibilities postpone expansions. Port of Rotterdam Authority can have to be postpone deep sea quay expansions. considered in case the The latter is examined in detail. Port of Rotterdam discount rate is Authority can postpone several deep sea quay expan- low (4.5 instead sions. There are three container terminal operators on of 8.5%) or the Maasvlakte 2 that want to expand in several phases. service life is Postponing deep sea quay expansions saves investment small (5 instead costs and leads to a loss in rent. The future value of of 10 years).

Student: R. Ros Thesis Committee: Prof.ir. T. Vellinga, Ir. P. Taneja, Dr.ir. J.G. de Gijt, Dr.ir. R.J. Verhaeghe, Ir. M. van Schuylenburg

For further information please contact the section Hydraulic Engineering, 015-2783348 Email: [email protected]

51 | Master’s Theses March 2012 Development Plan Dordrecht Seaports Determination of the potential segments for the Dordrecht Seaports

Dordrecht Seaports (DS) is a port with a direct connection to the North Sea. In the current situation not all companies are port related. The port related companies are active in the storage of liquid bulk and dry bulk with especially ore & scrap. The yearly throughput of the DS is 3,2 million tons in 2010. After an analysis it can be concluded that this port at the moment is not used as a sea port, but as an inland port.

With an analysis is shown which segments can optimize the port. This analysis is done from three different analysis pillars. In the first pillar (area) is concluded that the DS is surrounded with other business areas in the surroundings. For adding values to the cargo, new business areas can be used. Besides that, the DS can contribute as an added value in the (port) network of Rotterdam. With enlargement of DS in the network of Per pillar the potential segments are determined. PoR, PoR can also contribute on advantages. Maritime industry and other general cargo have a high potential, which is in contrast with the short sea and The second pillar is the pillar of stakeholders. Next to Ro/Ro. The ideal situation is sketched. the PoR, also the municipality of Dordrecht, the companies within the DS and the Drechtsteden are the most It is concluded with these segments classification in important stakeholders. Their main issues are accessi- the basins in combination with extra implementations bility and the economic progress. to optimize the port, a new throughput is expected The last pillar of analysis is the vision of PoR. From between 6,5 and 6,9 million ton for 2022. the Havenvisie 2030 the growth percentages of each segment are the base for the determination of the With a case study of damping a basin it is shown that growth percentages of the DS. With a band width more throughput can be realized. With some minor between two scenarios, a translation of the growth changes in the variables of the incomes, this will be percentages is determined. The expected growth of profitable. This means that PoR has realistic options to the throughput of the DS in 2022 is between 3,5 and optimize DS. 3,9 million ton per year with a large increase for the segments coals and ore & scrap.

Student: M.J. Verhage Thesis Committee: Prof.ir. T. Vellinga, Drs. M. Oosting, Ir. P. Quist, Prof.dr. R. Zuidwijk

For further information please contact the section Hydraulic Engineering, 015-2783348 Email: [email protected]

52 | Master’s Theses March 2012 4.

Civil Engineering theses Geo-Engineering 4 Geo Engineering

Time dependent processes on passive loaded piles

The effect of time-dependent processes on passive At the site of the full scale test an extensive soil inves- loaded piles is investigated by means of the finite tigation program has been carried out. Soil parameters element program PLAXIS 3D and measurement data have been determined in order to use three different from a full scale test. The full scale test is part of an soil models in PLAXIS. The used soil models are Soft investigation program called GeoImpuls, and consists Soil Creep, Hardening Soil and the S-Clay1 model. The of a sand embankment of 3 m height on a 3,6 m thick soil models and parameters were fitted by comparing peat layer. The dimensions of the full scale test and the calculation results with the measured data. The the model in PLAXIS are equal. The measurement data used measured data are; water pressure develop- from the full scale test are processed into graphs which ment underneath the embankment, settlement of the show the development of the horizontal soil deforma- embankment and horizontal soil deformation at two tion in time at four locations. The piles installed in the locations. The Soft Soil Creep model gave the best full scale test consist of two HEA300 steel profiles, calculation results in comparison with the measured and were installed after construction of the embank- data. The used parameters in the Soft Soil Creep model ment. A square hollow section tube is welded onto the were further investigated in the soil test module in HEA300 in which an inclination measurement can be PLAXIS. This module has been used to simulate real performed. In order to perform a better determination triaxial test data. of the bending moments, the measurement interval of the inclination measurement has been reduced from the The calculated displacement of the piles in PLAXIS and regular 0,5 m to 0,1 m. In processing the results a bias- the measured displacements were compared to each shift has been recognized for which a correction has other and showed good comparison at one location. been applied. The maximum measured displacement of Two different displacement patterns were recognized the piles was a few millimetres. both in the PLAXIS calculation and the measured data. In the period close to pile installation when consolida- tion is the dominant process the maximum deflection of the pile occurs in the peat layer. In later stadia maximum deflection occurs at the top of the pile.

Student: K. Siderius Thesis Committee: Prof.ir. A.F. van Tol, Ing. H.J. Everts, Dr.ir. K.J. Bakker, ir J.F. Joosse, Ir F.J.M. Hoefsloot

For further information please contact the section Geo-Engineering, 015-2781880 Email: [email protected]

54 | Master’s Theses March 2012 4 Geo Engineering

Modelling and Effects of Rapid Impact Compaction

Due to the increased scale of dredging technology, able model from literature has been adjusted to simulate dredged soil is often rapidly deposited on reclamation compaction in dry granular soil with the RIC technique. sites. As a result, there is less time to compact the sand in thin layers and compaction over thicker lifts is required. From literature study it is concluded that the densification A promising technique called Rapid Impact Compac- model of Barkan (1962)/ Hergarden (2000) is a straight- tion (RIC) is able to achieve the compaction over these forward and applicable method to model RIC. It was thicker lifts. It compacts the subsoil effective and fast used originally for estimating densification during sheet from surface level. Cofra B.V. has developed its own Cofra piling. The model uses a threshold acceleration amplitude Dynamic Compaction (CDC) machines based on the orig- below which no densification occurs. The threshold value inal RIC technique. The CDC technique itself has proven to depends on the initial relative density and a “Barkan” be an efficient and sturdy alternative for the conventional factor. The Barkan factor is dependent on stress level, dynamic compaction techniques and RIC methods. strength level and type of soil. Initial relative density was obtained using correlations between cone resistance and relative density, applied on pre- and after CPT data. The estimation of vibrations uses straightforward empirical attenuation relations. Values for this relation were obtained from vibration measurements in depth and on surface level during RIC, also with different energy levels of the RIC hammer. The densification model uses an exponential relation to determine the final relative density; with the use of the occurring acceleration amplitude and threshold state of the soil.

The model showed high inaccuracies and sensitivity. Results are considered to be quite reasonable within the field of dynamic geotechnics, also taking into account its straightforwardness. Inaccuracies occurred mainly due to: poor correlations between cone resistance and relative density correlations, imprecise derivation of the Barkan The good compaction results of RIC (up to 7m) are not factor, inaccurate estimation of vibrations, heterogeneous expected when influence depth is computed with the soil conditions (silts and cementations) during valida- Menard & Broise (1975) equation, which predicts influ- tion and during measurements of model parameters and ence depth for dynamic compaction. Contractors using horizontal effective stresses build-up during and after the RIC technique are often confronted with this formula/ compaction. It is recommended to refine the measured method, which is actually incorrect for RIC. There are values and analyse the values of the Barkan factor for several unknown aspects about the RIC technique and different soil conditions. its effects on the subsoil that require further research. Despite the deviation from the original problem state- The differences between the results are clear; the exact ment, a qualitative attempt was still made to address the mechanisms on and in the subsoil that cause these differ- effective compaction of RIC compared to conventional ences are still undefined and no practical model has been DC. The constant dynamic state of the soil in between developed to simulate the effects of RIC. At the start of blows and the permanent contact between hammer and this study the main goal was to attribute the different soil, were considered to be leading in the effectiveness of mechanisms of RIC, which contradict predictions of the RIC. It is recommended to further research these differ- Menard and Broise (1975) formula. But finally an avail- ences

Student: J. Vink Thesis Committee: Prof.ir. A.F. van Tol, Ing. H.J. Everts, Ir. J.W. Dijkstra, Ir. D. Luger, Dr.ir. P. Meijers, Dr.ir. K.J. Bakker

For further information please contact the section Geo-Engineering, 015-2781880 Email: [email protected]

55 | Master’s Theses March 2012 4 Geo Engineering

56 | Master’s Theses March 2012 5.

Civil Engineering theses Watermanagement 5 Watermanagement

Analytical Modeling of Salt Intrusion in the Kapuas Estuary

Introduction Conclusions In the city of Pontianak, located in West Kalimantan, Despite the rough dataset, both approaches gave Indonesia, a local drinking water copes with salinisa- interesting results; In terms of tidal dynamics, both tion of the Kapuas Kecil in the dry period. Due to small approaches showed similar output. This confirms that discharge in both the Landak and Kapuas Kecil in this an analytical approach based on before mentioned season, saline sea water intrudes into the estuary theories can be combined with a Delta Shell modeling through dispersion and propelled by the tide. Together approach. Also, both analytical theories proved to be with Oasen, the drinking water company of the Gouda able to be used in a predictive way in this estuary in region in the Netherlands, a research plan has been terms of salt intrusion. developed to come up with solutions for this raw water The Chezy configuration is probably a result of the data problem. The modeling in this thesis has been based on used at the junction between Kapuas Besar and Kapuas the measurements I have set up and performed in the Kecil. Only water levels could be observed due to tidal three times I visited Pontianak. motion in this area of the estuary, while discharge, ideally, should be included as well. Research on the Objectives storage width in the estuary will bring down the tidal The main goal for this thesis is to take a step in the wave celerity. solution of the raw water problem in terms of salinity and create a model to predict salt intrusion based on Recommendations discharge scenarios. Therefore an analytical approach Since I was the first person to ever perform and was set out, based on salt intrusion theories of both combine measurements on tidal dynamics and salt Professor Savenije (TU Delft) and Kuijper & Van Rijn intrusion in the Kapuas estuary, the amount of data is (Deltares). Moreover, a numerical approach was used by small. An integral measurement campaign in the whole means of Delta Shell (beta-version), a new version of estuary would not only supply the data required for Sobek, to simulate tidal dynamics. (Unfortunately, a salt further research, moreover it is essential to in the end module in Delta Shell has not been developed yet) run such a model on daily basis.

Results Delta Shell is a nice improvement of the former Sobek- Salinity was well-mimicked by theory of both Savenije model. However, without a salt module, it loses poten- and Kuijper & Van Rijn. Despite optimized inclusion of tial of a stand-alone operational program. With so much damping in the equations of Kuijper & Van Rijn, not knowledge on board, Deltares should implement such a much difference was shown in this case study. module while they are at it! Tidal dynamics modeled with Delta Shell showed pretty strong damping based on Chezy values lower than expected (45 and 30 in the upstream meandering part of the Landak). Also high tidal wave celerity was observed in the results of Delta Shell.

Student: F. Gevers Deynoot Thesis Committee: Prof.dr.ir. H.H.G. Savenije, Ir. C. Kuijper, Dr.ir. Z.B. Wang, Dr. S. Pande

For further information please contact the section Water Management, +31 (0)15 278 1646 Email: [email protected]

58 | Master’s Theses March 2012 5 Watermanagement

Moisture Recycling and the effect of land-use change

In this thesis work, we stepwise analyze land-use change effects on global moisture recycling and on the resulting precipitation of the ‘Challenge Program (CP) River Basins’ for the period 1997-2006. We investigate two land-use cases, one being the current actual land- use case and the second being the ‘undisturbed case’, using potential natural vegetation data and subsequently we compare them at a global scale. This is done by computing precipitation of continental origin differences caused by the associated continental evaporation differences between the land-use cases. Figure 1: Global Annual Average Continental Evapora- tion Difference The seasonal variations of both moisture fluxes are discussed by focusing on characteristic grid-cells. We observe that in regions, where intense irriga- tion takes place in the current land-use case, both continental evaporation and the resulting precipitation have increased compared to the potential natural vegetation scenario. On the other hand, certain regions like Western/Central Africa and South-eastern South America experience reductions in the range of 30-50 mm/yr of evaporation and 15-25 mm/yr of precipitation of continental origin (Figures 1 and 2). Among the basins examined, the Indus shows the highest increase in evaporation due to the land-use change and the Ganges-Brahmaputra the highest precipitation (of conti- Figure 2: Global Annual Average Continental Precipi- nental origin) increase, whereas in the Volta both fluxes tation Difference values are reduced by this change.

We conclude that the topography and wind patterns play a very important role on the creation of the either positive or negative fluxes’ differences between the different land-use cases. When land-use change is combined with mountain ranges present in the study region the effect of local moisture recycling strengthens. However, when the change occurs at regions where the resulting moisture difference will finally be transferred to the oceans by the wind, no difference is caused in the moisture recycling of a land region.

Student: R. Nikoli Thesis Committee: Prof. H.H.G. Savenije, Ir. R.J. van der Ent, Prof. R.F. Hanssen, H. Hoff,

For further information please contact the section Water Management, +31 (0)15 278 1646 Email: [email protected]

59 | Master’s Theses March 2012 5 Watermanagement

Memstill for wastewater: Effects of surfactants in the feed solution

Introduction breakthrough pressure than predictions. With typical Water has always been one of the most basic needs of surface tension of wastewater, the breakthrough pres- human, and is becoming increasingly critical with the sure is above 5 bar. growing human population. Therefore, a new tech- During the first few days of operation, Memstill displays nology to obtain clean water effectively and efficiently is very good performance. However, wetting of the always desirable. Membrane distillation (MD) is a recent membrane occurs after several days of operation due to promising technology to provide very clean water at the slow adsorption process that causes imbibition. very low cost. Memstill® is a specific MD application that has significant advantages over typical MD processes, Conclusions and has proved its feasibility in desalination. However, Fast adsorption processes are not critical to Memstill. the key obstacle in its applicability to wastewater treat- Initially the process performs well. ment is the presence of surfactants which may lead to The slow adsorption process is fatal to Memstill, membrane wetting. rendering it ineffective. At present, Memstill is not suitable to treat wastewater Research containing surfactants without further enhancement to My research aims to study the effects of surfactants on the membrane. the Memstill process. My literature review showed that the membrane may be wetted due to fast surfactant Recommendations adsorption on the liquid-air and liquid-solid inter- As fast adsorption processes are not critical, a new faces, lowering breakthrough pressure; as well as slow breakthrough pressure study with the membrane pre- surfactant adsorption on the solid-air interface due to saturated with surfactant adsorption is suggested. diffusion, leading to imbibition. Based on these find- Adsorption experiments should be carried out to ings, I developed theoretical predictions of the effects determine the isotherms of popular surfactants. This of breakthrough and imbibition in the Memstill context. will enhance the ability to predict wetting in Memstill Finally, I conducted experiments on breakthrough pres- operations. sure’s dependence on surface tension as a result of the I recommend studying the possibilities of pre-treat- fast processes, and Memstill performance over extended ments such as electrodialysis or ion-exchange, since time as a result of the slow process, in order to verify ionic surfactants can be retained, reducing the risk of the theory and assess the feasibility of Memstill for wetting to Memstill. wastewater.

Results The topic of interest is complicated with many inter- acting phenomena. To facilitate understanding, I developed a scenario diagram connecting different possible scenarios in which Memstill may or may not be applicable; as well as an influence diagram establishing relationships between different properties of different process components and how they ultimately influence wetting or non-wetting.

From the breakthrough pressure experiments, the membrane characteristic constants were determined. The Memstill membrane can sustain slightly higher

Student: N.T.T. Hung Thesis Committee: Prof.ir. L.C. Rietveld, Dr.ir. Norbert Kuipers, Dr.ir. P.J. Visser, Assoc.Prof. P. J. Chen

For further information please contact the section Water Management, +31 (0)15 278 1646 Email: [email protected]

60 | Master’s Theses March 2012 5 Watermanagement

Biofouling and organic micropollutants rejection

Introduction Results Previous studies have identified the main rejection The resulting surface tensions showed that biofouling mechanism of organic micropollutants by high pressure makes the surface more hydrophilic. The membrane membrane filtration systems, resulting in a math- surface charge (zeta potential) remained unchanged ematical model that predicts the removal efficiency. The and the average membrane pore size decreases, due to model includes three solute-membrane interactions: biomass accumulation, as biofilm was growing. These steric hindrance interactions, electrostatic charge inter- changes in surface characteristics affected the rejection actions and affinity interactions. The goal of this study of the positively charged organic micropollutants while was to characterize the modification in surface proper- no significant effect was observed for the neutrally and ties that biofouling exerts when adhering onto nanofil- negatively charged solutes. tration (NF) membranes and to investigate how these modifications alter the interaction between membrane Conclusions surfaces and organic micropollutants. In conclusion biofouling negatively altered the rejection behavior of positively charged micropollutants. With an Research increased solute-membrane affinity due to biofouling At KWR, Nieuwegein, experiments were carried out more partitioning of positive micropollutants into the using spiral wound NF membranes which were first membrane took place providing a decrease in the rejec- heavily biofouled and then subjected to rejection tion. tests and membrane characterization. To identify and compare the solute-membrane affinity interactions of clean and biofouled membranes, a protocol allowing the determination of the surface tension of biofouled membranes was developed and validated. The surface tensions were determined by measuring contact angle of different probing liquid droplets on clean and biofouled membrane surfaces and applying the Young- Dupré equation. Three methods were applied and evaluated in which the membranes were dried, immersed in water and maintained fully hydrated.

Student: N.T. Quach Thesis Committee: Prof.dr.ir. L.C. Rietveld, Prof.dr.ir. A.R.D. Verliefde, Prof.dr.ir. P.W. Appel, Dr.ir. E.R. Cornelissen, Dr. S. Botton, Ing. D.J.H. Harmsen

For further information please contact the section Water Management, +31 (0)15 278 1646 Email: [email protected]

61 | Master’s Theses March 2012 5 Watermanagement

Operationalization of SoilDTS

Introduction is fairly simple and rewarding when accurate K esti- In the last ten years Distributed fiber optic Temperature mates are preferred. Sensing, often shortened to DTS, has The four day ActiveDTS campaign gave very promising been developed as a useful tool for all sorts of hydro- results for this method. From the temperature response logical research. Within this wide span of topics several to the applied heat pulses, thermal conductivity is studies on soil thermal properties and soil moisture calculated using the single-needle-heat-pulse-probe using DTS are performed, so-called SoilDTS. SoilDTS is method used in commercially available single-needle- split in two methods: PassiveDTS, where the response heat-pulse-probes like the Hukseflux TP02. One crucial

of soil temperatures to the diurnal signal in Rn is meas- aspect is the determination of the exact amount of heat ured; and ActiveDTS where a heat pulse is applied to applied to the soil. The measured temperature inside the cables using the electrical resistance of its steel the cable can be different from the temperature on the armoring. outside of the cable. The SHF estimates are sufficiently accurate to use in Methods energy balance closure calculation. This is valuable for From March to October 2011 three fiber optic cables evaporation calculations or satellite reference measure- at 1, 6 and 11 centimeters are plowed in a grass plot ments for instance used in agricultural research. in Delft, The Netherlands. From March to May 2011 PassiveDTS measurements are conducted and in September 2011 a four day ActiveDTS campaign took place. For the passive measurements an inversion method is used to calculate diffusivity from soil temperature using the thermal diffusion equation. With a decagon KD2 probe a relation between thermal conductivity and soil moisture is derived from which soil heat flux (SHF) is calculated. During the ActiveDTS campaign 30 minute heat pulses of 6 W/m are applied to the steel armoring of the cable. The response to this heat pulse measured in that same cable is used to calculate thermal conductivity which leads to SHF profiles. SHF estimates are finally compared to other parameters of the surface energy balance.

Results The PassiveDTS method gives accurate estimates of Conclusion and recommendations surface heat flux profiles. From the thermal conduc- SoilDTS is a very promising and useful tool to determine tivity vs. soil moisture content relation also soil water and monitor soil thermal properties and soil moisture. content can be calculated. These calculated values are PassiveDTS is still dependent on accurate reference consistent with measured values from an in-situ EC5 measurements of thermal conductivity and soil mois- moisture probe. ture. ActiveDTS can be a tool that is capable of deriving The relation between thermal conductivity (K) and soil thermal conductivity without extensive reference moisture is essential for the success of the PassiveDTS measurements. Further research on the effect of cable method. This relation is very hard to derive from insulation on the applied heat pulse to the surrounding existing models like Johansen75 or Campbell but in this soil is necessary but can definitely be rewarding. research it is shown that deriving this relation manually

Student: J.H.A.M. Jansen Thesis Committee: Prof.dr.ir. N.C. van de Giesen, Dr.ir. S.C. Steele-Dunne, Prof.dr. M. Menenti

For further information please contact the section Water Management, +31 (0)15 278 1646 Email: [email protected]

62 | Master’s Theses March 2012 5 Watermanagement

The world’s freshwater resources are threatened

The world’s freshwater resources are threatened. The Results and Conclusions main causes are population growth and climate change. The result for the barrier concept is that in the case of These factors also impact the freshwater resources clay layer up to almost 95% of the potential outflow along the coast. The appearance of saltwater in the can be intercepted. That is for the case that the barrier coastal zone makes the problem even more compli- is installed with the toe in the clay layer. The drain cated. Results of research on two concepts that enlarge discharge depends mostly on the drain level and the the freshwater resources along the coast are presented. barrier depth. For the case that there is no clay layer, Along the coast, freshwater is being lost to the ocean. the amount of water that can be captured is only 65%. This happens through freshwater seepage from the With the laguna concept 90% of the potential outflow freshwater lens. A freshwater lens is presents under can be captured. The three parameters that influ- the dunes and is formed by precipitation. Freshwater ence the results most are the width of the laguna (i.e. seepage, or outflow, is a process that drains the precipi- the distance between the shoreline and the offshore tation that is not used or extracted. It means that in dam), the water level in the laguna and the combined principle the net recharge is also flowing out at the hydraulic conductivity and resistance of the aquifer. edges of the system. An analytical solution has been derived for the laguna concept. The analytical solution is compared to the Concepts numerical model results. The numerical model follows The outflow is a loss in the system. Two concepts are the analytical model almost perfect for most cases for developed that intercept the outflowing water. The first which the solution is valid. The validity of the analytical concept is the laguna concept. In this concept a laguna solution for other combinations of the parameters still is created between the original shoreline and a newly has to be investigated. The analytical solution is used created dam at some distance from the coast. The to determine the parameter sensitivity for the three * laguna will fill with outflowing water, making it usable parameters mentioned earlier (kc, WL and h ). for drinking water production. The second concept is the barrier/drain concept. In this concept a physical vertical barrier is installed close to the shoreline. The extra introduced resistance to flow prevents freshwater to flow out and creates higher heads. The head is reduced by taking out water through a drain, in that way collecting the previously outflowing water.

Method The concepts are tested on a fictitious island of 3 km wide, with and without a clay layer. The island is modeled using the computer code of MODFLOW. To be able to incorporate density differences between fresh and saltwater, the SEAWAT and SWI packages are used. The concepts are evaluated on the amount of outflow they can capture in relation to what would flow out when no changes were made to the system.

Student: M. Hegnauer Thesis Committee: Prof.dr.ir. T.N. Olsthoorn, Dr.ir. M. Bakker, Dr.ir. J. Timmermans, Ir. J.H. Peters, Ir. F. Schaars

For further information please contact the section Water Management, +31 (0)15 278 1646 Email: [email protected]

63 | Master’s Theses March 2012 64 | Master’s Theses March 2012 5.

Civil Engineering theses Transport & Planning 5 Transport & Planning

Study of evacuation behaviour during a flood

Recent history has shown a large number of natural Analysis of the acquired data has shown the influence hazards, most likely as a result of global warming. of each factor of the framework. In terms of loca- Research on climate change predicts that the rise in tion parameters, hazard distance and level of hazard hazards will continue in the near future. As complete information were important factors influencing the prevention of these hazards is nigh on impossible, limiting decision to evacuate (the threat level increased by an the impact of future catastrophes is the most viable approaching hazard and detailed available information). strategy. Evacuation can be seen as one of the most Another important attribute was the evacuation order tangible measures against these threats, and moreover issued; a mandatory and recommended evacuation has the most links to the field of transport & planning. order lead to higher evacuation rates.

This research was carried out to gain a more detailed The various travel factors included in the framework understanding in the behaviour of evacuees; results had a relatively small effect on the behaviour of an that will help authorities in optimizing hazard strategies. evacuee; only the damage to the road network resulted More concretely, this research focussed on the deci- in an increase of the likelihood of evacuation. For sion to stay or leave a threatened area, and the choice evacuees using public transport, the waiting time was of the preferred evacuation route. This behaviour was the only relevant trave attribute; a long waiting time captured by means of a discrete choice experiment resulted in longer response times and thus lower evacu- whereby participants were confronted with several ficti- ation rates. tious flood scenarios. In terms of personal parameters, the particular gender of an evacuee caused differences in evacuation behaviour (females being more risk-averse resulting in higher evacuation rates). The other factors (age, hazard experience, education) were deemed not significant, although it is expected this is in large part due to a homogenous sample group (mainly students).

Regarding route choice, evacuees showed risk-averse behaviour; opting for a safe route instead of one with a short travel time. This was particularly the case in situations with a high threat level. At lower threat levels, the travel time became more relevant (a preference for routes with short travel times).

Fig. Decision framework of an evacuee.

A decision framework was created including most of the factors indentified as relevant in previous evacuation studies. Roughly, they could be divided in two groups; location parameters, describing the physical characteristics of the hazard scenarios, and personal parameters describing the traits of an evacuee.

Student: S.L. Hek Thesis Committee: Prof.dr.ir. S.P. Hoogendoorn, Dr.ir. J.W.C. van Lint, Ir. M. van den Berg, Ir. P.B.L. Wiggenraad, Cr. E.J.E. Molin.

For further information please contact the section Transport & Planning, 015 2789341 Email: [email protected]

66 | Master’s Theses March 2012 6.

Last year’s Theses 6 Last year’s Theses

Master’s Theses October 2011

Civil Engineering theses Fatigue damage in the orthotropic steel deck with respect to the trough-to-deck plate joint in between the Building Engineering crossbeams Student: J. Liao Application of Higher Strength Concrete in Tubular Structures Automatic Buckling Checks on Stiffened Panels Based Student: H. Balbaid on Finite Element Results Student: O. Hillers Sustainable and Durable Redevelopment Student: E. Bilardie Autogenous shrinkage of cementitious materials containing blast furnace slag Optimising the design of a steel substructure for Student: R.M. Mors offshore wind turbines in deeper waters Student: F.P.M. van Gerven Hydraulic Engineering

Testing the application of CFD for building design Morphological modeling of the Atrato river delta in Student: S.R. Hunte Colombia Student: S. Post Ultra High Performance Concrete in Large Span Shell Structures Navigability at an unstable bifurcation Student: R.N. ter Maten Student: F.C.R. Melman

Glass Columns On the morphodynamics of Lagos Harbour Student: E. Ouwerkerk Student: V. Ballendux

Fatigue Design of FSPO topside details Tidal divides Student: B. Siegler Student: J. Vroom

Super high-rise in Rotterdam Risk-based control of salt water intrusion for the Rhine- Student: U.M Winter Meuse Estuary Student: M. Zethof Triple-layer membrane structures - Sound insulation performance and practical solutions Modelling Sediment Transport in the Swash Zone Student: J.J.E. de Vries Student: A. van Rooijen

Structural Engineering Dune erosion near sea walls Student: B. de vries Shearforce in immersed tunnels Student: D.A.W. Joosten System description Noord-Holland coast, a review of the nourishment strategy applied. Mega Floating Concrete Bridges Student: R. Pot Student: A.H. Saleh Modelling decadal barrier island behavior Communicating ‘structural’ design options Student: K.W. Pruis Student: T.K. Uijtenhaak Notional Permeability of breakwaters Shear Redistribution in Solid Concrete Slabs Student: R. Kik Student: J. Falbr Earthquake analysis of quay walls The effect of the increase of concrete strength in time Student: J.W. Liang on the failure mechanism of beams and one-way slabs Student: L.F. Soto

68 | Master’s Theses March 2012 6 Last year’s Theses

Preparing a long term management plan for the future Rainfall fed inundation in greenhouse dominated of the Slufter polders; Research of water system assessments Student: R. Heerema Student: B.C. Albers

The behaviour of a moored oil tanker in the Port of Prediction of temperature distribution in a Drinking Leixões, Portugal. Water Network Introduction Student: M. van der Wel Student: L. Magda

Interaction between loaded barges and bed material A new suit for the IJsselmeer Student: R. J. Lenselink Student: J. Talsma

Goederenvervoer over water A fresh-keeper for Noard Burgum Student: R. van Liere Student: M.J.H. van der Valk

Preliminary study of the flushing operations in the Lang- Transport & Planning mann reservoir, Austria Student: V.J.E. den Boer The use of probe data from consumer GPS navigation devices for the analysis of controlled intersections Process-based modelling of coastal dune development Student: A.M. Meijer Student: M.C. Muller

Modelling the interaction between morphodynamics and vegetation in the Nisqually River estuary Student: M. Monden

Geo-Engineering

Het opstellen van een richtlijn voor partieel funder- ingsherstel Student: S. De Lange

Time dependent processes on passive loaded piles Student: K. Siderius

Watermanagement

Land classification based on hydrological landscape units Student: S. Gharari

Urban surface water quality enhancement. Student: M.R. van Dieren

Unembanked Areas – A risk assessment approach Student: M. Wolthuis

Performance assessment of tree-based model predictive control Student: P.M. Stive

69 | Master’s Theses March 2012 6 Last year’s Theses

Master’s Theses June 2011

Civil Engineering theses Hydraulic Engineering

Building Engineering The cause of coastal erosion on a nourished beach in Kololi, Structural feasibility of the Rotating Tower Dubai The Gambia Student: P. den Besten Student: E. Bijl

Double curved precast load bearing concrete elements Influence of the armour layer and core permeability on Student: B. Janssen the wave run-up Student: P.J.M. van Broekhoven The effect of steel plate girders with a high slenderness upon the fire resistance Feasibility study on the use of a floating breakwater to Student: R. Wiersum protect a new artificial beach in Balchik, Bulgaria Student: R. Drieman Parkeerkelder met een pneumatisch caisson Student: S.P. Rodrigues Monteiro Design of berth n.12 in the port of Ventspil, Latvia Student: P. Gatta Verlevendiging van de binnenrotte door multifunctioneel marktsysteem Mooring facility ‘Cruiseport The Hague’ Student: M.Zoons Student: H.J. van der Giessen

Cellular beam-columns in portal frame structures Space intensification EMO-peninsula Student: J.G. Verweij Student: T.M. Henneveld (MSc Hydraulic Engineering)

Structural Engineering Modelling the equalizing process of rockfill dumps with a plough Plate buckling in design codes Student: W. Kranendonk Student: M. van der Burg Morphodynamic analysis of the Ecobeach project Wind load and high-rise: Student: M. de Lange Student: N. Narain Probabilistic design of settling basins for environmental Loading capacity of laterally restrained prestressed compliance concrete slabs Student: W. de Lange Student: R.F.C. de Rooij Verzandingsprobleem in de vluchthaven Wijdenes The effects of the interaction between the substrate and Student: E. Lee the superstructure of the buildings of project Erasmus- poort Comparison of quay wall designs in concrete, steel,

Student : R. Soemeer wood and composites with regard to the CO2-emission and the Life Cycle Analysis Extension and Verification of Sequentially Linear Student: T. Maas Analysis to Solid Elements Student: L.O. Voormeeren Providing current forecasts for the 2012 Olympic Sailing Competition Stability of a concrete pedestrian bridge with load Student: S. Poortman bearing railings Student: V.M. Weidema The Effects of The Ike Dike barriers on Galveston Bay Student: M. Ruijs Ultra High Performance Fibre Reinforced Concrete for bridge constructions Relatie tussen unity check en faalkans Student: L.W.H. Bouvy Student: J. De Vlieger

70 | Master’s Theses March 2012 6 Last year’s Theses

Invloed van zandeigenschappen op het piping proces Integrated water management from the treasurer’s Student: R. van der Zee perspective Student: J. van Leeuwen The morphological effects of Sediment diversions on the Lower Mississippi River Subsurface abstraction in the Amsterdam Watersupply Student: M.Bos Dunes Student: R. Martens Stroming van beton in diepwanden Student: J. Mulder Groundwater dynamics landslides in varved clays Student: J.E. van der Spek Hydraulic Engineering – COMEM Domain Transport & Planning Modeling the Evolution of the Wax Lake Delta in Atcha- falaya Bay, Louisiana Micro dynamisch verkeersmanagement Student: K. Hanegan Student: I. Bouma

The appraisal of climate adaptation measures and Effect van verkeerslichten op turborotondes coastal management strategies for Durban, South Africa Student: B. Granneman Student: M. A. Geldenhuys Line design of the future Impact of acces of channels geometry on wave penetra- Student: N. Guis tion in harbours Student: C. G. Mardones Redesign of the bus station Groningen assisted by a new simulation tool for bus stations Low Frequency Wave Resonance on Fringing Reefs Student: J.J.F. Hoogenboom MSc. Student: A. W. Mackay Pomeroy Futures of Rotterdam South Geo-Engineering Student: R. Hoogerwerf

Experimenteel modelleren van horizontale belastingen De overgang van 80 km/uur naar 50 km/uur op de op grote diameter monopaal fundaties in zand grens bebouwde kom Student: A. Alderlieste Student: M. de Jong

Piled embankment with Geosynthetic Reinforcement Separation of Freeway Traffic Flows by Dynamic Lane Student: T.J.M. den Boogert Assignment Student: A.M.G. Soekroella Grondvervormingen ten gevolge van het maken van bouwputten Regional effects on road safety of the RijnlandRoute Student: J. Kimenai Student: L.M. van Dijk

Toepassing spanningspadmethode op een horizontaal Around the metro - Research intro the potencies of the gronddruk vraagstuk metro stops in Rotterdam Student: G. Peeters Student: R.G. van Huet

Negative Skin Friction; Design challenges in Singapore Student: P.J. Spruit

Watermanagement

A Decision-Support System based on Real Time Control and Data Assimilation Student: A.L. van Breukelen

71 | Master’s Theses March 2012 6 Last year’s Theses

Master’s Theses February 2011

Civil Engineering theses Hydraulic Engineering

Structural Engineering Integral Design of Work Channels and Basins Student: T, IJsebeart Living Tree Buildings Dredging history of the river Waal and expected future Student: Anne Nuijten dredging works Student: J.S. Bardoel Application of Ultra High Strength Concrete in LNG Termi- nals Numerical modeling of wave run-up on a dike Student: Michel Kortenaar Student: I.C. van den Bosch

Mechanical behavior of bridge bearings of concrete Analysis of costs in new terminals investments bridges Student: C. van Buuren Student: M. de Boer Shell factors for piles subjected to horizontal soil Winter damage of porous asphalt displacements Student: S.A. Mohan Student: Erik den Arend

Snap through of large shield driven tunnels A comprehensive assessment of Multilayered Safety in Student: T.G. van der Waart van Gulik flood risk management Student: Frouke Hoss Traffic induced bearing loads and movements of a steel plate-girder bridge The Gevelco quay wall Student: V. Bos Student: D. Grotegoed

The optimization of tripod substructure and its applica- “Feasibility study of a Climate Dike” tion to two different topsides Student: Larissa Smolders Student: Wenchao Wang Flood defence town centre Dordrecht Human Induced Lateral Vibration of Bridges Student: M. Hinborch Student: D. Karagiannis Long-term morphological modelling of the mouth of the Building Engineering Columbia River Student: Emiel Moerman Covering A28 highway at Amersfoort Student: S.L. Huneker Dynamic behaviour of tunnel elements during the immersion process The elevated metro structure in concrete, UHPC and Student: G.W. Nagel composite Student: R.J.A. Kenter Stimulering provinciale binnenvaart door verkeersmanagement en aanpak knelpunten The sustainable refurbishment of bk city Student: C. van der Hoog Student: M.K. Prodromou Gaining new insights regarding traffic congestion, by A timber bearing structure for ‘Concept House’ explicitly considering the variability in traffic Student: A.D. van Wijngaarden Student: O.M. Miete

Modelling nearshore currents driven by waves and set-up gradients Student: P. van de Linde

72 | Master’s Theses March 2012 6 Last year’s Theses

Morphological Impact of Coastal Structures Transport & Planning Student: R. van der Hoeven Gaining new insights regarding traffic congestion, by Post-trenching with a trailing suction hopper dredger explicitly considering the variability in traffic Student: K. van de Leur Student: O.M. Miete

Port Design Accelerating the introduction of electric bicycles Student: R.A.R. Heuts Student: Jeroen Loijen

Numerical modelling of turbidity currents in submarine channels Student: Anne Ritsema

Geo-Engineering

Laterally Loaded Piles, Models and Measurements 48 Student: J. Ruigrok

Watermanagement

Validation of SMOS satellite data over Ghana and Burkina Faso Student: A. Poelstra

Onderzoek naar verbrakking Polder Westzaan Student: I. Gozuberk

Analyzing the effects of large-scale green roof implementation in Singapore Student: J. van Spengen

Clogging of permeable pavements in semi-arid areas Student: M. Amirjani

Observing tidal slack in the Scheldt estuary Student: M. Lievens

Low cost disdrometer Student: S.A.P. de Jong

Swale filter drain system: The inflow – discharge relation. Student: E. A. Donkers

Conditioning of aggressive water Student: J.C.J. Gude

73 | Master’s Theses March 2012 6 Last year’s Theses

Master’s Theses October 2010

Civil Engineering theses Design tool for determining the sustainability of structural designs Structural Engineering Student: F.T. Tool

Structural Failure in the Netherlands Crack formation in structural slabs on underwater Student: W.F. Boot concrete Student: W.H. van der Woerdt Special Nodes in Ultra High Performance Concrete Student: Hasan Han Hydraulic Engineering

Corrosion of steel reinforcement in 12 years old concrete: “Layout design for greenfield port Filyos” Inspection, evaluation and electrochemical repair of corro- Student: L.B. Donders sion Student: J. Pacheco Farias Undesired reshaping of exposed core material Student: P.H.M. Mulders Design of walls with linear elastic finite element methods Student: M. Romans Experimental research on spatial distribution of overtopping V-shaped pylon concept Student: A. Lioutas Student: J. van Weerdenburg Sharp bend flow The feasibility of full 3D modeling of concrete viaducts Student: A. van Sabben Student:N.W. Kostense Analysis of the Carbon Footprint of coastal protection Autogenous and drying shrinkage systems Student: Jan van Capellen Student: A.L. Labrujere

Phenomenological modeling of ice induced vibrations of An analysis of vessel behaviour based on AIS data flexible offshore structures Student: Thijs de Boer Student: H. Hendrikse Tidal influence on sediment transport and bed level in The effect of the introduction of the eurocode on the the river Merwede safety level of excisting platebridges Student: A.L. de Jongste (MSc Hydraulic Engineering) Student: Frank Schotman Aeolian transport on beach based on field measurement Building Engineering on the Dutch coast Student: Marion Coquet (Coastal engineering) Damage investigations in concrete buildings Student: Carolina Miró-Downey “The influence of core permeability on armour layer stability” Sustainable Facade for the Energy museum Student: H.D. Jumelet Student: S. Esmailzadeh Behaviour of segment joints in immersed tunnels under Structural feasibility study and design of a portable seismic loading stadium Student: Ruben van Oorsouw Student: A.H. den Hollander Numerical modeling of sediment transport over hydraulic “Parametric Collaboration Tool” from architectural input structures to engineering output Student: Vincent Vuik Student: Oswald Verbergt

74 | Master’s Theses March 2012 6 Last year’s Theses

Cross-shore morphological response on Chaland Head- Transport & Planning land due to Hurricanes Gustav and Ike Student: S.N. Kuiper Dynamic Speed Limits: Extension and Application Student: Ilse Schelling Cobble Sea Defence: Hydraulic Interface Stability of Sand underlying a Single Filter Layer Student: Arthur Zoon

Model a dynamic equilibrium of yearly averaged salinity in the Pontchartrain Basin Student: S. van den Heuvel

Failure of rubble mound breakwater’s armor layer Student: unknown

Behaviour of nourishments in quasi 3-dimensional graded sediment models Student: unknown

Pilot Sand Groynes Delfland Coast Student: unknown

Dong Lam Cement Factory Student: W.A. (Wouter) Broersen

Probablistisch diepteontwerp voor binnengebied haven Rotterdam Student: Y. Abdelouarit

New Profile for the Amsterdam-Rhinecanal Student: L. Lievense

Master plan Porto Romano Bay, Albania Student: M.K. Kersten

Geo-Engineering

Bentonite cavities in diaphragm walls Student: A.J. Lubach

The adaptation of the method URUP for the Netherlands Student: A.J. Beijer

Process and stability of slow moving landslides Student: Eva Johanna Sloof

Modelling horizontal soil deformations Student: C.W.J. te Boekhorst

75 | Master’s Theses March 2012 6 Research Groups and professors within the faculty

Research groups and professors within the faculty of Civil Engineering and Geosciences

Specialisation Name Telephone 015-27. . . . .

Structural Engineering

Structural Mechanics Research Group Construction mechanics Prof. J.G. Rots 83799 Dynamics Prof. A.C.W.M. Vrouwenvelder 84782 Numerical mechanics Prof. L.J. Sluys 82728 AVL Wave Dynamics Prof.dr. A. Metrikine 84749

Materials and Environment Research Group Betonmodellering & Materiaalgedrag Prof. K. van Breugel 84954 Experimental Micromechanics Dr.ir. H.E.J.G. Schlangen 86535 Materials and Durability Prof.dr. R.B. Polder Resource Engineering & Materials Recycling Prof.dr.ir. P.C. Rem 83617

Road and Rail Engineering Research Group Road Construction Prof. A.A.A. Molenaar 84812 Raiway Engineering Dr.ir R.P.B.J. Dollevoet

Structural and BuildingEngineering Research Group Concrete modelling & materials Prof.ir. A.Q.C. van der Horst 87014 Timber structures Prof.dr.ir. J.W. van de Kuilen 82322 Steel Structures Prof. F.S.K. Bijlaard 84581 Constructive Design Prof.dr.ir. R. Nijsse

Design and Construction Processes Integral Design, Maintain and Operate of Civil Infrastructures Prof.dr.ir. M.J.C.M. Hertogh 84921

Hydraulic Engineering

Fluid Mechanics Research Group Environmental Fluid Mechanics Prof.dr.ir. G.S. Stelling 85426 Fluid Mechanics Prof.dr.ir. W.S.J. Uijttewaal 81371 Sediment Dynamics Prof.dr.ir. J.C. Winterwerp 84582 Physical Oceanography Prof.dr. J.D. Pietrzak 89455

Hydraulic and Offshore Engineering Research Group Probabilistic design and Hydraulic Structures Prof. J.K. Vrijling 85278 Coastal Engineering Prof. M.J.F. Stive 84285 Ports and Inland Waterways Prof.ir. T. Vellinga 85075 River morphology & River Engineering Prof. H.J. de Vriend 81541 Morphodynamics of Lagoons and Estuaries Prof.dr.ir. Z.B. Wang 85075

Water Management

Sanitary Engineering Research Group Sewerage Prof. F.H.L.R. Clemens 83347 Environmental Waste Water Treatment Prof.dr.ir. J.B. van Lier 81615 Innovative Water Technologies Prof.dr.ir. W.G.J. van der Meer Water and Health Prof.dr. G.J. Medema 89128 Urban Water Cycle Technology Prof.dr.ir. L.C. Rietveld 84732

76 | Master’s Theses March 2012 6 Last year’s Theses

Specialisation Name Telephone 015-27. . . . .

Water Resources Research Group Hydrology Prof. H.H.G. Savenije 81433 Water Management Prof. N.C. van de Giesen 87180 Water Resources Management and Earth Observations Prof.dr. W.G.M. Bastiaanssen 85717 Groundwater Exploration Prof. Th. N. Olsthoorn 87346 Experimental Hydrology Prof.dr. S. Uhlenbrook 82110 Water Resources Management and Earth Observations Prof. Bastiaanssen 85717 Science System Assessement Prof. W. van Vierssen 87346

Transport & Planning

Transport Modelling Prof.dr.ir. B. van Arem 86342 Traffic Safety Prof.ir. F.C.M. Wegman Transport and Traffic Networks Dr. R.A. Zuidwijk 83346 Traffic, Infrastructure Prof.ir. L.H. Immers Infrastructure Planning Prof. F.M. Sanders 81780 Traffic Management Prof. S.P. Hoogendoorn 85475

Geoscience & Engineering

Applied Geology Research Group General Geology Prof.dr. G. Bertotti 86025 Production Geology Prof. S.M. Luthi 86019 Geoscience Integration Prof.dr. S.A. Petersen Carbonate Sedimentology Prof.dr. J.J.G. Reijmer 86033

Resource Engineering Research Group

Petroleum Engineering Research Group Oil- and Gas production systems Prof.dr. P.L.J. Zitha 86033 Reservoir Technology Prof. W.R. Rossen 86038 Reservoir Systems & Control Prof.dr.ir. J.D. Jansen 87838

Applied Geophysics and Petrophysics Geophysical Imaging Methods Prof. W.A. Mulder 83666 Technical Geophysics Prof. C.P.A. Wapenaar 82848 Geophysical Electromagnetic Methods Prof.dr. E. Slob 88732 Natural Resource Engineering Vacancy Environmental and Prof.dr. S.A.P.L. Cloetingh Resources Techtonics

Geo Engineering Research Group Soil Mechanics Prof. M.A. Hicks 87433 Foundation Engineering Prof. A.F. van Tol 85478 Underground Space Construction Prof. J.W. Bosch 82844

Geosciences & Remote Sensing Research Group Remote Sensing of the Earth Atmohsphere Prof.dr. P.F. Levelt

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78 | Master’s Theses March 2012