Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | , 1,5 , T. Foken 4 , Y. Ma 3 , F. Sun 1,** 4632 4631 , K. Fuchs 2 , M. Herzog 1 2 , W. Babel 1,2,* now at: Institute of Agricultural Science, ETH Zürich, Zurich, Switzerland This discussion paper is/has beenSciences under (HESS). review Please for refer the to journal the Hydrology corresponding and final Earth paper System in HESS if available. Department of Micrometeorology, University of Bayreuth,Centre Bayreuth, for Germany Atmospheric Science, Department of Geography, University of Cambridge, Cold and Arid Regions Environmental and Engineering Research Institute, Chinese Key Laboratory of Tibetan Environment Changes and Land Surface Processes, Institute of Member of Bayreuth Center of Ecology and Environment Research (BayCEER), now at: Department of Meteorology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, and H.-F. Graf 1 2 Cambridge, UK 3 Academy of Sciences, Lanzhou,4 China Tibetan Plateau Research, Chinese AcademyTibetan of Plateau Sciences, Earth5 CAS Sciences, Center Beijing, for China Excellence in Bayreuth, Germany * PA, USA ** Received: 27 March 2015 – Accepted: 18Correspondence April to: 2015 T. Gerken – ([email protected]) Published: 4 MayPublished 2015 by Copernicus Publications on behalf of the European Geosciences Union. High-resolution modelling of interactions between soil moisture and convection development in mountain enclosed Tibetan basin T. Gerken Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. Discuss.,www.hydrol-earth-syst-sci-discuss.net/12/4631/2015/ 12, 4631–4675, 2015 doi:10.5194/hessd-12-4631-2015 © Author(s) 2015. CC Attribution 3.0 License. Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | ect atmo- ff 15 mm and a destabilisation > 4634 4633 ects on the carbon and hydrological cycles (Babel et al., 2014) ff ects on the hydrological cycle are likely enhanced due to changes in phenology The triggering of deep convection over topography is a major source of precipitation Surface–atmosphere interactions through the exchange of momentum, turbulent en- ff of the atmospheric profile (Taniguchiopment and leading, Koike to2008). the triggering A ofon diurnal the local cycle Tibetan convection before Plateau in noon and cloud is isUeno devel- commonly organised et observed by, al. thermal valley-circulations2009; , (i.e. Yatagai ThisUeno, 2001; organisation1998; ofKuwagata local et circulation al., leadsand to2001; to daytimeKurosaki night-time precipitation over precipitation and mountain from, Kimura ridges convergence). 2002 in the basin centre (Ueno et al., 2009). in semi-arid mountainous environmentset (e.g al., Banta2004). and The Barker summerprecipitable monsoon Schaaf, water season1987; in isGochis the associated atmosphere with from an increase approx. of 5 the to total (i.e. Flohn, 1952; Gao etmain al., driver of1981; theYanai Indian et monsoon al., but system1992). acts (Molnar This et to al., heating modify2010; it isBoosAsian and probably and precipitation, influences not Kuang 2010 ), (i.e. regional the atmosphericLiang circulation andatmospheric as, Wang circulation well1998; as modelsZhou Eastern et dorelevant al., hydrological not).2004 processes have While on a conventional thecoupled high local surface scale, enough model, cloud-resolving resolution as modelsfor introduced to with the by resolve a systematicPatton fully the investigation et ofopment al. (2005), surface–atmosphere and present interactions, locally a convection generated devel- valuable precipitation. tool ergy and water vapourthus influence play the an energy balance important ofscale role the the surface-energy surface in balance and impacts the local the precipitation. development plateau’s On role of the as plateau an convection elevated and heat source cryosphere (i.e. Yao et al., E ; 2007 Ni, 2011; Kang etand al., length; 2010 ofYang et the2014). al., growing According2011, to season). 2014 Immerzeel (Shen etAsia et al.(2010) live more, al. than in2014; 1.4 theChe billionimportant catchments people et to of in al., gain rivers South-East a2014 ; originating betterZhang on understanding et the of the Tibetan al., hydrological Plateau. processes It in is the therefore region. The Tibetan Plateau has anlargest average mountain elevation of highland. more Land-use/land-coverand than change, 4500 Wu m such2007) and and as iset the grassland permafrost al., world’s ),2006 degradation (Cheng but or also deforestation e (Cui and, Graf 2009; Cui Abstract The Tibetan Plateau plays a significantmonsoon role in system. the Turbulent atmospheric surface circulation fluxes andto the and Asian deep the and evolution of moistsurface boundary convection energy layer provide balance clouds a on feedback scalesThis work system that analyses are that the currently land modifies unresolved surface’son the role in and the Plateau’s mesoscale specifically triggering models. the influence ofnorth of convection soil of at moisture Lhasa a using a cross-sectionThe cloud modelled of resolving turbulent the atmospheric fluxes and model Nam development withwith Co of a the convection Lake fully compare observed basin, reasonably coupled weather. well surface. The 150 km that simulations convection span development Bowen-ratios is of strongest 0.5 atsoils to intermediate close soil 2.5. moistures. to It Dry is the cases found permanentopment, with wilting while point convection in are wet moistureincoming soil limited solar moisture in radiation cases and the is sensible convectionface limited heat devel- energy by fluxes. balance. This cloud This has cover study a reducing important also strong mechanism shows impact for that on the local the upward developmentlake sur- transport of basin of convection that is water can vapour an then that bedemonstrate originates transported the from to importance the dryer of regionsthe of soil energy the moisture plateau. and and Both hydrological surface–atmosphere processes cycles interactions of on the Tibetan Plateau. 1 Introduction spheric circulation and hydrological resources of the Tibetan Plateau, especially the are associated with overuse of resources and climate change. They also a 5 5 25 20 15 10 10 15 20 25 Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | erent atmospheric profiles ff ective for these processes. Yang ff erent structures of convection and ff 4636 4635 during wet conditions (Gerken et al., 2012). As 2 − erent spatial and temporal scales, interactions on the seasonal scale are ff ects were simulated for Nam Co Lake as the result of a combined lake-breeze ther- Compared to studies over flat terrain, much less is known about soil-moisture con- Observed Bowen-ratios at Nam Co station vary from 3 to 0.5, with maximum la- We previously investigated surface–atmosphere interactions, the development of The influence of the monsoon declines to the North on the Tibetan Plateau (Tian ff pendence on the modellutions resolution led to in predominantly thelayer negative above Alpine the feedbacks, region. boundary caused Convection layer, byshowed while permitting the lower positive resolutions reso- presence feedbacks. with of Similarly, parameterized aBarthlott convection stable et al.(2011) and Hauck et al.(2011) vection feedbacks above complex topography. Hohenegger et(2009) al. found a de- scale can induce regionalconvection triggering circulations on that the enhance Tibetanprecipitation Plateau, convection. at such Due Nam processes to might Co also Lake. the play localized a role for tent heat fluxes exceeding 400 Wm well documented (e.g. Fischer et al., well2007). understood. Interactions onClark shorter et time(2004) al. scales are has less shown that moisture variability on the 10 km- on convection and precipitationies was highlighted investigated the (Gerken importance et ofprecipitation surface–atmosphere al. , and interactions2013a). convection. in These the generation stud- of a consequence Nam Co Lakestrong can soil be moisture-climate classified as couplingof a (Seneviratne feedbacks semi-arid et between transitional al., land-surface regionwell2010). with moisture, known, While rainfall there the and isresulting existence convection disagreement feedback development (Barthlott on is et the al. , (2001), dominating2011). increased Following processes the soil and mechanism moistureable by the increases energyPal sign the and and of Eltahir lowers boundary the the At layer’s lifting the total condensation same convective time, level. avail- decreased Boththe solar increase radiation available moist input energy convection. due and toand larger thus Eltahir, cloud convective2001; coverPan development can et reduce (Seneviratneon, al. et1996). many While al., di soil-moisture; 2010 atmospherePal interactions occur Lake. It was shown thatnamics the of the model Nam can Co reproduce Basin. the Subsequently, the most impact important of di atmospheric dy- mesoscale circulations andIn theGerken evolution et of al.(2014)the convection we cloud-resolving applied in ATHAM (Active a the Tracer surface High-resolutionhuber Nam Atmospheric model et Model Co (Gerken al., – et1998; LakeOber- Herzog al., basin. et2012), al., coupled1998) to and analysed convective triggering at Nam Co mada, 2008). Their research highlights thesource importance of of the the boundary precipitated layer water asConvection during a and major night-time precipitation and at ofbody Nam locally (Li Co generated et convection. Lake al., are2009) both and influenced the complex by topography the (Maussion lake’s et water al., 2011, 2014). et al., , 2001 plateau2003 , becomes).2007 essential At in the keeping the same regional time water local cycle moisture active (Kurita recycling and on Ya- the central Modelling studies (Kuwagata et al., )2001 termined and remote valley sensing scales, (Yatagai )2001 of haveet 160–240 de- km2004) al.( to have be alsofound most secondary investigated e triggering thermal of circulations convectionfronts within on Tibetan caused the valleys as by Tibetan a convectivee Plateau result events of and cold-pool that weremal triggered mountain over circulation the (Gerkenimum mountains. et cloud Similar al., top2014). heightsand Uyeda 15:00 of LT. Yamada et 17 and kma.s.l. al.(2001)(2006) Uyeda precipitation found measured in on di max- the the Nagqu Tibetanfaces. basin Plateau, Dry occurring which surfaces were during betweenre-evaporation associated the of 12:00 precipitation, pre-monsoon with while led dry moistcloud to surfaces and bases during a moist and the high higher sur- monsoon cloud rates yieldedmada, of lower base2008) deposited and confirmed precipitation. increased A thisdry modelling process investigation case. (Ya- and Hence, showed complexenvironmental stronger conditions interaction convective are of essential motion for localcycle for the on and the evolution the of larger Tibetan clouds Plateau. scale and circulation the hydrological with local 5 5 25 20 10 15 25 20 10 15 Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | 6 h or two hours + 4638 4637 E. It is situated in 300 m distance to a small lake, 0 57.72 ◦ N, 90 0 46.44 ◦ This work uses mean local time throughout, which is close to UTC The soil was characterized in 2009 (Biermann et, al. 2009) and the vegetation clas- As described in Gerken et(2014), al. the TK2/3 software package ( Mauder and Fo- It is, therefore, key to understand soil moisture precipitation dynamics and its feed- sification was reassessed in 2012wetlands (Gerken close to et the al., lake,2014, thetated basin see and1). and Table classed Except surroundings as of for the alpine some the station meadow are Nam and sparsely steppe Co vege- (Mügler Lake17 et al., basin July2010). and 00:00 Figure1 UTC. includesshows a The the low permanent soil flight wilting is path pointelling estimated (PWP) of of at to the 2 5 %. % radiosonde have Whilegood is launched little the agreement field very for water of capacity measured small, retention used and it for capacity simulated the is fluxes and mod- in notGerken unreasonably et al.(2012). low for a sandy soil and produced to the Bowen-ratio (Twine etNam al., Co2000). Lake Additional candes information be on about found Totex-TA600 balloons flux in were dynamicswithBiermann launched at a et from mobile al.(2014). a portable GPS VaisalaDigiCora RS92-SGP Vaisala III antenna sounding MW21 radioson- and software sytem signals v3.2.1. were processed withbefore the Beijing SPS-220 Standard unit Time. and termined On with 17 the July NationalCalculator as sunrise, Oceanic 23:05, solar and 06:02 noon and Atmospheric 13:00 and UTC. Administration sunset Sunrise/Sunset were de- , ken 2004, 2011) was usedcorrections to and post-process the post-processing high-frequency steps measurements.mann recommended All in et flux Foken al.(2012) et were(2012) al. balance and applied ofReb- to eddy-covariance the measurementsFoken flux et is al., data. inherently2011 ). The Unlike unclosed presenceing surface of (i.e. flux models, stationary,, Foken secondary fraction the circulations2008; of leads energy sured to approx. and a modelled 30 miss- % fluxes, it at is necessary Nam to Co correct eddy-covariances Lake. fluxes Therefore, according before comparing mea- site according to Foken andas(2012). Falke well Standard as atmospheric moisture and measurements soil were temperature also carried out. the implications for locally triggered, convective precipitation at Nam Co Lake. 2 Material and methods 2.1 Site description Nam Co Lake, approx. elevationand 4730 just ma.s.l., to is the locatedpeak North circa heights of 150 km the of North Nyenchen5230 more m of Thangla than (Liu Lhasa mountain et 7000 chain, m. al., versity which).2010 The of has Between Bayreuth average maximum 6 conducted elevation a Julythe of Institute and field of experiment the 6 Tibetan at Plateau August Nam Research,Lake Nam 2012 Chinese Co Monitoring Co scientists Academy and of Lake basin from Research Sciences. in the The is Stationlocated cooperation Nam Uni- for Co with at Multisphere Interactions 30 (Ma et al., )2009 is backs at Nam Codrological Lake cycle and on similar theinteractions basins between Tibetan the to Plateau lake, gain the scale.atmosphere a surrounding This in basin better the work with development understanding complex investigates of topography ofmoist boundary-layer the and convection. clouds the the role We and hy- analyse of their (1) evolutionmoisture, the into the (2) deep sensitivity of the convection modificationtween development surface-fluxes, to of specifically surface the evapotranspiration, surface and energy-balance cloud through development and feedbacks (3) be- found considerable feedbacks between soil-moistureable and sign precipitation, of but the with feedback. a They vari- identified convective inhibition as a major cause. which is dividedbridge. from The Nam experiment Co isreleased Lake documented on in to 8Gerken days thecovariance between et flux northwest measurements 17(2013b). al. were through and Radiosondes performedKH2O-Krypton 29 a were with Hygrometer July a 500 m (both CSAT-3 for sonic anemometer Campbell 00:00, wide and Scientific). 06:00 land- The and KH2O 12:00 UTC. was Eddy- calibrated on 5 5 25 20 15 10 15 20 10 25 Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | erence between ff 50 m (Wang et al., ).2009 The > 4640 4639 vertical coordinate, and can be run both in 2-D and 3-D mode. z The 2-D domain used in this work has the same configuration as in Gerken et al. The simulations in this work include the following physical processes, and are similar to the work inand longwave (Gerken radiation et (Mlawer et al., Turbulence closure al., is2013a):1997), of 1.5-order bulk-microphysics Shortwave and (Herzog predicts radiationkinetic et both energy (Langmann al., turbulent (horizontal length1998). et scale and and vertical) al., land turbulent (Herzog surface1998) et model al., (Friend2003). etand The al., the modified1997; Coupled Hybrid Ocean–AtmosphereFriend (v6) and Response(Fairall et Experiment, Kiang al., (COARE)2005; 1996a,b) –Gerken water algorithmland et surface v2 al. , and scheme2012) water. compute Nam turbulentsurface Co energy model fluxes Lake and above the has coupled a systemet were mean al., shown depth to2012, perform of 2013a, wellextensive for2014) model this and description. site the (Gerken reader is referred to2.3 these publications for Model a setup more and cases Due to themountains, almost it parallel is orientation possiblesuch of to as Nam simulate the the Co dirunal system’sinteraction Lake most cycle between and important of locally the generated dynamical turbulentD Nyenchen clouds features fluxes, approach and Thangla the the (Gerken formation complex et of topography a al., using lake-breeze2013a, a and 2- 2014 ). the Our model domain cuts across the lake, Tracers, including all hydrometeors, are active.particle This mixture means and that heat the capacityof density of all of the tracers the fluid (Oberhuber gas- are et influenced al., by1998). the local concentration the Nam CoThangla station, mountain as chain, which locationthe is of glaciated of peaks our relatively in low measurements, the height Western and at range. The this through maximum location the elevation compared di Nyenchen to uppermost 50 model layers.pography The we vertical use domain extends themoving window to 90 was m 17.5 used kma.g.l. to resolution smoothopment For ASTER the has the topography digital a within to- the negligible elevation basin,Gerken sensitivity model. convection et to devel- al.(2013a). While the Outside window a theevation size Nam 2 as km Co as the basin shown lake. the in Surface topographyof energy the is fluxes the supplement set are horizontal to to gradually boundary, the reduced as samesystem to we el- enclosed zero are in by interested the mountains in vecinity tions the and for behaviour hills. momentum, of In hydrometeor the tracers contrast mountain-lake the and to initialized water profile cyclic vapour are lateral concentrations removed, whithoutsimulations exceeding boundary are introducing condi- integrated a from density 04:00 perturbation. tothe The 20:00. 2-D suitability The of model time-step the iswith 2-D 2.5 s. a simulations, To 3-D assess we compare simulationin the of three convection the dimensions. development cross-section The inizontal that 3-D 2-D and allows simulation spans vertical for the the dimensionresolution same triggering and is domain identical of is to in convection integrated the the80 2-D over km principal simulations, the the hor- and first horizontal thus domain 12a resolves h. the the grid While lake central stretching the basin to vertical and span topographic the elements total at domain 200 with m a and total then of applies 490 grid points. The second (2013a) with atal total resolution extent of of 200resolution 153.6 m. km and There divided then are into stretching 175 770 to vertical grid resolution layers with points of the with 200 m, first a which 50 horizon- is layers kept at constant 50 m for the the lake level andsetup the does mountain not permit chaininfluence flow is of around approximately topography. the 800 mountain m. chain, As we the expect 2-D to overestimate modelling the 2.2 Model description The non-hydrostatic, cloud resolvinget ATHAM al., model, 1998 ),2003 (Oberhuber used in eteruption this al., study plumes has1998 ; (Graf originally beenHerzog et developedplumes to, al. (e.g. simulate volcanic 1999).Trentmann et Subsequently,, al. itThe2006) was model and applied uses atmospheric to applications a biomass-burning Guo ( et al., 2004). 5 5 15 20 25 10 10 15 20 25 Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | . 1 − , which corre- 2 T FC between the × and FC in the 3-D setup. 1 FC). The lake surface × T × as clouds. 1 0.4 − = gkg 3 C. For the complete description of − ◦ 10 > t ects, which are not included in the model, q ff ) of 4.5 throughout the model domain, which exhib- FC. These cases are subsequently referred 0 erence in the cloud base height, while cloud 1 T FC”). ff 4642 4641 × − × activity. Gerken et(2013a) al. showed that the C, which is reported by Haginoya et(2009) al. as ◦ ) as defined by Wu et al.(2009): c C as layer mean temperatures the integration area, are displayed in Fig.4. We com- ◦ Z z d x Cumulonimbus for the 3-D simulation are slightly higher than in the 2-D case, indi- FC case corresponds to a realistic surface initialisation for 17 July, c , (1) × Z z z d d x x d d t z t is the level and d q q z RR direction. The lateral boundary in this dimension is fully cyclic. RR y = 17 July 2012 was selected as the basis for the investigations presented in this work While the 2.0 The first two columns of Fig.3 show the development of vertical velocities and cloud c where 3 Results and discussion 3.1 Comparison of 2-D vs. 3-D While 2-D simulations oftigate deep the convection development triggering areCarreras of frequently et used convection, al. to (i.e. 2011),ment inves- they inWu their may et convective overestimate plumesthe al., convection (e.g. analysis due2009; Petch by et to comparingKirshbaum, , al. the the2011; 2008). convection lack development AsGarcia- for of a case entrain- consequence, 2.0 we start pare the 2-D casethe with additional the dimension. There corresponding is value little of di the 3-D simulation averaged over 2-D and 3-D simulations.liquid As water in contentsGerken (both et water and al. (2013a) ice) we of consider grid elements with top heights and cating stronger convection. This issame also time, reflected the in timingthe the two deposited of cases. precipitation. the This At precipitation istrainment the for somewhat with the counter-intuitive, two 3-D as case distinct one and would peaks less expect strong is increased convection. However similar en- due to between the topographic temperature is initialised with 10 horizontal dimensions spans 10the km with 200 m resolution and uniform topography in model realistically reproduced theprofiles observed for weather temperature and and moisture. theprofiles2 Figure evolution deriveddisplays of from the the the temperature 00:00mospheric vertical and UTC moisture profile radiosounding is of reduced 17no to July. The closed a initial maximum cloud RH ofdiosonde of cover 90 would %. the at lead at- This the to is anAs time reasonable overestimation the as of of relative there focus the humidities was of atthe sounding this initial the so geostrophic respective work wind level. that is isited set cloud the the to investigation passages most 3 ms realistic of of convection in thewhich aGerken 2-D impacts et simulations ra- al.(2014). of are This very varying also sensitive avoids was soil (i.e. windKirshbaum initialised shear moisture, and with to , Durran 6.82004). and The model 2.6 we leave soil temperaturesmoisture gradually and to thus the soil permanent wilting heat point contents (PWP unmodifiedNam Co and Lake’s mean reduce surface soil temperature in July and August for 2006–2008. cover at several heights for 10:00 and 11:00 LT for the case 2.0 as this day was free of large-scale synoptic e and showed a characteristicto evolution locally from clear generated sky with few boundary-layer clouds During this time boundary layerinto clouds a that convective form plume nearvelops that the further. reaches mountains Overall, 9 this and kma.g.l. results hills in at develop maximum 10:30 updraft LT strengths (not in shown) excess and of 10 then ms de- to by their initial soil moisture (e.g. “1.0 sponds to an initial surface temperature ( Subsequently, the cloud development inand centre terms of of the cloud cloud base mass height, ( cloud top height Z the Hybrid surface model initialisation themoisture reader in is referred the to surfaceGerken model etthe is al.(2012). amount Soil initialised of as water a aof soil fraction soil can of moisture hold field on against capacity convective gravity. Inlations (FC), development, we order to which set to 2.0, is investigate the 1.5, the initial 1.0, influence soil 0.75, moisture 0.5 of and the 0.4 simu- 5 5 25 20 10 15 25 10 15 20 Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | h × Q ) as well as H FC and 2.0 Q × FC, while 1.5 × FC. While the incoming solar radiation erence, so that simulated solar radiation × ) and sensible heat fluxes ( ff E Q 4644 4643 ciently similar to focus on a 2-D approach to further evaluate ffi FC resembles most closely the measurements, while the moister erences in the structure of convective evolution, the resulting con- × ff FC corresponds to a realistic surface initialisation. A comparison of simulated and × Eddy-covariance measurements have a footprint area of similar magnitude as Despite some di and would thus changeable the to Bowen-ratio reproduce considerably. turbulent The fluxof Hybrid measurement surface observed at model soil the was Namshowed moistures that Co (Gerken many station land et for surface aa al., models wide consequence, tend2012 ). range to we Additionally, reproduce assumeKracher measuredance in Bowen-ratios. et closure As this (Twine al.(2009) et work, al. agreement that2000) the between is Bowen-ratio the applicable method and diurnalinitalisations of that and evolution the energy there of measured is bal- fluxes. modelled an overall fluxes reasonable for the moister surface measured fluxes inf Fig.5 andafternoon g are shows lower that than measuredshow the median similar measured simulated magnitudes. ones, fluxes This while in isvection the the development likely maximum that due fluxes is to around caused an noon of by overestimation dry the in lack air the of into simulated themeasured convective con- third thermals. by dimension The the and entrainment inherently eddy-covariancedegree unclosed technique of nature, (Foken uncertainty of)2008 into turbulentserved the introduces fluxes mean comparison an of of additional the modelednet ground and radiation heat measured (Biermann flux fluxes. et atenergy The the al., balance ob- Nam2014), unclosed. Co leaving Using station approximatelyconserves the is the 30 energy % observed in balance of Bowen-ratio, the while correction theaccording order the of to total recently ofCharuchittipanTwine proposed surface 30 et et buoyancy % al.(2014) correction al.(2000) of would attribute most of the unclosed flux to ATHAM’s grid cells. Nevertheless, the same problemto of comparing a point measurements distributed simulationnal applies. development Overall, of there fluxes,2.0 is with a a decrease general of agreement turbulent in fluxes the in diur- the afternoon. Case flux for all cases appearsradiation. to be in reasonable agreement with the measured shortwave FC show a slightlysoil weaker moisture decline on during cloud theformation, development. afternoon. Larger which This latent is highlights heat further thefluxes fluxes discussed impact were lead in of measured to the at increased nextfluxes Nam cloud sections. Co Solar are station, radiation for and while theimpossible surface the to total surface directly model model compare a calculated domain. singleit surface model Due is grid-cell possible to to the to the measuredbasin say data. statistic for that However, case nature the 0.75 median, ofcases simulated turbulence, have solar it lower radiation simulated is flux solarof within irradiation. fluxes the At as Nam the indicated Co same by time the there interquartile is di large variation initially follows theradiation clear seen sky in radiation, bothdecrease the there in simulations is incoming and solar a the radiation measured is reduction strongest fluxes of for after 1.0 downward solar noon. shortwave This incoming solar radiation (SWD). TheCo last station. panel As shows expected, the theat observed Bowen-ratio quantities changes PWP at from to Nam approx. 2.5 0.5 for for the dry the surface moist surface at 2.0 forcing clouds are organisedanticipated. in Our bands results so are comparable thatstronger to cloud entrainmentGarcia-Carreras development is et in), al.(2011 the of 3-D whoentrainment less case. also of This importance had might dry be than air due due to to the the absence limited of lateral extent and cyclic nature of the third dimension. contents in Hybrid leads to aof shift the in simulated the Bowen-ratio. median Figure5 turbulentdisplays the latent diurnal ( cycle vective development is su the behaviour of the system. 3.2 Turbulent fluxes We investigate the locally drivenconvection evolution as from is boundary-layer frequently clouds observed to at precipitating Nam Co Lake. Variation of initial soil moisture 5 5 20 25 10 15 20 25 15 10 Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | FC FC × × FC and × , the Nam Co plain ect on modelled soil erent cases and that ff ff FC, afternoon precipitation FC case. × × FC, demonstrating a soil moisture limited usion between soil layers for transport and × ff 4645 4646 FC, which in fact has a lower actual evapotran- use to direct radiation is small compared to more ff × FC and 0.75 × FC case. Between these two cases, the surface has switched × FC has the largest potential evapotranspiration, while 1.5 × FC case (Fig.6c). Potential evapotranspiration, as calculated in Hybrid, is unlike FC as the moistest cases in fact have the lowest. Additionally, for case 1.5 FC leads to a similarly big increase in evapotranspiration. This increase, however, × × × Figure7 shows the importance of soil moisture for the energy balance of the Nam Co When looking at the evaporation from the surface of Nam Co Lake (Fig.6d) it be- Simulated evapotranspiration is expected to show a strong dependency on soil mois- spiration than the 1.5 eraged model outputs, leading tois some striking uncertainties that in 1.0 its magnitude. Nevertheless, it from a moisture limited regimein to cloud a cover. radiation At limited the1.0 one same due time, to estimated an potentialthe additional evapotranspiration other increase peaks quantities not for a the standard model output and had to be estimated with 5 min av- processes. Due to the cleanits atmosphere high (i.e. elevation,Cong the et fraction al. , of2009) di at Nam Co Lake and basin. Turbulent surface fluxes are integrated overbalance space and on time. The the surface energy- Tibetan Plateau is of key importance for understanding hydrological is no longer true for the case 2.0 2.0 the lake’s daytime evaporation isthan with the less land than evpotranspiration 0.5 of mmexhibit even is a the approximately strong driest 50 diurnal % case.ment pattern Additionally, smaller the to in lakeBiermann simulated does et evaporation. not evaporation. al.(2014), This who is did in not reasonable find agree- a diurnal cycle in the measured lake basin, which is defined fromextent the on lake to the the northers topare of also side the presented. of Nyenchen Overall, Thangla sensible theimportance and heat lake. an fluxes of equal from For Nam the completeness Co lakevery the are Lake dependent negligible, for whole on while the latent domain the initial energyintegrated values soil fluxes latent moisture compared conditions: heat for with fluxes thefluxes the from cases from plain-area the PWP plain the and is area, 0.5 lake whereas for have the almost moister cases the they are same comparatively magnitude small. as the comes apparent that there is almost no variation between the di ture for the relatively dry cases.spiration Indeed between there is cases a 0.5 large increaseregime in as simulated discussed evapotran- in Seneviratne1.5 et). al.(2010 A further doubling of soil moisture to actual evapotranspiration approaches potentialtransition evapotranspiration. from a In soil addition moistureback limited to to evident the a between radiation soil limitedthe regime, moisture generation there and is of also convection wind,tion. a development, precipitation This feed- which will and be acts the further trough reduction discussed in of Sect. incoming3.4. shortwave radia- polluted environments so thata clouds, stronger through influence modificationchanges of on in the the the Bowen-ratio, net surface there radiation, isdue energy a have to strong balance soil modification than of moisture. theof We in surface separated the energy other budget the lake, regions. integrated the surface Through non-elevated energy land fluxes around into the the area lake, referred to as leads to soil moistures inmoisture the and upper similar layer to that soil are moistures slightly as larger the than moister the 1.5 initialised soil moisture. The surface model Hybrid hasture, which a comparatively includes simple drainage, treatment molecular ofevapotranspiration di and soil precipitation mois- as sources andcreasing sinks. tendency While of there soil is moistureevents a can during general replenish de- the the courbse soil of with water. the In simulations, the precipitation case of 1.0 3.3 Soil moisture – evapotranspiration response Immediately connected to turbulenthydrological response flux of dynamics the Nam andsoil Co of moisture basin is and central the evapotranspiration. importance questionthe Figure6 of simulated fordisplays the cases. the the The relationship first between soil panelas moisture shows a variables the function development for of of field soilent capacity moisture that for expressed evapotranspiration the during upper the model diurnal layer. From scale Fig.6 hasit a becomes large appar- e 5 5 20 25 15 10 25 20 15 10 Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | at FC FC c FC. ) in- × × erent × M w ff ect surface ff erence in FC and 1.0 ff × erent evolution. As ff ) reveals a predispo- FC there is a di e θ × FC has the largest transfer × ) and vertical velocity ( ρ fluxes are necessary to provide E Q erences in precipitation a ff erences in convective development are 0 (Fig.9). Cases 0.75 ff FC, which is associated cloud cover, while w > FC on the other hand have a slightly stronger 4647 4648 × FC) have a stronger cloud development before × erences in the amount of generated convection, ff × FC is less strong. For 0.75 × : FC and 1.0 z FC and 2.0 cient moisture for the development of convection and the re- × ffi × FC and 1.0 FC cases show only limited or isolated convection before solar × × , (2) A d defined as the product of moist density ( c ρw M Z = , cloud bottom and cloud top height. While all simulations lead to the development ) c z Z ( These three regimes become especially visible, when analysing the convective In general, there is a rather complicated behaviour of integrated energy fluxes for the During the course of the day, boundary-layer clouds forming at the beginning of the c expected for the simulated cases. simulation grow into moist deep convectionmain. that Figure8 producesdisplays precipitation the in simulated averaged the cloudas model liquid do- water concentration, as well of deep convection, there are somethe di convective timing and dynamicsdrier as PWP well as and deposited 0.5 noon precipitation (Sect. and3.5). then The someprecipitation. deeper Cases convection 0.75 around 14:00,and which earlier does triggering not of lead convection to and strong then a stronger release of convective energy behaviour. While there is alsocases. a reduction This in seems fluxes to after onlytransfer 12:00 of lead LT, unlike latent for to heat, the a while moister the temporary transfer reduction of in sensible heat the is3.4 surface as to large as atmosphere for case Convection 0.5 development We investigated the development of locallyserved developed in convection the as Nam it Co is Lakebetween frequently basin. soil ob- As moisture, discussed in Bowen-ratio Sect. tent and3.2 drives turbulentthere convective is surface evolution. a fluxes, Therefore, direct which di interaction to a large ex- strong deep convection, as they14:00 have LT. the This smallest means convective that massfluxand at the 3 is cloud km not around cover associated displayed withheight in strong decreases convective Fig.8e motion. with and At increasing fthe the moisture same develops boundary as time, earlier layer, more the which cloud waterand (2008), base isYamada vapour who accumulates consistent also in found withFurthermore, a the the decreased for the buoyancy investigation intermediate for by cases, their localGolaz wet di surface et case. al. (2001) lease of latent heat. At the same time, the moister simulations also do not develop a similar kink for 1.5 in the afternoon thatsimulations is (Cases accompanied 1.5 with a distinct precipitation event. The moistest the atmosphere with su case has a smalleris transfer a of visible both change latent in and the sensible slope energy. for After 2.0 12:00 LT there are the only simulations5 that km show and a 7 kma.g.l., peak in while convective the massflux in remaining the simulations afternoon show at a di 3 km between the cases,of but the latent dry energy cases lack andinitial the profile strong moisture is for convection quite a moist in3 for subsequent the the release and lowermost afternoon. 6 3 kma.g.l. km, It butsition The then should for equivalent there be is potential convection. a temperature Hence, noted dry profile comparatively that zone ( between large the and integrated over cloudy grid cells with M deep convection is primarilygain driven strength with by height thetion until release of latent buoyancy of energy by latent release the becomes entrainment energy, of it smaller dry than is air. the expected Overall, reduc- there to is little di massflux tegrated for a given height noon and then lack a strong convective triggering in the afternoon. plain and the basin area,breeze, cloud which must cover and be attributed the to evolution of local dynamics convection. 1.5 such as the lake As a consequence the importancearea of decreases the with lake moister as a environmental moisture conditions. source for the surrounding of latent energy from the land surface to the atmosphere, while the moister 2.0 5 5 20 25 10 15 25 20 15 10 Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | (Babel et al., 1 − FC, while the remaining are of similar magnitude 1 × − FC and 1.0 × 4650 4649 ects of locally generated, daytime precipitation. ff meadow were measured at 2 to 6 mmd erent regimes of convective development in the simula- ff Kobresia A closer investigation into the moisture budget of the Nam Co Lake basin (Fig. 10) 2 Table displays the deposited precipitation for the convection simulations in terms Overall, there are three di As was demonstrated in Sect. 3.3 locally generated precipitation has a large influ- further points todefine the two importance control volumes of forlowermost vertical the Nam 3 moisture kma.g.l., Co transport basin: while controlto within control volume 10 volume A the km. B corresponds The region. to horizontal is the We to extent is of the located the top directly control of above volumeswest the is and (see Nyenchen from extends also Thangla the Fig. centre mountain10g ofof chain for the moisture and illustration). domain dominates a It the becomes similarplayed apparent overall extent simulations, moisture that to while the budget the evapotranspiration vertical of north- andterms. transport both precipitation This are control leads comparatively volumes small to forthe all a daytime. dis- net During decrease the nighttime ofshould a moisture lead reversal to in of a the the balancingtions. lower thermal3 of Table controlpresents circulation the the volume and moisture full subsidence A budget, moisturefrom which during balance volume is for A not all to included cases. volume in The B our convective is transport simula- strongest for 0.75 moistest cases. This is inare accordance strongest for to intermediate the initial observationsare soil of over-represented moistures. convective Additionally, in the activity, terms which basin of andmain. deposited the plain precipitation in comparison to the total do- of absolute mass and as6 fraction and of 10 evapotranspiration. % For of theues the entire are evapotranspirated domain smaller moisture between than is commonly depositedtime reported. as of This precipitation. our is These simulations, at val- which leastwater is partially vapour. shorter due The than to lake the the surface typical integration hasIn residence the general, time largest the of spread lake atmospheric with surface 1rest receives to comparatively of 44 less % the precipitation of basin, per recycledconvective which area water. activity. than is We the in observe line increasingThis with precipitation trend expectations, with is as increasing a most soil cool clear moisture. water for body the suppresses driest cases, while it becomes less apparent for the cases are of similar magnitude, underpinning again the preferential convection devel- tation. Several studies have addressedin the Tibetan mechanisms valleys of (e.g. precipitation precipitationKurita from development mesoscale and convective, Yamada systemsoped2008; there precipitation:Ueno (1) are daytime two et isolated typesor,, al. convection in of triggered2009). the locally over case In devel- the ofgeostrophic mountain addition Nam wind chains to Co (Gerken Lake, et atleys al., the through2013a) collision thermal front and between (2) circulationsof the convergence leading our lake-breeze in to study, and the we nighttime the centre only precipitation. discuss of Due the the to e val- the nature tions for Nam Coment Lake requires that the are availability of associated moisturethese with and conditions vertical soil are instability best moisture. through met As surface fordo heating the convective not intermediate develop- moisture provide cases, a while strong thement drier enough of cases vertical moistening motion and due the to moister increase cases cloud inhibit cover3.5 the and develop- lack of Precipitation surface and heating. atmospheric moisture transport The development of convection at Nam Co Lake is associated with daytime precipi- moisture and potentially induce circulations(Clark that et lead al., to addtional2004). convection triggering portance since potential evaporation rates of approx. 4 mmd ence on the availability of soil moisture and thus on surface fluxes. This is of special im- as the water thatevaporation is rates for stored a in the uppermost 10 cm of the soil at field capacity. Actual 2014). Therefore, the water balancewater of vapour the Nam are Co of basin importance.this and study, Due the the actual to regional precipitation the transport ratescases. simple of only Kessler-type allow for microphysics a used qualitative in comparison between 5 5 20 25 15 10 15 10 20 25 Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | ect on atmospheric ff ective approach for the most im- ff ects can be directly seen in the soil ff cient moisture available for latent heat ffi 4651 4652 The model produces realistic turbulent energy fluxes of latent and sensible heat. The We subsequently investigated convection development and convective mass-fluxes This has implications for the moisture budget of the Nam Co basin. We found that It was established in this work as well as in previous studies that the modelling sys- sured fluxes at Namcover and Co convection. Larger station. latent There heat fluxes is lead a to increased feedback cloud between cover and surface con- fluxes, cloud and found amoistures. “convective At optimum” small soil for moistures the there is Nam insu Co Lake basin at intermediate soil reduction in surface moisturefluxes leads of to the a most realistic shift surface in configuration the are Bowen-ratio in from reasonable agreement 0.5 to to mea- 2.5. The portant processes with regardboundary-layer to clouds surface–atmosphere interactions, to theground deep evolution winds from and and complex moist topography. convection, and its interaction with back- sequently to smaller net surface radiation.tion. This The is surface seen changes in from theregime, simulated a evapotranspira- water so limited that to increased arole moisture radiation of limited actually the evapotranspiration means lake as smallerwith a net source very surface of dry moisture radiation. land-surfaces, dependens The bution latent on to the heat initial the fluxes surface overall from moisture. waterimportance Only the budget lake of of have soil the a basin. moistureand substantial Our for thus contri- research the for clearly overall potentially demonstrates surface widera the energy-balance implications whole. of for the the Tibtean lake Plateau’s system energy balance as the subsequent lateral transport withsource the for background the wind, larger may region. be Overall,moisture precipitation an response e of important the water coupled modelconvective and development thus have and an the influence onboth surface turbulent small fluxes, energy in balance. scale Asresentation and precipitation of short regional events precipitation in are in duration,models time at it as the is well appropriate as resolutions extremely in location.both important the ThisHohenegger order to requires of et mesocale get a al.(2009) few a hundredthe and meters. good our Additionally, importance rep- previous of work atmospheric (Gerken profiles, et al. , through2013a) stability highlight and convective inhibition, in the basin itself andprecipitation especially so the that plain weather andentire stations the basin. mountains close At are to the a the same preferential lake time area are vertical for not transport representative of for moisture the through convection and release, which drives convection invery the high soil conditionally moistures unstable there Tibetandecreased is atmosphere. vertical increased At motion. cloud So cover,development. small while sensible precipitation heat does fluxes occur, and there is little convection tem used in this investigation is a sensible and cost e Bowen-ratio and the surfacedynamics. energy balance, but also have an e 4 Conclusions In this work we have usedthe the high-resolution Hybrid atmospheric surface model ATHAM, model, coupleddevelopment with to in the investigate Nam theare Co influence highly Lake of variable area. soil on Surface the moisture moistures Tibetan on and, Plateau convective thus, and turbulent are fluxes therefore not only important for the opment for intermediate soilonly moistures. small Lateral importance moisturemoisture for transport, transport the or dominates advection lower for is volume controlvolume A B. of volume In and the as it afternoon, is the whenupper the convective net activity volume primary ceases, becomes flux source the moisture of increasingly is budgetwith moisture more of small. for the the dominated Vertical background by wind. lateralfrom transport This the basin, of signifies indicating moisture thatlarger locally clouds region. occurring However, and convection as as water previouslythis a mentioned, vapour work the source are are upper of unrealistically removed level moisture low, windeven so for faster speeds that the transport used under of in realistic moisture conditions from one the would basin expect to an the surrounding area. 5 5 25 10 20 25 20 15 15 10 Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | ect on the energy balance closure, ff , N., and Kottmeier, C.: Soil moisture impacts ff 4654 4653 ect convection development and thus the hydrological cycle ff This research was funded by the German Research Foundation (DFG) As current environmental impacts such as climate change and land-use change are Exchange over the Tibetan Plateau –Nam Documentation of Tso, the Micrometeorological Tibet, Experiment, Bayreuth, 25 ISSN June–08 1614-8916, 2009. 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P.: A Diagnostic study of formation and structures Wang, J., Zhu, L., Daut, G., Ju, J., Lin, X., Wang, Y., and Zhen,Wu, X.: C.-M., Investigation of Stevens, bathymetry B., and Arakawa, A.:Yamada, What H.: controls Numerical the simulations of transition the from role shallow of to land deep surface conditions inYamada, H. the and evolution Uyeda, and H.: Transition of the rainfall characteristics related to the moistening of Yanai, M., Li, C., and Song, Z.: Seasonal heating of the Tibetan Plateau and its e Yang, K., Koike, T., Fujii, H., Tamura, T., Xu, X., Bian, L., and Zhou, M.: The daytime evolutionYang, of K., Ye, B., Zhou, D., Wu, B., Foken, T., Qin, J., andYang, Zhou, K., Z.: Wu, H., Response Qin, of J., hydrological Lin, C., Tang, W., and Chen, Y.: Recent climateYao, T., Pu, changes J., over Lu, the A., Ti- Wang, Y., and Yu, W.: Recent glacial retreat and its impact on hydrological Yatagai, A.: Estimation of precipitableZhang, water D., Xu, and W., Li, relative J., Cai, humidity Z., and over An, the D.: Frost-free Tibetan season lengthening and its poten- 5 10 25 15 20 30 Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | N; 0 ET / FC on × 46.44 ◦ ] [–] 2 − FC and 2.0 × ET Prec Prec / 6 FC, 1.5 10 × × ]) and normalised by evapotran- 2 ] [–] [gm − 2 − ] 2.2 FC, 1.0 1 − × K 3 ] 1 − ET Prec Prec − / ) 0.97 K  2 ) 0.2 − 4664 4663 ) [Jm FC, 0.75 α p × c ] [–] [gm 2 ] 0.6 − 2 − m 2 ET Prec Prec / Parameter TexturePorosityField CapacityWilting PointHeat capacity ( ThermalConductivity [Wm Surface Albedo ( 0.05 sandy 0.39 0.02 0.20 Surface Emissivity ( Vegetated FractionLAI [m Vegetation height [m] 0.6 0.07 ] [–] [gm 2 − ET[–]) for cases PWP, 0.5 Prec Prec / [gm E) and used for the simulations. LAI and vegetation height were estimated for Description of the soil and surface parameters at Nam Co station (30 Total simulated deposited precipitation (Prec, [gm 0 FC 55 0.11 224 0.11 194 0.12 103 0.06 FCFCFC 40 47 216 0.08 0.09 0.44 244 315 355 0.12 0.11 0.14 393 176 271 0.24 0.09 0.15 204 153 201 0.10 0.06 0.08 FC 5 0.01 81 0.06 154 0.13 74 0.06 × × × × × 57.72 ◦ 1.5 2.0 1.0 0.75 PWP0.5 6 0.01 115 0.09 103 0.10 65 0.06 Case Lake Plain Basin Domain 17 July 2012 for lakeand area, the the total domain. plain The adjacent area to definitions lake, are the the Nam same Co as basin used as in defined Fig.7. in the text Table 2. spiration (Prec Table 1. 90 July 2012 (Biermann et al., ).2009 The table is modified from Gerken et al.(2013a). Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | tot,B q ∆ tot,A 83.7 9.2 72.4 53.6 72.4 5.7 27.6 89.9 47.3 91.6 q 104.4 50.1 − − − − − ∆ − q,BSe F 332.1 350.3 332.8 372.8 355.6 366.4 − − − − − − q,BNw F Volume B 2.3 244.3 3.9 279.4 9.5 181.7 0.1 256.0 3.4 324.2 6.5 334.8 q,10 F − − − − − − are the evapotranspiration and precipitation q,3 F P 4666 4665 P q, ) into Nam Co Lake basin between 06:00 and 16:00 5.2 99.3 7.8 128.4 9.8 166.3 8.9 124.7 F q 19.9 167.1 13.7 129.7 − − − − F − − q,ET F Volume A [Mg] [Mg] [Mg] [Mg] q,ASe F 1382.4 51.4 1360.9 57.6 1449.0 79.4 1438.0 81.9 1430.0 103.2 1417.0 90.5 − − − − − − is the total net moisture flux for a volume. tot q q,ANw F ∆ Land-use map of Nam Co Lake created from Landsat data. The yellow line indicates Total integrated moisture flux ( FC 1473.4 FC 1367.1 FC 1438.7 FC 1432.8 FC 1422.6 × × × × × PWP 1351.8 Case 0.5 0.75 1.0 1.5 2.0 Figure 1. the path of radiosondeand ascent the on cold-point 17 heights. JulyThe The 2012, Microsoft black 00:00 Corporation, UTC. cross © The indicates Harris markers the Corp, indicate location Earthstar 10 of Geographics km Nam LLC. a.g.l. Co station. © 2012, BST. The control volumessubscripts Nw, denoted Se for with the northwest subscriptsboundaries and indicate southeast A flux boundaries. and into Positive fluxes the across Bflux. volume. the 3 ET are lateral and and indicated 10upward in indicate flux. the Fig. vertical10g). boundaries The of the control volumes, with a negative sign for Table 3. Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | (b) ); FC at e θ × 10 8 ] 6 −1 ). q 4 [g kg 2

. The filled contours indicate q 0 c) (f–j) mixing ratio (

(c) −10 (− −) ; at 11:00 dew T C] ) and −30 o [ dew ) and equivalent potential temperature ( (a–e) T θ 4668 4667 −50 (−) and T −70 b) Potential ( 475 (a) ]) and the red contour lines show the location of clouds. The location 425 (− −) e 1 θ − [K] 375 , [ms w (−) and θ 325 ) and dew-point temperature ( a) T 5 20 15 10 7.5

17.5 12.5 Development of convection in the three dimensional simulation of case 2.0 Initial profile for Nam Co Lake 17 July 2012 06:00 LT used in the model simulations [km] z of the lake is indicated byof the more blue line, than while 200 the m location above of lake topography elements level with are elevations given in black. Figure 3. 10:00 LT for heights 1,vertical 3, velocities 5, ( 7 and 9 kma.g.l. Figure 2. as measured by radiosonde. Temperature ( Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper |

mean

[W m [W SWD

(d) ] −2 cloud base (a) 800 600 400 200 0 1000 800 600 400 200 0 1000 800 600 400 200 0 1000

respectively. Thick

H E Q Q SWD FC for 18:00 2D 3D × (a–e) also the upper and lower E 15:00 Q 14:00 as defined in text) and 12:00 c Local Time Z 12:00 09:00 FC on 17 July 2012 06:00 × 10:00 b) 0.5xFC d) 1.0xFC f) 2.0xFC

Local Time 4670 4669 18:00 08:00 FC and 2.0 15:00 × the centre of cloud mass ( 06:00 (c) 12:00 Local Time FC, 1.5 × c) Centre of cloud mass d) Precipitation b) Cloud top a) Cloud base a) Cloud 09:00

measured turbulent fluxes near Nam Co research station. Thin lines cor-

4 2 5 0 4 3 2 1 8 6 4 2 8 6

15 10 12 10 20

Height agl [km] agl Height Height agl [km] agl Height ] min) (15 m [g

Height agl [km] agl Height

−1 −2 (g) 06:00 FC, 1.0 g) Measured a) PWP c) 0.75xFC e) 1.5xFC × 0 0 0 0

500 400 300 200 100 500 400 300 200 100 500 400 300 200 100 500 400 300 200 100 ]

cloud top height; m [W Flux

Development of turbulent surface fluxes in the Nam Co Lake basin for cases PWP, Comparison between the 2-D and 3-D simulation of case 2.0 −2 (b) FC, 0.75 × black lines correspond to the median flux over land. For SWD and quartiles are given as thinis lines, clear presenting sky a SWD; measure ofrespond spatial to flux directly measured variation. eddy-covariance The fluxes.fluxes dashed Thick according line lines to areTwine energy-balance et corrected al. (2000). Figure 5. 0.5 Figure 4. height; deposited precipitation. Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | ) b (d) FC, × and a ) the Nam f

18:00 and e 16:00 ) at Nam Co Lake for 18:00 14:00 E 12:00 soil moisture in terms of FC 16:00 Local Time FC on 17 July 2012: ( 10:00 (a) × 08:00 14:00 lat,plain lat,tot lat,lake lat,basin 06:00 d) E f) E h) E b) E

FC and 2.0 12:00 integrated potential evaporation [mm] and × ) over plain adjacent to lake, ( ) Local Time d (c) 4672 4671 18:00 ) in total domain. h PWP 0.5xFC 0.75xFC 1.0xFC 1.5xFC 2.0xFC and 10:00 FC on 17 July 2012: Hybrid 16:00 FC, 1.5 c × and × g 14:00 08:00 12:00 FC, 1.0 PWP 0.5xFC 0.75xFC 1.0xFC 1.5xFC 2.0xFC Local Time × 10:00 FC and 2.0 06:00 × 08:00 sens,tot sens,plain sens,basin sens,lake b) Evapotranspiration ( c) Potential Evaporation d) Evaporation from Lake a) Soil Moisture a) Soil FC, 0.75

06:00 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 2 1 FC, 1.5 ×

4.5 3.5 2.5 1.5 0.5 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 3.5 2.5 1.5 0.5 g) E c) E e) E a) E

NamCo p ET [mm] ET SM / FC [−] FC / SM ×

[mm] E [mm] ET 0 0 0 0 75 50 25 15

7.5 100 750 500 250 100 500 400 300 200

22.5

1000 [GJ] [GJ] Spatially and temporally integrated turbulent energy fluxes ( Moisture variables over time and averaged for Nam Co basin for cases PWP,0.5 integrated evapotranspiration [mm]; FC, 1.0 × (b) Sensible and latent energyCo over basin lake, as ( defined in the text and ( Figure 7. cases PWP, 0.5 Figure 6. 0.75 [–]; integrated evaporation from Nam Co Lake [mm]. Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | . × × 3

−

c

] m [g Prec

] s m [Mg M

−1 −1 FC, 1.0 −2 FC, 0.75 20 10 20 10 20 10 20 10 20 10 20 10 × × 20 10 0 20 10 0 20 10 0 18:00 z = 7 km 16:00 18:00 FC, 0.75 14:00 × 16:00 12:00 Local Time ) and black lines indicate c 10:00 14:00 Z 08:00 12:00 06:00 Local Time c) f) i) l) o) r) 10:00 18:00 z = 5 km 08:00 16:00 06:00 14:00 f) 2.0xFC b) 0.5xFC d) 1.0xFC 12:00 Local Time 4674 4673 10:00 08:00 18:00 06:00 16:00 e) h) k) n) q) b) FC on 17 July 2012: contours correspond to mean cloud × 14:00 18:00 z = 3 km 16:00 12:00 Local Time 14:00 10:00 FC on 17 July 2012. 12:00 × Local Time FC and 2.0 10:00 08:00 × 08:00 06:00 06:00 c) 0.75xFC e) 1.5xFC a) PWP m) 1.5xFC p) 2.0xFC a) PWP d) 0.5xFC g) 0.75xFC j) 1.0xFC 9 7 5 3 1 9 7 5 3 1 9 7 5 3 1

20 10 20 10 20 10 20 10 20 10 20 10 13 11 13 11 13 11

FC, 1.5 c

z [km] z Convective massflux at 3, 5 and 7 kma.g.l. for cases PWP, 0.5

Modeled development of convection at Nam Co Lake for cases PWP, 0.5 FC and 2.0 [Mg m [Mg M ] s

−1 −1 × × particle concentrations in the NamThe Co Lake dashed basin. line Each indicates contour level the corresponds height to of 0.1 gm the center of cloud mass ( cloud top and cloud bottom heights. Figure 9. FC, 1.5 Figure 8. FC, 1.0 Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | ) e and c ,

a

] s m [kg

−1 −1 is a schematic drawing 0 −25 25 0 −25 25 0 −25 25 (g) of this figure, representing 18:00 (g) 14:00 [LST] ] for Nam Co Lake basin. ( 10:00 1 − s = 53.64 Mg = 50.09 Mg = 91.63 Mg 1 tot tot tot − 06:00 q q q b) ∆ d) ∆ f) ∆ 4675 [kgm 18:00 ) Transport into the mid-tropospheric control volume q f f and 14:00 d [LST] , b 10:00 = −47.30 Mg = −72.36 Mg = −104.39 Mg tot tot tot 06:00 q q q e) 2.0xFC ∆ a) 0.5xFC ∆ c) 1.0xFC ∆ 0 0 0

25 25 25

−25 −25 −25

[kg m [kg ]

s g) −1 −1 Instantaneous moisture flux Moisture transport into control volume A, as indicated in panel of the control volumes. Figure 10. the Nam Co basin up toflux 3 (–); kma.g.l.: net evapotranspiration vertical (blue); flux precipitation (–as (cyan); –) net it and horizontal is resulting total of flux negligibleB (grey). magnitude. with The the ( precipitation same flux horizontal is extent not and displayed from 3 to 10 km vertical extent;