The Impact of Recent Policy Revisions Addressing Doping and Gender Rules on Women Track and Field Student-Athletes in China By Dongwan He A Thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies of The University of Manitoba in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the degree of MASTER OF ARTS Faculty of Kinesiology and Recreation Management University of Manitoba Winnipeg Copyright © 2015 by Dongwan He I Abstract Women’s involvement in sport has remained a critical issue in society for several decades. Sex verification and drug testing are two methods that have been used to regulate women’s eligibility to compete in international sports competitions based on their testosterone levels. Organizations such as the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) have published and updated policies and rules that set eligibility criteria for who can compete in women’s sport and under what conditions. Since the 1980s, the performance of Chinese women athletes on the world stage has improved significantly. However, the academic literature addressing Chinese women’s perspectives on international sex verification and drug testing policies available in English is extremely limited. This study investigates how recent policy revisions regarding doping and sex eligibility rules impact women student- athletes competing in track and field at the university level in China. Using qualitative research methods, this thesis analyzes the impact of recent doping and gender policies on a sample of Chinese female student-athletes. Keywords: women and sport, sport policy, sex verification, hyperandrogenism, transgender, doping, China, qualitative research methods II Acknowledgement I would like to thank the people who supported me and gave me valuable suggestions to help complete this thesis. First of all, my thesis supervisor, Dr. Sarah Teetzel, has guided me during my master’s study and provided me with essential information about living and studying in Winnipeg. As I am an international student and English is my second language, Dr. Teetzel always answered my questions with patience, and introduced me to local cultures which enriched my experiences in my master’s program. Next, I would like to thank Dr. jay johnson, Dr. Russell Field, and Dr. Liz Millward for being on my thesis committee and providing feedback on this study. I also want to acknowledge the University of Manitoba’s Faculty of Graduate Studies for offering me a University of Manitoba Graduate Fellowship as this funding allowed me to study and live in Canada. Finally, many thanks to my parents and husband who always stand by my side and love me. III Table of Contents Abstract.......................................................................................................................................I Acknowledgements...................................................................................................................II Table of Contents......................................................................................................................III List of Abbreviations...............................................................................................................VI Chapter I: Introduction...........................................................................................................1 Objectives......................................................................................................................8 Rationale.........................................................................................................................8 Chapter II: Literature Review..................................................................................................11 A brief history of sex verification in sport.....................................................................11 A brief history of trans athlete inclusion in sport..........................................................15 A brief history of doping bans in sport..........................................................................16 A brief history of women’s participation in sport in People’s Republic of China…....19 Fair play in sport...........................................................................................................24 Western media coverage of Chinese women athletes …………...……………………26 Student-athletes’ attitudes toward gender and doping policies......................................28 Gender, power, and sport..............................................................................................30 Gender and culture in People’s Republic of China........................................................32 Summary......................................................................................................................36 Chapter III: Methods and Methodology...............................................................................37 Participant details and recruiting strategy....................................................................37 Data collection process.................................................................................................41 IV Data analysis.................................................................................................................45 Member checking.........................................................................................................48 Limitations...................................................................................................................50 Delimitations................................................................................................................50 Summary......................................................................................................................51 Chapter IV: Analysis of Athletes’ Perspectives on Gender and Doping Policies………….53 1. Perceived gender differences in sport in China………………………..………… 54 2. Doping tests are acceptable……………………………………………………….57 3. Disapproval of sex verification…………………………………………………...59 4. Knowledge of doping rules………………………………………….……………61 5. Belief athletes are not targeted for doping tests but are selected based on ranking or randomly………………………………………………………………………….69 6. The unlikelihood of being selected for sex verification…………………..……….72 7. Lack of doping and sex verification tests in university sport……………………..74 8. Participants’ knowledge of international sport policies…………………………...76 9. Suspicion and accusations………………………………………………………...83 10. Qualities of good athletes…………………………………………………………89 Summary…………………………………..…………………………………………92 Chapter V: Conclusions and Recommendations……………………………………….……..94 Main findings……………………………………………………………….………94 Contributions to research……………………………………………………...……105 Future directions……………………………………………………………….……107 V Literature cited……………….............................................................................................109 Appendices Appendix A: Invitation to Participate to Potential Participants (Athletes)…………..128 Appendix B: Invitation to Participate to Potential Participants (Coaches)…………..130 Appendix C: Informed Consent Form………………………………………………132 Appendix D: Interview Guide for Participants……………………………………...135 Appendix E: Questions Posed to the Participants’ Coach…………………………...138 VI List of Abbreviations Abbreviation Full name BSU Beijing Sports University CAA China Athletics Association CADA China Anti-Doping Agency CAS Court of Arbitration for Sport CIS Canadian Intercollegiate Sport CNKI China National Knowledge Infrastructure COC Chinese Olympic Committee GANEFO Games of the New Emerging Forces IAAF International Association of Athletics Federations IFPC International Fair Play Committee IFs International Federations IOC International Olympic Committee NCAA National Collegiate Athletic Association NOC National Olympic Committee TUE Therapeutic Use Exemption WADA World Anti-Doping Agency WADC World Anti-Doping Code 1 Chapter I: Introduction Recently, two sets of rules, involving sex verification and doping restrictions, have been discussed widely in the philosophy and sociology of sport literature (e.g. Henne, 2009; Sullivan, 2011). These rules pertain to three policies in force in international sport: 1) the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA)’s list of substances and methods banned under the World Anti-Doping Code (WADC) (WADA, 2009; WADA, 2014), 2) the International Olympic Committee (IOC)’s Statement of the Stockholm Consensus on Sex Reassignment in Sports (IOC, 2003), and 3) the IOC’s Regulations on Female Hyperandrogenism (IOC, 2012b). One common link between these three policies is that each functions to place restrictions on a female athlete’s eligibility to compete in sport based on her testosterone level. This thesis examines the impact of these policies on the lives of a sample of Chinese women student-athletes who participate in track and field at the university level. Both sex verification and drug testing protocols have been applied in sport for many years. The IOC established a Doping Committee in 1967, which expanded and changed its name to the IOC Medical Commission in 1968 (Hunt, 2011). From its inception, the IOC Medical Commission dealt with developing policies regarding two main issues: 1) the use of performance-enhancing drugs, and 2) the awarding of “femininity certificates” to women athletes (Henne, 2009). The IOC Medical Commission’s Olympic Movement Anti-Doping Code served as a building block for the World Anti-Doping Code (WADA, 2003), which came