DOÊY Yucca Mountain Studies

D ’î 7.-*eUTIQN OF ТНЮ DOCUMENT « UNLIMITED DOE’s Yucca Mountain Studies

U.S. Department of Energy YUCCA MOUNTAIN SITE CHARACTERIZATION PROJECT Post Office Box 98608 Las Vegas. NV 8919ЗД608 (702) 794-7900

Office of Civilian Radioactive Waste Management Education and Information Division (RW5) 1000 Independence Avenue, S.W. Washington. D C. 20585 (202) 586-2835

The iollowtnf number Is for OCRWM record* management pvrpewt only and ihould not be turd when ordering Ihis publication. Accession No.: HQO*9203U*00l0 DOE/RW-0349P • December 1992 ■ * C # ТНЛ DOCUMENT I« This booklet is about the disposal o fhigh-level nuclear waste in the United States. It is fo r readers who have a general rather than a technical background. It discusses wiy scientists and engineers think high-level nuclear waste may be disposed ofsaßly underground It also describes why Yucca Mountain, Nevada, is being studied as a potential repository site andprovides basic information about those studies. The question ofhow to dispose o fhigh-level nuclear waste safely has been a scientific andpublic concern since the beginning o f the nuclear age. The first commercial nuclear power plant in the United States began operation in 1957. Since then, the United States has come to rely on nuclear energy as a significant source o felectricity second only to coal Nuclear energy is used to make important contributions to mediane, research, and national security But the b erets o f nuclear power come coupled with great challenges. In this case, the challenge is the safo disposal o f radioactive waste. A repository is an enormous This project is also a challenge to the held each year throughout Nevada challenge ability of people to work together to State and К ка! officiais are invited to A repository is a deep, underground resolve a com plex issue. It involves participate in these meetings mine where high-level nuclear waste important decisions about the envi­ DOE: offers frequent tours of Yucca would remain safely isolated from ronment and energy, decisions that Mouniam and related facilities Dur­ people and the environment Scien­ will affect and protect not only our­ ing these, citizens talk to the scien­ tists believe ii is possible, using tech­ selves but future generations tists doing the studies nology,- we have today, to design, Additionally, DOE: sends speakers construct and operate a re pi sitory DOE places high priority on throughout Nevada with displays, safely What is challenging about this communicating with the publication.*», x a le models anti au- project is using different fields ol sci­ public dio-visual matenals to explain the ence to predict complex environ­ The I'.S Department of Einergy program. mental interactions for thousand* of iPO FJ regards communicating with Three public m lom ution offices are years. Specialists in different fields ol the public as a significant pan of its open daily in Lis Vegas, E’ahrump science must understand how their responsibilities in the Yucca Moun­ and Eieatty DOH also mails informa­ findings interact, then make predic­ tain Sue Characterization lro|ect tion about the Project to ans one who tions based on these interactions Stall member* make a concened ef­ requests it All of these activities are For example, evaluating water move­ fort to be available ro me public and done to provide the public with ment through nxk ь not enough to communicate technical informa­ reads' access to information about Possible changes in climate, and re­ tion in ways that are easy to under­ what DOE: is doing If you want sulting effects on erosion and on the stand. DOE: staff members hold pub­ more information, please write movement of water through rock lic meetings in Nevada to tell citizens or call: os er thousands of years, must be what is happening and to answer considered. their questions Several meetings are

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YUCCA MOUNTAIN SITE CHARACTERIZATION PROJECT P O Box 4MMW IjsV cr*,. N\ НУ|Ч*-8(чВД 1702» 7^4-7000 Suifus Sldít- íistfJ us pritíí-i ttií tinj rare. fakrall\ hsltd as thiniu nul Legislation governing high-level nuclear waste disposal State and local governments have a say in the process...... 2 Licensing is governed by an independent agency...... 3 DOE's work is checked by other expens...... 4 About the plants and Who pays for nuclear waste management?...... 5 anim als on these p a g e s ,... The Yucca Mountain Site Characterisation Project The plants, mammals, What will scientists study? ...... 7 reptiles and insects in this Studying the movement of water...... 8 booklet are being studied in Studying earthquakes and the movement ol rock...... 8 the Yucca Mountain Volcanoes and Yucca Mountain...... Я Environmental Program. How a repository might affect quality of life...... >) Environmental scientists go How will scientists get this information?...... 10 to work before site studies begin. They d ocum ent tl?e What is nuclear waste? environment around Yucca W hat is spent fuel?...... 11 M ountain as it exists before What about reprocessing fuel?...... 12 field work starts, and develop methods to mitigate effects from site Plans for safe operation characterization. This Preparing waste for shipping...... 13 information helps protect What would a repository look like?...... H plants and animals and What happens when a rejjository is full?...... 14 their environment, cultural resources, air quality and Could radioactive materials get out of a repository? water resources. There are What about radiation protection?...... 15 m ore d etails a b o u t this Understanding the hazards of radiation...... 16 program in the sections Factors that increase exposure to radiation...... 17 "How a repository might Would there be a tadiation dose to people nearby?...... 17 affect quality o f life ” a n d Americans’ average personal radiation exposure...... 18 ‘W h a t happens w hen a

repository is fu ll ?” Plans for safe transportation Ship by road? Ship by rail? Ship by both?...... 21

Legislation governing high-level nuclear waste disposal

The need tofin d safe, Spent nuclear fuel is ihe radioactive date* back to N 57 when ihe Na­ by-product ol making electricity at tional Academy oí Sciences recom­ permanent disposal is commercial nuclear power plant*, mended that the Ivst means ol pro­ becoming more criticaL and high-level nuclear w-a.sk is the tecting the public health and sateu by-product from production at d e­ and the environmeni would be to Congress specified that the fense facilities In N 82. Congress es- depose of the waste in rock deep public as m il as the uMvsWeti л m\\ona\ pohcv \o soWe underground scientific community the problem of high-level nuclear Scientists had studied many options, waste disposal This policy is a tod­ including leaving the waste where it could be involved in the era! lau called ihe Nuclear Waste was. burying it in the ivean iloor. waste disposalprogram Policy Act Congress Ьач-d this putting it in polar ice sheets, anti policy on what most scientists agreed rocketing it into outer space Based because waste disposal was the best way to dispose of on the final environmental impact will affect present and nuclear waste statement that evaluated all of these Additionally. the Nuclear Waste options. underground disposal was future generations. Policy Act provided a detailed pro­ determined to pose the least overall Scientists, concerned cess that ПОН is lollowmg. To pay risk to the environment. The impact lor the waste disposal program. Con­ statement included a review by the citizens, and members o f gress established the Nuclear Waste public Congress, industry, and Fund Ratepayers w ho use nuclear ln N76, nearly 20 years after the federal, state and local power pay lor nuclear waste disposal first commercial nuclear power plant through their utilities began operating, a federal program governments participate The Nuclear Waste Policy Act made was established to collect data on po­ in this program. This DOI: responsible for finding a site, tential repository sites. The N 8 2 Act building and operating an under­ was based on what was learned dur­ involvement underscores ground disposai facility called a geo­ ing ihis earlier program In N 83. the Project’s commitment logic repository. The recommenda­ DOE selected nine locations in six tion to ust' a geologic repository states for consideration as potential to protectingpublic sites health and safety These sites were studied and results of these preliminary studies were re­ ported m N 8 5

I Based on those reports, the president the Nuclear W aste Negotiator The 1 hive agencies have been created by approved three sites for intensive sci­ oltice ot the negotiaior is within the the state ol Nevada to conduit re­ entific study called site characteriza­ Executive Oltice. appointed by the pository-related activities tion. The three sites were Hanford, president with the advice and con­ • The Nevada Commission on Washington; Deaf Smith County. sent of the Senate. The negotiator's Nuclear Projects is charged Texas; and Yucca Mountain, Nevada •ask is to try and find a state or In­ with advising the governor In December N 87, Congress dian tribe willing to host a repository and the Nevada Legislature on amended the Nuclear Waste Policy or monitored retrievable storage fa­ nuclear waste matters Act and directed DOE to study only cility in exchange lor negotiated ben­ and making recommendations Yucca Mountain. This congressional efits. Any sue selected must be tech­ on stale policy nically qualified. action was criticized by many Neva­ • The Nevada Agency toi dans, who felt the N 8 7 Amend­ Nuclear ProjectVNuclear ments Act was unfair. In the Amend­ State and local governments Waste Project OUkc is respon­ ments Act, Congress directed DOE have a say in the process sible lor all stale ov ersight ol to determine w hether or not Yucca The Nuclear Wasie Policy Act and the high-level nuclear waste Mountain is a suitable site lor a re­ Amendments specify that funds be program and for carrying out pository. The Act stressed that if. at prov ided to the state of Nevada and Nevada's responsibilities un­ any time. Yucca Mountain is lound affected counties for independent der the Nuclear Waste Policv unsuitable, studies will be stopjvd studies and review ot ihe program Act. It produces technical re­ immediately. If that happens, the site DOE interacts tornully and infor­ ports. public information ma- will be restored and DOE will seek mally with state and local agencies new direction irom Congress and various groups The N 87 Amendments Act also es­ tablished the independent OHice ot

History leading to studying Yucca Mountain

Protect Sait VftuM- studying n il Atomic Energy Commieaion formation« raqueeta input from National üwouQtiout Uniled Academy of Sdaneae (NAS) about Stateete potential Н й а mm mm mm I M t t I M ШЁШ ЗШь' ш ш к I NAS recommanda geologic diapoa* for nudaar waste

2 ienals. and studies m Licensing is governed by an II the studies mdkate that \ucca geotcchnical. environmental, independent agency’ Mountain is a suitable кк.аю п tor a ч ч uvcononuc. anti transpor­ Л high-le\e! nikleai waste laeihts, repoMloty the Чч velars ot Ineigs tation areas whercseronc is ultimatcls kvaletl. will iccomnicnd 10 the ptesident that a rep<ык>гу Iv buili И the site re- • The Ncsada Legislature's must Iv reviewed and licensed bs an Committee on lligh-Lesel Ra­ indejvndent Udera! agency, the I s. lc is c s presidential approsal. the Mate dioactive Waste is а члеп- \nclear Regulators' i_.ommis-ion ss ill tv notihed and РОГ svill seek a m enilvr oser-ight panel ot \NKc .' I his licensing pu v o s i> л license tiom ihe NR( to begin con- Senate anil Assembls thorough review ol IX M 's x lenntic s tiu c lio n m em bers studies to ensure the salets ol the la- IhcN Kt rcsicw is a long p n v e s s In addition, the Nevada local U n - V-ilus a m i its operation expected to lake at least th ie e sears emment Planning (.¡roup is an inlor- I h c N R t osvisces P O I ^ studies at li piovides a was loi nulls ulual- and m M VhxW o\ représentâmes Worn \o- 'Yucta Mountain on a continuing Ki- lepie^'nt.itises ol the Mate ot V-sada cal governments and Indian tnfvs sis a nd P O L also régulai Is tepoMs f«> organized to keep К val governments the NRl about the studies At the and lival gosernments. to hase input mtonnetl alxuu reposiiors issues. end ol these studies. РОГ \\til pie- in to the NRl. icsicss pare an I n su o n m e n ta l Im pa*.! state ­ Rcpositors construction could Ivgin ment to describe the potential cllcct only aliei the NKC completed Us ic- a repository might hase on the re­ viess and il И approsed the license gion surrounding'Hicca Mountain application 4ienutic Mudies will Public hearings on the statement ss ill continue tlunng tonst ruction to con- Iv held m Nevada. A copy ol this lirm that svhat was predicted statement s\ ill Iv pul in libraries and asailable to the public

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Ttvaa аИаа aatactad tor further ttvdy: Oaaf Smith, Tana; Hanford, Washington; Yucca Mountain, Navada

3 about behavior ol the rock under­ submit a notice ol disapproval, a ground was accurate. The results ol veto, alter the presidential decision, those studies also will be submitted lithai happened, work at Yucca to the NRC. Further NRC approval Mountain could commue only if a would be required belore repository simple majority vote m Congress operations actual!) could begin. overruled the stale s veto. According to federal law. the state of Nevada will have an opportunity to

DO Es work is checked by other experts

As the first DO I: nuclear program subject to external regulation, the Yucca Mountain Sue Characterization Project is one of the most closely reviewed programs ever undertaken by the federal government. DOEs studies are reviewed by many organizations including: • Congress: • the C.L .îeral Accounting Office. • the Nuclear Regulators’ Commission, • the state of Nevada, • the local governments in Nevada that are designated as 'affected" by the program; • the independent Nuclear Waste Technical Review Board appointed by the president, • the National Academy of Sciences; • the electric utilities; and • an independent accounting firm.

Black-lailed jackrabbit S p tv irs N am e: Lcpus tu li/o n m us Status. Common, siau- protccfrd; us a gam«’ an im a l ,.*j •**.-. ... siutr hunting li(msc rajuirai. Who pays for nuclear waste high-level waste generated hy De­ tions. Money trom lederal income management? partment ot Delense programs. taxes is not used to support the com­ Customers who use nuclear power The Nuclear Waste Fund pays for all mercial nucle. r waste management pay for the disposal o í spent iuel. aspeéis ol the I S nuclear waste program The General Accounting The federal government collects a lee management program DOE. the Otfice. an arm of the I' S Congress, of one mil uwiMenth of a cent' per slate ot Nevada, and local govern- oversees expenditures trom the fund kilowatt-hour ol nuclcar-generaied ments that could be affected by the The Nuclear W aste Fund also is au­ electricity from utilities This money potential repository receive money dited annual!) by a public account­ goes into the Nuclear Waste Fund. trom the Nuclear Waste Fund ing firm In addition, the federal government through congressional appropria­ will pay the fund for disposal of

The Yucca Mountain Site Charaaerization Project

Years o f study called site Many scientists think thai Yucca What will scientists study? Mountain has features that may Yucca Mountain is far from large characterization are make it suitable for a nuclear waste population centers, its climate is very planned at Yucca repository. By suitable, scientists dr)-, and the mountain has an ex­ Mountain, Nevada, to mean the rock will keep the waste tremely deep water table The sufficiently isolated for 10,000 years unique combination of rock charac­ collect and analyze so that the radioactive material will teristics and the deep water table detailed environmental pose about the same risk or less risk lead many scientists to think that the of health effects to the public as that site appears capable of isolating andgeologic data from of unmined uranium ore There also waste. However, many scientific and aboveground and arc scientists who question the suit­ technical issues about Yucca Moun­ ability of the Yucca Mountain site, or tain must be resolved to see if it is or underground There also whether it can ever be shown to be is not a suitable site for a repository. will be reviews by suitable These include: independent technical Knowing the following terms helps • how much water there is in one understand w’hat scientists will the rock and how it moves groups and the state o f study in this project. through the rock; Nevada, as well as Geologv is the science that deals • the effects volcanic activity with the history of the Earth as re­ might have on a repository in intense public scrutiny. corded in rock Yucca Mountain; Hundreds o f scientists, Geohydrology is the science that • how an earthquake might engineers, and other deals with the quantity, quality, and affect a repository' and the movement of underground water. groundwater table, which is experts will be involved; Faults are cracks in the Earth's crust about 240-370 meters (rt00 - many scientific issues and accompanied by movement of one 1.200 feet) below the potential side of the crack in relation to the repository depth; and opinions will be other. • whether the development of a considered Seismology’ is the study oí lhe poten­ repository’ would have accept­ tial for earthquakes. Earthquakes oc­ able environmental impacts cur when rock moves along a fault. In addition to studies related to Volcanology is the study of the po­ Yucca Mountain's geologic and envi­ tential for volcanoes. ronmental suitability, a variety of so­ cial, transportation and economic questions about a repository's effect on the quality of life in nearby com­ munities will be researched.

Antelope ground squirrel S p e c ies N am e: Ammo Sprrmophiius Inirurus Statu s: Common, unprotected Studying the movement of along faults. These will be done to can withstand ground motion water understand whether or not fault greater than that anticipated from Gcohydrology studies will focus on movement or earthquakes could af­ earthquakes. Safely engineering de­ how water moves through Yucca fect the suitability of the sue As pan sign of surface facilities would con­ Mountain and how water could af­ ol these studies there are major sider the possible effects of an earth­ fect a repository. This is important trenching programs at Yucca Moun­ quake, and buildings would be de­ because scientists believe that tain to stud)' movement of faults signed and built to withstand any groundwater is the most likely way during the past two million years anticipated effects radioactive materials could be re­ These studies will show the history At this time, assessments suggest that leased from a repository. Yucca of movements of faults Information nsk of damage to surface and under­ Mountain is in the southern part ol about how frequently the faults ground facilities from faults is low the Great Basin where there is ver)' moved and how much they moved because the amount of movement Utile rainfall, most ol which quickly during each episode also will he ob* along bulls m that area appears to be runs off the surface or evaporates. tamed. small. Additionally, there possibly Approximately 15 centimeters (.six Experience with earthquakes are thousands ol years between inches) of rain falls on Y 'cca Moun­ throughout the world has shown movements. Scientists are confident tain in a year Scientists think that that, generally, underground struc­ that such iaulting could never break only an extremely small fraction of tures can withstand ground motion open the mountain to expose waste that ram could soak imo the ground generated by earthquakes Tests in­ at the surface. Geologic daiing of and actually reach the underground volving nuclear explosions under­ surface material around Yucca area wheie the potential repository ground at the Nevada Test Sue haw Mountain indicates that the moun­ would be located. shown that underground structures tain itself and the terrain around it Additionally, the watet table under Yucca Mountain is extremely deep. This makes it possible to put a re­ pository about 300 meter vi.dO feet) underground and have it ¡v about 240 meters (800 feet) above the water table. Geologists call the rocks and soil above the water table the unsaturated zone. In the unsatur­ ated zone there is relatively little wa­ ter in the rock and water there may move very slowly. These factors sig­ nificantly limn the chance ol water reaching and corroding waste con­ tainers and carrying radioactive ma­ terial away from a repository.

Studying earthquakes and the movement of rock Earthquakes occur when rocks move along a fault. Project scientists have been studying faults and monitonng earthquakes in the region surround­ ing Yucca Mountain for more than 10 years. These studies will continue during site characterization and probably for years beyond that pe­ riod, if the site is suitable. Seismicity studies planned for Yucca Mountain will provide information about the potential for movement If you could take a slice ol Yucca Mountain, this is how it might look. Scientists are studying the mountain to see where faults are and where 8 the saturated zone is. have remained largely unchanged over the last one million years. Cur­ rent information strongly indicates How a repository that Yucca Mountain would remain stable over the period of time re* might affect quality of life quired by the regulations. Studies already are being done and more are planned on environmental, socioeconomic and transponation issues. Environmental studies focus Volcanoes and Yucca on the following field operations: potential impacts on plants, animals Mountain and their environment, waier quality and quantity-; air quality; meteorol­ ogy; radiological monitoring, archaeological; Native American cultural Yucca Mountain was formed mil­ resources; and soils and reclamation lions of years ago by a series of ex­ Socioeconomic studies include estimates of the repository’ program s ef­ plosive volcanic eruptions that de­ fect on employment, including jobs with the program and jobs support­ posited ash and material which com­ ing the work of people in the program. Potential effects on community pressed together to create layers of services, tounsm, and population distribution also are being studied rock called tuff. The explosive type of volcano that formed Yucca Moun­ Transportation studies evaluate shipping methods and routes in Nevada. tain is extinct. There are. however, The studies also will include technical and financial assistance needed lor seven small and dormant volcanoes public safely organizations for emergency response training. scientists are studying in the Yucca Mountain area to determine if one might erupt in the next 10.000 years Three types of volcanoes seven dormant volcanoes near Yucca and if an eruption might affect an There are three main types of volca­ Mountain are cinder cones. underground nuclear waste reposi­ noes Composite volcanoes have ex­ A magma chamber is an un ler- tory. By studying the layers ol soil plosive eruptions, such as Ml. St. ground pocket of rock and e mh so and rock to leam about past volcanic Helens in Washington. The erup­ hot it has melted to a liquid o. paste. activities, scientists can make predic­ tions that formed Yucca Mountain it­ Data gathered so far suggests that tions about the future. self were from a composite volcano. there is no evidence of a magma Scientists called volcanologists have Shield volcanoes have less explosive chamber beneath the volcanoes near been studying volcanoes at Yucca eruptions, and people can walk fairly Yucca Mountain. That makes the Mountain for more than a decade. close to some slow-moving lava from likelihood of a new volcano in the Scientists believe that the probability these volcanoes. The Hawaiian is­ region extremely remote More of a volcano erupting in the Yucca lands are examples of shield volca­ studies will be conducted to get Mountain region over the next noes. Out of the three main types of additional data about volcanism 10.000 years is very remote and does volcanoes, cinder cones generally are in that area. not make the site unsuitable for a re­ the smallest volcanoes with the sim­ pository. The chance of a volcano plest and weakest eruptions. The directly affecting a repository in the Yucca Mountain area has been calcu­ lated as about 1 in 500 million per yetr. The seven volcanoes located near Yucca Mountain are among the most common type of volcano on earth. Two cones are located about 19 to 43 kilometers (12-27 miles) away, and may have been active within the last 10,000 years. The other five, lo­ cated 13 to 43 kilometers (8-27 miles) away, had their last eruptions from 300,000 years to 1.2 million years ago. All seven cones consist of less than 0.1 cubic kilometers (0.06 cubic miles) of material. How will scientists get • digging trenches to study information? faults and volcanism; Various methods will be used to get • sound waves sent down information. These will include: from the surface to measure • laboratory’ studies; response from rock layers; and • drilling holes to understand the geology, volcanology’, • other geophysical methods and geohydrology; studying the potential for earthquakes and volcanoes, the Earth’s magnetic field, and the area’s background radioactivity. This wide array of studies will pro­ vide a credible basis for scientific de­ cisions about the suitability of the site. It should be emphasized that if, at any time, these studies show that Yucca Mountain does not qualify as a repository' site, DOE must stop work and report to Congress.

Desert Collared Lizard Species Name: Crotaphytus insularis Swtus. Common, unprotected What is nuclear waste?

At a nuclear power plant, lission As an alternative to storing in pools, Nuclear, or radioactive, lakes place under carefully con­ some spent fuel is being stored wastes result whenever we trolled conditions inside the reactor. aboveground at the reactor sue in Nuclear fission generates energy, in­ concrete or steel containers called put nuclearfission to cluding heat. This heat is used to dry casks Like storage under water work. Nuclearfission make steam, which turns turbines to m pools, this approach also is tem­ make electricity. To understand how porary. occurs when atoms split. nuclear fuel is used to make electric­ While pool storage isellective for The energyfrom fission is ity, think about oiher power plants. short-term storage, ihe need to find used to make electricity. When electricity is made at coal-fired safe, permanent disposal is becom­ plants, coal is the iuel burned to ing more and more critical because High-level radioactive, or make steam. At nuclear power at some nuclear power plants, the plants, uranium is ihe fuel used to storage pools are almost full. nuclear, waste is the by­ make steam. Today, using pools and dr)- casks, product ofmaking Nuclear luel consists of solid pellets approximately 20.000 meine ions ol electricity at commercial of enriched uranium each about the spent fuel are stored at more than 60 size o ía pencil eraser. These small nuclear power plant locations across nuclear power plants and pellets produce a tremendous the country. By the year 2000, an es­ from production at amount of enei gy when used in a timated 40,000 metric ions ol spent defensefacilities. nuclear power plant. For example, fuel will have been produced. By one pellet contains the energy then, there also will be about 8,000 equivalent of almost one ton of coal. metric ions of solidified high-level The pellets are sealed in lubes of a nuclear waste from defense pro­ sirong, corrosion* and heat-resistant grams. Currently, high-level waste metal alloy. The tubes containing the from defense programs is stored pri­ uranium pellets are bundled together marily at three U.S. Department of 10 form a nuclear fuel assembly. The Energy (DOEÏ facilities, in Idaho. assemblies are placed inside a South Carolina and Washington. nuclear reactor and used to generale Permanent storage must be able to heat to make electricity. The fuel will isolate high-level radioactive waste be used until ihe fuel is spenl. or no for thousands of years because its ra­ longer efficient in generating that dioactivity can harm people and the heal. environment. According to U.S. En­ vironmental Protection Agency stan­ What is spent fuel? dards. at the end of 10,000 years, the Once a year, approximately one- radioactive material remaining in the third of the nuclear fuel inside a re­ waste could lead to ahoul the same actor is removed and replaced with number of health eflects as those as­ fresh fuel. The spent fuel is highly ra­ sociated with a comparable size un­ dioactive and is the primar)- form of mined uranium ore deposit. The nuclear waste. DOE must demonstrate, at the boundaries set by the standards, that When spent fuel is removed from a a repository vviil isolate waste for reaclor, it is put into a pool of water 10,000 years. Uranium ore deposits at the reactor site. The water is a ra­ are used to describe this regulation diation shield and coolant. Storing and potential risks because natural the spent fuel in pools is intended uranium is used to make the en­ only as a temporar)’ measure until a riched uranium that is in spent permanent disposal place is found. nuclear fuel. 11 Specifically, the regulations for re- What about reprocessing positones were calculated on the ba- the fuel? sis that a repository could cause no The cheraical pwccss hy whlch ura. more than 1,000 health effects to ! 0 nium and plutonium are recovered billion people over 10,000 years. from spent fuel is called reprocess- There are many elements of our cv- ,ng Commercial reproc 'ssmg of eryday lives, such as driving in cars spent nuclear fuel currently \s being and smoking or being around people done m several countries that use who smoke, that pose potentially nuclear energ>-. The United States re higher health effects to that many processes military and defense spent people over that many years. fUel Because reprocessing is more expensive than mining and process­ ing uranium ore for fuel, reprocess­ Fuel assembly ing is uneconomical for private in­ dustry in the United Slates a; this lime. When spent fuel is reprocessed, a highly radioactive liquid by-product remains. This will be turned into a solid, glass-like substance which then mus; be placed permanently in a repository No liquids will ever be stored in the repository.

Possible timeframe for studying, licensing, constructing and operating a repository, as well as the expected accumulation of high-level nuclear waste. Plans for safe operation

Opération o f an From a cooling pool ai a power railcar lor shipment. Transportation plant, spent fuel would be packaged casks used to ship radioactive waste underground repository for shipment eiiher to an monitored must be certified by the NRC. could begin only after a retrievable storage (MRS* facility or On aruvai at the repository, the cask lengthy process. First, the to a repository would be unloaded by remote con­ An MRS facility is an aboveground trol and carefully re-inspected The site must undergo years o f facility that would provide tempo­ fuel assemblies would be removed comprehensive study rary. short-term storage for spent from the transportation cask and put fuel. It would be regularly moni­ into a canister, which would be Then, i f Yucca Mountain tored The facility would receive welded shut The waste canisters appears capable o f spent luel 1 rom commercial reactors, then would be taken by special ve­ store it. and ultimately ship it to a hicles down a ramp to rooms under­ isolating nuclear waste, permanent repository. ground. There, by ren' ,>te control, the suitability will be the waste would be placed insidt the Preparing waste for shipping holes m the rock floors After ea-h judged by the U.S. canister is in place, a hea\y sh'eld Nuclear Regulatory At the reactor or MRS. spent fuel as­ will plug the hole semblies would be hoisted by re­ Commission (NRC). I f mote control into a strong, heavily the N RC agrees that the shielded shipping container. This container, called a cask, is designed site is suitable, repository to withstand severe accidents dunng construction could begin. transportation The cask would then be closed, sealed, and inspected be­ According to the current fore being loaded onto a truck or schedule, this would occur around2004. Following is a preliminary description o fhow nuclear waste would be disposed o f safely

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ф • 1,000 т ем е tom ol hlQMml «asta Ф ■ 1,000 metric lontotaptnt nuc>Mrfu*i fron dotonoo pfOQwra Irom nucUti powr pUnt» 13 What would a repository secunty office. These facilities would What happens when a look tike? cover approximately a 160-hectare repository is full? The potential repository would look l400-acrei area. After a repository has been filled to like a large mining complex. It Underground, about 560 hectares capacity, regulations require DOE ю would have two types of industnal 1 1.400 a^res) would be mined. The keep the facility open and to monitor facilities - a facility on the surface for underground facilities would include it lor a period of at least 50 years handling and packaging nuclear the tunnels leading to the ar< vis from the time waste was first placed waste and a large mine about 300 where the waste containers would be in it This will allow experts to moni­ meters (1,000 feet'» underground. placed, and service areas near the tor conditions inside the repository Many kinds of different facilities shafts and ramps that provide access while the radioactive waste is in would be built on the súrtate. These irom the surface. place and also will allow the spent would include roads, utilities, waste- The repository will be designed to fuel to be retrieved. handling facilities, fire and medical contain the radioactive material and Eventually, the repository tunnels service lacrimes, administrative of­ to protect the environment. This will and shalts will be tilled with the rock fices, repair shops, water ¿ nd sew age lx* done by using layers ol shielding, and eanh taken out of them and treatment plants, warehouses, a ma­ by sealing the containers, and even­ then sealed. At the ground level, chine shop, an electrical shop, and a tually by filling the holes and tun­ facilities will be removed and, to nels. This approach, using layers of the extent reasonable and feasible man-made and natural barriers, is DOE will letum the site to its used throughout the plans tor the onginal condition. repository. Could radioactive materials get out of a repository? Now that we have looked What about radiation protection? at how a repository would An underground repository is a safe work, let’s see how people disposal method because it will pro­ would be protectedfrom vide multiple layers of protection ihrough natural and engineered radiation from a burners. repository Federal The natural dryness of the Yucca Mountain area would be one of the regulations that govern first layers ol protection. The depth high-level nuclear waste at which a repository would be bur­ disposal require that a ied would be another. Being above ihe waier table would be a third repository isolate waste fo r layer ol protection. a period o f10,000years, Man-made barriers would provide more lay ers of protection There are and at all times at ieasi two levels of man-made bar- throughout that period ners: waste form and waste package. The waste form is eiiher a solid ce­ meet strict standards fo r ramic pellet or a glass bead. The release o f radioactive solid waste will be sealed in corro­ material set by the EPA. sion-resistant metal or ceramic con­ tainers which would keep moisture During this period the from reaching the speni fuel. DOE radioactivity in the waste must demonstrate thai waste pack­ ages could substantially contain the also decreases naturally (a radioactive spent fuel dunng the first process called decay) At 300* 1,000 years in a repository. Natural barriers form subsequent the end ofthe 10,000 layers of protection. Most scientists years, the radioactive think that when the waste containers material remaining in are first placed in the repository', the heat from ihe waste packages will Artist s concept showing the interaction of the waste is comparable, dry any moisture in ihe surrounding zeolites and radionuclides. In this drawing, rock mass. After 1,000 years, reposi­ moisture is shown moving in a cross-section from a health-ejfect of tuff. Some ot the drops of moisture carry tory' engineering still will help pre­ radionuclides (radioactive particles). As the standpoint, to that vent ihe movement of radioactive radionuclides come in contact with the materials because an air gap around zeolites, they would be attracted to the associated with a zeolites, sticking to them. and. with less the package will help prevent water intensity, to the tuff. comparable size unmined in surrounding rock from reaching uranium ore deposit. This and corroding the container. is one ofthe reasonsfor Scientists and engineers assume that, over thousands of years, some of the the 10,000-yearperiod man-made barriers in a repository’ that isfound in the will break down. Once that happens, natural barriers, including the fideral standards. mountain itself, will be counted on to stop or slow the movement of ra­ dioactive panicles. 15 Many scientists think that if the entific evaluation of Yucca Mountain. Understanding the hazards of waste form and package were dis­ It is expected from the review of pre­ radiation solved as the result of contact with liminary data that these doses will be We live with radiation every day. W'e water, and radioactive particles were small, that is, they will be compa­ receive radiation doses from cosmic released in the rock above the water rable to the doses received from rays from outer space and from ra­ table, that the radioactive particles drinking naturally occurring radio­ don gas and other naturally radioac­ w’ould move through the rock very nuclides in water. tive elements in the eanh. This is slowly. In part, this is because of the The radioactive material also will called natural background radiation. extremely small amount of water have to travel a distance before it It includes the radiation dose we re­ present to cany the radioactive mate­ would reach water used by people, ceive from plants, animals and from rial. It is also because some of this plants and animals. At the end of the our own bodies material would stick to the zeolites, 10,000 years, the radioactive mate- We also are exposed to man-made or minerals, in the rock and slow nal remaining in the waste could sources of radiation including medi­ their movement from a repository. lead to about the same number of cal and dental treatments, smoke de­ For a practical understanding of zeo­ health effects as those associated tectors, television sets, nuclear power lites. the action of zeolites is similar with a comparable size unmined plants, and emissions from coal-fired to the process used to remove un­ uranium ore deposit. Studies de­ power plants. wanted minerals from ' hard ' water signed to test these theones will be Radiation is easy to detect with sci­ This is called water “softening." pan of the evaluation of Yucca entific instruments. The unit com­ Mountain. Studies designed to calculate both monly used in the United States to the time taken by radionuclides to DOE will need to demonstrate the measure radiation dose rate is the travel through the rock and the re­ application of the multiple barrier millirem (mrem\ which is one-thou­ sultant expected maximal doses and design system at Yucca Mountain to sandth of a rem. A rent is a measure risks to the public are part of the sci­ the NRC to obtain a repository of the effect of a dose of radiation on license. human tissue. According to the re­ port issued by the Commission on Biological Effects of Ionizing Radia­ tion vBEiR V). the average American s annual dose of natural and man-made radiation is about 360 millirem per year. Factors that increase For a long time large doses of radia­ Would there be a radiation exposure to radiation tion have been recognized as harm­ dose to people nearby? A number of factors can vary the ful. For this reason, there are limits Preliminary' estimates indicate that if on exposure to radiation from man- amounts of radiation dose we re­ a repository’ were located at Yucca ceive. Where we live affects the level made sources. These limits are deter­ Mountain and if a person lived about of radiation to which we are ex­ mined by scientific research and are five kilometers (three miles) from the posed, since cosmic radiation levels continually reevaluated by: repository', less than one millirem of increase with elevation. For example, • National Commission on radiation per yrear would be added to a person living in Denver receives 50 Radiological Protection; that person's total background radia­ millirem of cosmic radiation dose • the National Council on tion exposure. per year compared to a person living Radiation Protection; If a repository were constructed, the in Chicago, who receives 25 mil- • ihe Committee on Biological health and safety of repository’ work­ Uwn рет yew. Th\s \s because Effects of Ionizing Radiation; ers and the public would be moni­ Earth's atmosphere is thinner at tored continuously throughout the • the National Research Council higher elevations and does not block repository's construction, operation, of the National Academy of as many cosmic ray s. Sciences; and and closing. Details of the monitor­ What you do at work may affect ing program would be reviewed by • the U. S. Environmental your exposure. People who work the NRC as part of the licensing pro­ Protection Agency (EPA). with sources of radiation or in jobs cess. By law, the state where a re­ such as airline pilots and flight atten­ The result of this intensive study and pository' is located and local govern­ dants may have higher radiation monitoring is that radiation is one of ments, recognized as affected by the doses than people in other occupa­ the most scientifically understood, potential repository, will have the tions. Medical and dental X-rays and precisely delected, and strictly regu­ right to review the results of the ra­ procedures also will add to your to­ lated of all potentially harmful diological process. tal radiation dose. agents. We also are exposed to natural radia­ tion from soil and rock. The Na­ tional Council on Radiation Protec­ Americans’ average dose per year is tion (NCRP) says that radioactive ra­ don gas, emitted from the Earth and less than 360 mrem sometimes trapped in homes, can ac­ count for up to 55 percent, or 200 millirem per year, of our annual dose.

Did you know that almost all radiation exposure in the United States comes from External BacMßrovnd Radiation Level 15% natural sources such as the

sun and the soil? Internal (m the tndy) 11%

17 Americans' average personal radiation Examples of possible doses from common exposure sources of radiation* Radiation is all around us as a Where you live part o f our natural environ­ Location: Las Vegas, Nevada** (natural background)...... 59.0 mrem ment. Each year, the average dose per person from all radia­ Radon: (U.S. average)...... 200.0 mrem tion sources is 360 mrem. One World-wide weapons test fallou t...... less than 1.0 mrem factor that contributes to com­ mon radiation exposure is What you eat and drink where you live. Background ra­ Food and water (U.S. average) ...... 39.0 mrem diation in Las Vegas, Nevada is 59 mrem per year. Background Medical radiation in Colorado is slightly One chest X -ra y ...... 10.0 mrem higher due 10 that state's higher The average exposure lor méditai >oime> is 5 \ mrem altitude. The atmosphere is A lower g.btuunieMiiul ir.kl X-ray has a do«* ol about ?00 mrem A thinner at higher altitudes, al­ radiopharmaceuiiiul exam has a do>e ol about 300 mrem lowing more radiation expo­ How you live sure from space. Several coastal areas of Brazil have an exposure jet plane travel, for each 2,500 miles add 1 mrem ...... 2.0 mrem of about 500 mrem per year b e ­ TV viewing: cause of the local soil and rock. for each hour per day it is , 15; so 4 hours X 15 = ...... 0.6 mrem And Kerala, India, which has Sleeping: With partner, add 0.1 mrem ...... 0.1 mrem the highest known levels of Cooking: with natural g a s ...... 6.0 mrem background radiation uf any in­ habited area on Earth, has areas Total annual mrem dose for this ex a m p le ...... 317.7 mrem which exceed 1,300 mrem per year in background radiation U.S. annual average dose is 360 mrem due to the monazite sand in the area composed of approxi­ mately nine percent of the ra­ * NOTE. Doses are estimates only and \ary at any given time. Information Jrom the BEiR Repon V, National A cadem y o j Sciences, Committee on Biological Effects of Ionising dioactive element thorium. Radiation.

It is common for people to re­ ** in the O ff-Sile Environmental Monitoring Report Radiation Monitoring Around ceive far more than the average U nited States Nuclear Testing Areas, 1 988 - l/.S. Environmental Protection Agency/ of 360 millirem in a year be­ Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory, Las Vegas. Nevada 1989. cause of a variety of other fac­ tors. Some of these are illus­ trated in the chan which ac­ companies this.

Scientific Name: Scarab beeile of the Coleoptera order Status: Common, unprotected

18 Plans for safe transportation

One o fthe major issues Most people are unaware thai many dioactive waste shipments? Evalua­ kinds ol radioactive materials are tions show that exposure to a vehicle Nevadans and others ask moved around our country each carrying high-level w aste moving 38 questions about is day. Shipments go to and from hos­ kilometers (24 miles) per hour is an pitals and medical research institu­ extremely tiny dose of radiation For transportation o f spent tions. nuclear power plants, govern­ people within 30 meters (100 feet-) fiiel through their state. ment research facilities, industrial of the route oí a vehicle carrying complexes and other lacihties. The high-level waste, the dose per year Their concern is the safety record for transporting haz­ would be two to eight millirem of ra­ possibility o fradiation ardous nuclear materials is excellent. diation. This would be about two For more than 30 years there has not percent of the dose they receive from exposure during been a single death or injury during radiation that occurs naturally in the transportation. transportation due to ihe radioactive environment. nature of the nuclear waste being The cask in which high-level nuclear transported. waste is shipped is the primary W hat would be me radiation expo­ transportation safely feature. Ship­ sure from spent fuel or high-level ra­ ping cask designs in use today meet rigorous standards before being cer­ tified by the NRC. This ensures that they will withstand severe accidents without any harmful release of their radioactive contents. The NRC must certify all casks for the repository program. New casks are being designed to increase cask capacity so that the number of ship­ ments to a repository can be re­ duced. This is possible because spent fuel now will be older, that is, will have been out of the reactor longer and will be thermally cooler. Addi­ tionally, these casks will require less shielding due to the fuel having less radioactivity. These new casks are not being developed because present cask design is unsafe or inadequate, but to minimize the number ot shipments.

Department of Energy potential rail alternatives for further study

19 Potential highway routes being studied by the state of Nevada Ship by road? Ship by rail? by 2010. The approximate number The U.S. Department of Energy's Of­ Ship by both? of cask shipments to a repository fice of Civilian Radioactive Waste The U.S. Department of Transporta­ each year is estimated to be 250 by’ Management (OCRWM) has a num­ tion (DOT) and the NRC regulate rail casks and 1,000 casks by truck, ber of publications which are avail­ the shipment of nuclear materials. if shipments are made directly from able to anyone requesting them. State and federal regulations control nuclear power plants. If a monitored OCRW M has a National Information virtually every aspect of spent fuel retrievable storage facility is built, Center and a toll-free number, 1 - and high-level waste transportation. most spent fuel would travel by rail (800)225-NW PA, with information Studies are being done to decide to Yucca Mountain. specialists who will help you get an­ what method of shipment to a re­ If nuclear waste shipments were swers to your questions and get pub­ pository would be used. Is it best to made to Yucca Mountain, extensive lications Also, written inquiries may transport spent fuel and high-level safety checks will be made. Inspec­ be made at the following address: waste by rail or road, or a combina­ tions will be made by DOE, DOT. OCRW M Information Center, P.O. tion of the two? utilities, and the transporter, as well Box 4 4 3 7 5 , Washington, D C. DOE will study possible routes for as state inspectors before the ship­ 2 0 0 2 6 . Inquiries also may be made shipments of high-level nuclear ment leaves, en route, and when the to DOE/OCRWMs Yucca Mountain waste to Yucca Mountain if it is shipment arrives at its destination. Site Characterization Project at found suitable fora repository. High­ Before a repository would open, P.O. Box 48608 way routes within the state will be highway patrol officers, firefighters, Las Veg3s, NV 89193-8608. selected from interstate highways in emergency’ medical personnel, and O CRW M also has an electronic bul­ accordance with DOT regulations. other public safety workers along letin board program, called Infolink, These same regulations pennit a the designated routes will receive which has current program informa­ state to recommend alternate routes training and emergency response tion, a publications catalog and a to the DOT if public safety would be equipment. publications ordenng capability. For improved. more information about using Rail routes also will be selected ac­ If 1 am interested in learning Infolink, please write to the cording to federal regulations in ef­ more about the U.S. Nuclear OCRW M Information Center. fect at the time of shipment. To ship Waste Management Program The League of Women Voters has by rail, a rail spur would have to be and understanding the issues produced a book tilled “The Nuclear built to connect Yucca Mountain involved, what ma y 1 do? W aste Primer, A Handbook for Citi­ with main rail lines already in the zens. ' that is a resource on ihis sub­ You may learn the basic facts and re­ region. ject. This book and many others on search the issues necessary to evalu­ the subject of high-level nuclear According to current projections, ate what is being said and written nuclear waste shipments could begin waste management are available in DOE information offices in Nevada. To get directions to those offices, call (7 0 2 ) 295-1312 or write to either of A drawing of one type of cask the addresses mentioned above. licensed by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission

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