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Challenges to Survival DIPANJAN GHOSH AND SREEPARNA GHOSH Article Feature Challenges to Survival Sunderban, the largest mangrove ecosystem in the world, is facing serious threats to its survival. Also threatened are a large number of endangered and globally threatened faunal species and local inhabitants who earn their livelihood. about 410,000 hectares, 212,500 hectares The Sunderban region has a warm is occupied by mangrove forest and humid climate. The average maximum 178,100 hectares is water body. The entire and minimum temperature of this region forested area constitutes the Biosphere is 40° C and 18° C respectively, with an Reserve (declared on 29 March 1989). annual rainfall of about 1600 to 1800 The present Sunderban National Park, with millimetres. Sunderban receives rainfall three sanctuaries, is an integral part of this during the southwest monsoon season UNDERBAN is the largest mangrove biosphere. (June to October), with occasional rainfall Secosystem in the world, covering an area The Sunderban creates a unique throughout the year. Rainfall is negligible of about one million hectares, of which 60% ecological environment that is composed in the winter months. Occasionally, during is located in Bangladesh and the remaining of rich assemblages of both floral and May and October, violent cyclonic storms in India. Located in the southern part of the faunal wealth, along with dense human accompanied with high sea waves and state of West Bengal, it extends over the habitation surrounding the forest core tides devastate the coastal Sunderban area from Dampier-Hodges Line in the north area. Human settlements in Sunderban area. to the Bay of Bengal and from the western are believed to have started at least four embankment of the rivers Ichhamati-Kalindi- hundred years ago. Soil in the Sunderban Raymangal in the east to the river Hooghly in It has a funnel-shaped landscape with The active delta of the Sunderban contains the west. The area included in the UNESCO numerous linear tidal mud flats and a network different types of soil such as silty clay loams, World Heritage list in 1987 is a part of the of tidal channels. The Sunderban mud flats sandy clay and loams, soil with organic famous Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta. are found at the estuary and on the deltaic and peaty deposits, swampy and marshy The name ‘Sunderban’ has probably islands where low velocity of river and tidal soil, also called as ‘mangrove soil’. The soil been derived from the Sundari trees current occurs. The flats are exposed during is oxygen deficient and nitrogen content (Heritiera fomes) that once abundantly the low tides and submerged in the high is also low. Soil pH is more or less acidic, populated the Sunderban. Alternatively, tides. The tidal action deposits silt back ranging from 5.4 to 7.8. it has been proposed that the name is a on the channels thus raising the bed and Although the soil contains adequate corruption of Samudraban meaning ‘Sea forming new islands and creeks contributing water, plants cannot avail of the water Forest’. to an uncertain geomorphology. Due to the because of high concentration of salts Sunderban is made up of 102 small gentle slope of the coast and large tidal (mostly chloride, sulphate and bicarbonate islands and is crisscrossed by several amplitude, tidal water penetrates to an salts of sodium, magnesium and calcium). rivers like Hooghly, Ichhamati, Bdyadhari, average distance of 110 kilometres inland The salinity of the surface soil is governed by Thakuran, Matla, Gosaba, Haribhanga, etc., from the shore line and in some areas, the the quantity of freshwater flow and monsoon along with their rivulets and creeks. Out of effect of the tides is felt over 300 kilometres rainfall, being highest in the middle of the total area of the Indian Sunderban of inland. the summers and lowest during the rainy SCIENCE REPORTER, FEBRUARY 2013 44 Feature Article months. The Ganges and Brahmaputra, Above: Indian Sunderban comprises more than two snow-fed rivers and their large number hundred small islands (Photo: Ayan Mondal) of tributaries and rivulets, supply a huge amount of freshwater to the Sunderban Above right: Human settlements in Sunderban mangroves throughout the year. Because are believed to have started long ago (Photo: of this, salinity of the water body within the Ayan Mondal) mangrove forest as well as near the sea is lower than that of the sea water even during Right: Fishing in brackish water is a very the summer months. familiar occurrence in Sunderban (Photo: Ayan Mondal) Mangrove Vegetation Mangroves are flowering plants comprising at least three types of floral components – true mangroves, back mangroves and Sunderban mudflats are exposed in low tides and submerged in mangrove associates. high tides, thus being changed morphologically even in a single True mangroves are salt-tolerant halophytic plants, growing on tidal swamp tidal cycle. habitats. The true mangrove species thrive in Mangrove associates are not true Back mangroves are a bushy, high salinity, daily submergence, fine clayey mangrove plants. They are common discontinuous type of vegetation. They oxygen deficient soil, tidal currents, fresh mesophytic plants occurring near the are not subjected to the same degree of water flow and strong wind as well. To adapt human habitation. These plants can grow in tidal inundations as experienced by true to the situation, they have stilt roots and nutrient-deficient soil but cannot withstand mangroves that grow near mangrove supporting cable-like shallow holding roots environmental conditions as encountered stands towards the landward side. Though that support the plant in tidal currents. True by the true mangroves. able to withstand the high salinity and low mangroves also possess pneumatophores The freshwater river discharge coupled nutrient soil associated with coastal areas, to access atmospheric oxygen. Most of with high rainfall, the tropical humid climate these plants generally are not found in the these plants possess salt-secreting glands in and the less number of dry months all intertidal areas colonized by true mangrove their leaves. support plant growth. Hence, the species plants. variety as well as biomass is obviously high in this region, in comparison to the rest of the No Current mangrove wetlands in India. Creek Creek Max. Current The interior parts of the mudflats are Swamp Forest Swamp Thicket Herbaceous No Current Swamp High Tide home to luxuriant mangroves. According to an estimate by the West Bengal Forest Mid Tide Department, there are 84 species of true mangroves, mangrove-associates and back mangroves found in the Sunderban mangrove forest. However, the distribution Mud Plates Sandy Mud Low Tide of species is not uniform and primarily controlled by the level of salinity and not by Sand Flats the tidal inundation. Sectional view of mudflats and sandflats in Sunderban delta (Courtesy: A Banerjee, Environmental, Population and The true estuarine zone is dominated Human Settlements of Sunderban Delta, 1st Ed, 1998, Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi) with species with tolerance to high salinity 45 SCIENCE REPORTER, FEBRUARY 2013 Feature Article Left: A vast area of the mangrove forest has been flooded due to tidal flow (Photo: Ayan Mondal) Right: Pneumatophores or breathing roots help mangroves in gaseous exchange directly from the air (Photo: Ayan Mondal) and submergence, including Jatbaen cylindrica), Keora (Sonneratia apetala), trees like Amur (Agalia domestica), (Avicennia officinalis), Pairabaen (A. alba), etc. The inner estuarine zone comprising Dhundul (Xylocarpus granatum), Passur (X. Kalabaen (A. marina), Garia (Kandelia of elevated areas with less saline soil and mekongensis), Sundari (Heritiera fomes) and candel), Kripa (Lumnitzera racemosa), more fresh water flow is dominated by Golpata (Nypa fruticans) palm-swamps are Tora (Aegialitis rotundifolia), etc. The Genwa (Excoecaria agallocha), Kankra extremely limited. Among these species, middle estuarine zone where the salinity is (Bruguiera gymnorrhiza), Khalsi (Aegiceras Sundari and Golpata are very rarely sighted lower but the tidal current passing through corniculatum), Ora (Sonneratia caseolaris) in the wild. Besides, plants like Amur, Passur, the narrow creeks and channels is high and Hental (Phoenix paludosa). Tora, etc. are endemic to the Sunderban is dominated by Garjan (Rhizophora However, some mangrove plant region only. apiculata), Goran (Ceriops decandra), species are rare, endemic and restricted Freshwater inflow in the western Mathgoran (C. tagal), Bakul (Bruguiera to specific salinity. The distribution of part of Sunderban has been reduced by geotectonic and fluvial reasons. This has caused the forest cover in this area to be less dense and discontinuous. The mangroves in this zone are dwarf as well as bushy types, like Hargoza (Acanthus ilicifolius), Ban Lebu (Merope angulata) and Lata Sundari (Brownlowia tersa). Survival Challenges Since the last few decades, certain natural and man-made problems are posing a serious threat to the natural environmental balance and species diversity of the Sunderban region. These have disturbed the complex food chain and the wildlife population, enhanced coastal erosion, diminished soil fertility and now also provide less resistance to the ravages of gales and storms over the land. Besides, several important fish species, some other faunal species and mangroves have been declining dramatically in the region. Above: Stilt roots support the mangrove Mangroves are flowering plant to stand on feculent soil and in tidal currents (Photo: Ayan Mondal) plants comprising at least three types of It is high time that floral components – true well thought out mangroves, back mangroves environmental and mangrove associates. protection measures True mangroves are are implemented salt-tolerant halophytic before this unique plants, growing on tidal biosphere is lost forever. swamp habitats. SCIENCE REPORTER, FEBRUARY 2013 46 Propagules are ready for viviparous germination (Photo: Dipanjan Ghosh); above: Sundri tree (Heritiera fomes) is a rare sight in Indian Sunderban and flowering is also rather rare (right) (Photo: Ayan Mondal) Extensive human intervention is country boats and as fuel wood.
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