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Promoting Environmental Justice Through Urban Green Space Access: a Synopsis ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE Volume 5, Number 1, 2012 Reviews ª Mary Ann Liebert, Inc. DOI: 10.1089/env.2011.0007 Promoting Environmental Justice Through Urban Green Space Access: A Synopsis Viniece Jennings, Cassandra Johnson Gaither, and Richard Schulterbrandt Gragg ABSTRACT This article reviews literature on the connection between urban green space access and environmental justice. It discusses the dynamics of the relationship as it relates to factors such as environmental quality, land use, and environmental health disparities. Urban development stresses the landscape and may compromise environmental quality. Since some communities are disproportionately impacted by changes in land use and land cover, understanding the environmental justice implications of changing the land- scape is important. Likewise, the additive effects of degraded landscapes and decreased environmental quality have human health implications. The article covers information from a range of disciplines (e.g., urban ecology, sociology, public health, and environmental science) to address collective concerns related to green spaces and environmental justice. This article also articulates a gap in the literature related to empirical research on the subject. INTRODUCTION erature on environmental justice and green space access as it relates to human health, landscape planning, and or centuries, natural settings have been associ- sustainable communities. Fated with enhanced health and well-being in urban Academic interest in environmental justice stems from environments of the industrialized North.1–3 Frederick charges that environmental burdens such as landfills, Law Olmsted, the noted nineteenth century landscape toxic-emitting facilities, and other environmental hazards architect, referred to trees as ‘‘the lungs of a city,’’ a are disproportionately located near socially disadvan- metaphor that illustrates the value of trees and other taged groups.11–13 Unequal access to urban green spaces green space to the urban system. Prior studies define ur- is generally not considered in traditional environmental ban green space broadly, including city and municipal justice research. However, recent conceptualizations have parks, forests, community gardens, and natural conser- expanded to issues such as equitable access to urban vation areas.3,4 The function and specific requirements of parks and other natural resources. Such access is impor- urban green spaces influence the way they are defined tant because open spaces are associated with economic, and classified throughout the literature.5 Similar to other psychological, and cultural benefits.14,15 Fair access to definitions,6 green spaces in this review pertain to a va- natural resources and balanced land use practices are riety of open areas with vegetation. Noticeably, research examples of ecological issues embedded in environmental has also demonstrated uneven, unjust, or inequitable justice.16 Social privilege has enabled many middle-class distribution of green spaces across some urban areas.7–10 communities to enjoy a greater distribution of environ- This synopsis will cover domestic and international lit- mental amenities such as public parks.17 For instance, a Los Angeles study on park use suggested that the design and placement of parks failed to meet the needs of urban communities that were vulnerable and socially disad- Ms. Jennings is a doctoral candidate in the School of En- vantaged.18 Similarly, a Milwaukee study observed that vironment at Florida A&M University. Dr. Johnson Gaither is a urban forests with a greater percentage of canopy cover research social scientist with the USDA Forest Service, Southern were located near white populations with a higher med- Research Station Work Unit, in Athens, GA. Dr. Schulterbrandt 7 Gragg is an associate professor in environmental science and ian income when compared to Hispanics. A study in policy in the School of Environment at Florida A&M University. Tampa, Florida used data from the census and remote 1 2 JENNINGS, JOHNSON GAITHER, AND GRAGG sensing techniques and observed that neighborhoods removal rates by trees across three socioeconomic strata.30 with a higher proportion of African Americans, renters, The study observed that low-income regions had the and low-income residents had drastically fewer trees on highest concentration of coarse particulate pollution and public right of ways.19 trees in poorer condition.30 An Italian study31 noted that Studies conducted in other countries have documented the provision of parks might be a strategy to mitigate the similar findings. For example, a study that compared health impacts of soil contamination. Another study in townships throughout Eastern Cape (South Africa) ob- New Zealand documented lower concentrations of par- served an inverse association between low-income areas ticulate matter within an evergreen forest when compared with the amount and condition of public green space.20 with outside of the forest; supporting the potential role of Conversely, a Phoenix, Arizona study observed that La- urban forests to mitigate particulate air pollution.32 While tino immigrants and African Americans were more likely there have been preliminary observations on the influence to live in neighborhoods with access to neighborhood of tree cover on air quality, additional research is needed. parks.21 Similarly, blacks were found to live closer to city Even though air quality is one component of the physical parks in Baltimore.22 Overall, there are mixed findings on environment, green space is also related to other aspects the equity hypothesis related to urban tree cover for of human health. various racial and ethnic groups in the U.S.19,21 Though The increase of various human health concerns can be scholars in recreational studies have observed ethnic, so- attributed in part to environmental changes, yet environ- cioeconomic, and related variations in American park use, mental factors are not rightly regarded in the paradigm of many of their research approaches do not consider how human health research.33 Even though it can be challenging the configuration of parks influence their use.18 While to investigate the environmental influence on human there are exceptions to inequities in public park access, it health, it is still a worthy endeavor. For example health is important to understand that local conditions influence ailments (e.g., asthma, allergies, vector transmitted illnesses, the observations that are made in a specific location.23 and heart disease) have been linked to consequences of the Overall, the condition of the physical environment has built environment such as forest fragmentation and stream notable implications on human health, social interactions, degradation.34,35 Initial observations on this subject were and connection to the landscape. Literature to support the made in the context of mental health, physical activity, and dynamics between green spaces and human health will be recovery from hospital visits. 36 discussed further. One study suggested that the availability of natural resources helps low-income women to better cope with HUMAN HEALTH IMPLICATIONS stress.37 Natural settings have also been shown to ease OF INEQUITABLE GREEN SPACE ACCESS symptoms of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children.38 Forests provide other benefits to Public health ecology is a framework that integrates human health (e.g., medicinal resources, mitigation of landscape structure and ecosystem functioning with infectious diseases) and may be a strategy to ease agents and stressors that influence health outcomes.24 costs in public health programs.39 A study in New York Some research suggests that access to green space reduces City compared the density of street trees to factors such pollution exposure and promotes health,25 it has impli- as prevalence of asthma in four and five year olds, cations to be considered within this framework. For in- asthma hospitalizations, demographic data (e.g., per- stance, leaf area index is an indicator of air quality centage of minorities, percentage in poverty), and regulation;26 and trees play an important role in the proximity to pollution sources to observe that street trees vegetation strategy for removing pollutants at the com- were correlated with a lower prevalence of childhood munity scale.27 However, it is important to note that not asthma.40 all types of vegetation are created equal. Factors such as The recreational benefits of green spaces also enhance tree species, allergenic index, tree condition, and length of other dimensions of human health. For instance, a positive in-leaf season impact the services that trees provide. correlation was observed between walkable green spaces More broadly, high risk geographic settings with re- and the longevity of urban senior citizens in Japan.41 In a stricted salutogenic resources are ‘‘riskscapes’’ that in- two year study, youth in Indiana were tracked, and it crease a community’s vulnerability to environmental was determined that greenness (normalized difference stressors such as air pollution, natural disasters, climate vegetation index) was inversely associated with body change, and other hazards.28 Low income and minority mass index (BMI).42 The study also implied that pre- communities are more likely to reside in riskscapes and, serving green spaces is a potential strategy to address as a result, are more likely to be exposed to pollutants that childhood obesity. This benefit would be particularly exacerbate respiratory illnesses. Reducing
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