CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
Marriage is viewed differently by couples of interracial marriages (Reed, 2003). These different perspectives on marriage may reflect the linguistic choices of couples when they communicate with their spouses in the home domain. To foreground this research some studies on language choice, accommodation strategies, and code switching will be first described so as to shed light on the complexities of verbal interactions among couples.
Language choice for multilingual speakers plays a crucial role in everyday talk because whenever they speak, they make choices. Similarly, in interracial couples‟ communication the challenges of choosing a language is always present because of their linguistic and cultural differences. The challenge is compounded when each spouse is multilingual leading to a wide choice of languages to choose from. According to Coulmas
(2005) multilingual speakers cannot help but make choices for language is a social fact, culturally varied, group specific, and governed by convention. The choice of language in interactions can be triggered by a number of variables which include the speaker‟s first language, community language, (Piller 2004; Johansson, 1991) age, education, role- relationships, ethnicity, (Burhanudeen, 2003) dominant language, (Piller, 2004; Warshauer,
El Said & Zohry, 2002) social status, (Tan, 1993) numeric factor, economic and political position of the linguistic group and the neutrality of language (Degefa, 2004).
Couples who are linguistically and culturally diverse sometimes apply certain strategies when communicating. One common strategy is to accommodate other speakers
1 by modifying the speech style. This concept can be explained by the Communication
Accommodation Theory (CAT). Giles, Bourhis & Taylor (1977) argued that
Communication Accommodation Theory can be applied in interracial encounters because both interlocutors may possibly converge or diverge by choosing an appropriate language available in their linguistic repertoire. In interracial encounters, the choice of any linguistic code may reflect a speaker‟s approval or disapproval (Coulmas, 2005). When a speaker approves another interlocutor and uses a similar language and manner of speaking, the speaker is converging. However a speaker may sometimes diverge in communication to show difference from other interlocutors.
Giles (1979) proposed three paradigms in interracial communication, i.e. language choice situation, accommodation situation, and assimilation situation. Language choice situation happens in multi-ethnic and multicultural societies where many languages exist.
As a result, speakers choose a language that is appropriate in a specific context. However, the choice of a certain language may vary in different domains of communication.
Such choice may lead to solidarity of speakers who are involved in conversations.
Solidarity is manifested when speakers converge by accommodating other interlocutors.
When members of a minority group emerge into a dominant culture and learn the dominant language but retain their ethnic language this can be classified as accommodation.
Consequently, speakers become bilingual by using two languages such as the community language and ethnic language (Giles, 1979). In a continuum, when speakers frequently accommodate other speakers with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds, assimilation is most likely to happen. Assimilation usually happens when immigrants assimilate to the language used in the new place they live in (Giles, 1979).
2 In a speech encounter, Giles (1979) explains that speakers adjust their speech style to accommodate another speaker. The adjustment can be downward convergence or upward convergence depending on the intention of the speaker. The occurrence of downward and upward convergence is discussed in detailed in Chapter 2, Section 2.2.1. On the other hand, divergence takes place in communication when a speaker does not conform to the language choice and speech patterns of other interlocutors. Instead, the speaker uses a different linguistic code to emphasize the differences. However, Miller (2005) argued that there are instances when a speaker is particularly looking for differences in other speakers.
The concept of Communication Accommodation Theory (CAT) was expanded and applied to family communication including communication between husbands and wives.
Harwood, Soliz, & Lin (2006) proposed that there are different strategies in family communication, i.e. approximation accommodation strategies, interpretability accommodation strategies, discourse management accommodation strategies, and interpersonal control accommodation strategies. Harwood, Soliz, & Lin (2006) described these four strategies when analyzing different aspects of accommodation in communication. A brief overview on accommodation strategies is explained below but a detailed explanation is provided in Chapter 2, Section 2.2.1.
Approximation accommodation strategy is a form of accommodation to the interlocutor‟s productive performance which focuses on the partner‟s speech style. Such accommodative practice focuses more on the adjustment of the speech style. In
Communication Accommodation Theory, the adjustment is done by moving towards other speaker‟s speech style (convergence) or moving away from the other‟s speech style
(divergence) (Harwood, Soliz, & Lin, 2006: 23). For example in interracial couples‟
3 communication, this strategy is used when a spouse uses his or her partner‟s language to converge when communicating.
Interpretability accommodation strategies involve accommodation of the partner‟s perceived interpretive abilities, which refer to the ability to understand (Harwood, Soliz, &
Lin, 2006: 24). This strategy is used when there is an age difference between the two speakers. For example in interactions between a mother and a child, the mother sometimes over accommodate by speaking like a child. This downward convergence is used so that the child can understand the mother‟s message.
Discourse management accommodation strategies focus on the person‟s conversational needs and are often discussed in terms of topic selection, face management, and the like (Harwood, Soliz, & Lin, 2006: 26). This occurs when a speaker tailors the conversation so that it will fit the intellectual capability and interest of other speakers. For example when a patient talks to a doctor, he or she may discuss topics related to health issues.
Interpersonal control accommodation strategies attempt to direct the course of a particular conversation or more generally a relationship by strategies such as interruption or even direct power claims (Harwood, Soliz, & Lin, 2006: 27). This is common when two speakers have different role relationships. For example in student-teacher interaction, the teacher may show authority over the student to show professional advantage and maturity.
One evident feature of accommodation can be through code switching. The occurrence of code switching in couples‟ interaction can be explained and analyzed clearly
4 by employing the Conversation Analysis approach. Examination of the turn-taking and sequential order of talk may also help in obtaining a more comprehensive analysis of code switching in interactions. (See Chapter 2, Section 2.5 and Chapter 3).
Many studies about code switching have proven that in multilingual societies like
Malaysia, code alternation occurs in various domains of communication. David (2001),
Jawakhir (2006), Jariah Mohd. Jan (2006), and Kuang (2002) found that code switching in
Malaysia occurs in the home domain regardless of families‟ ethnic background be they
Malay, Chinese, or Indians. Code switching occurs in the home domain when referring to food items, signaling group solidarity, accommodating to a speaker‟s lack of proficiency and for the purpose of rapport, teasing, distancing, expressing annoyance, and admonishing
(David, et al., 2009).
The occurrence of language choice, accommodation strategies, and code switching can be important features to examine inter-ethnic and interracial encounters. It is therefore the objective of this research to explore the occurrence of language choice, accommodation strategies, and code switching in interracial marriages of Filipino-Malaysian couples in verbal communication in the home domain.
1.2 Objectives of the Study
This research examines the language choice of Filipino and Malaysian couples. More specifically, this research aims to:
1. Examine the Filipino-Malaysian couples‟ language choice in the home domain;
2. Examine the occurrence of language choice in relation to ethnicity, first language,
and gender;
5 3. Investigate the accommodation strategies used by Filipino-Malaysian couples in
verbal communication;
4. Examine the occurrence of code switching in interactions in the home domain; and
5. Explore the reasons for the codes selected by couples.
1.3 Rationale of the Study
This research is conceptualized to determine the language choice, accommodation strategies, and code switching in marriages between Filipinos and Malaysians. Such studies have not been fully explored particularly the language choice of Filipino-Malaysian couples.
The term “interracial marriages” is used throughout the study instead of “inter- ethnic marriages.” Emphasizing the “race” rather than “ethnicity” is essential to understand the racial and ethnic complexity in these two Southeast Asian countries: The Philippines and Malaysia. The concept of ethnicity emphasizes more on the shared culture, customs and traditions of a group (Janzen, 2003). People of the same ethnic groups may usually have a common language, religion, and history. On the other hand, the concept of race is attributed to the physical characteristics of a person and race can be altered through intermarriages (Janzen, 2003).
To understand the relevance of the term “race” in this research, it is essential to briefly trace the historical background of the Philippines and Malaysia. Historically,
Filipinos and Malays are Austronesian people and originated from the Malay race.
However, due to colonization, trade, intermarriages, and migration which occurred in the
Philippines and Malaysia, the issue about race has become complex. Consequently, the
6 term “Filipino race” is now commonly used and accepted to describe the Filipinos. On the other hand, the term “Malay race” is used to describe the Malays. However, the Chinese and Indians who come from their respective countries to work and live in Malaysia still consider their races as “Chinese and Indians.” To avoid confusion about the complexities of the terms,“race and ethnicity” of Filipinos, the term “race” is used. Consequently,
“interracial couples” is used to describe the Filipino-Malaysian couples throughout this study.
The focus on husband and wife communication can also be an important issue to discuss. At present, studies on marital communication have not been widely studied particularly in the field of sociolinguistics. Piller (2000) pointed out that studies on marital communication frequently encounter some methodological problems of data collection because it is perceived to be private. Because of the privacy of couple‟s relationship, most studies tend to focus on the behavior of an individual rather than on the interaction between husband and wife.
On the other hand, language choice is explored in this research because speakers in a multilingual society cannot evade in making choices. Speakers tend to use a language or languages available in their linguistic repertoire and their choice can be influenced by some social factors such as the speech patterns, setting, topic, and social dimensions which include the speaker‟s social distance and status, and the formality of the occasion (see
Holmes, 2008). In multilingual societies, language choice is part of people‟s everyday experience. Speakers need to frequently select an appropriate linguistic code in different domains of communication.
7 It is evident that whenever bilingual or multilingual couples speak they make choices. Such choice is triggered by psychological, social factors, and social dimensions.
Thus, exploring interracial couples‟ communication in relation to some sociolinguistic factors sheds light in understanding language choice in such interactions. Questions like
“Which or whose language is used? Why? What accommodation strategies are used?” might be helpful to determine the language selected in interracial couples‟ interactions.
1.4 Overview: The Philippines and Malaysia
Some background of the two countries where the participants came from is necessary to understand the complexities of their language and culture in relation to intermarriages.
1.4.1 The Philippines
Figure1.1 Map of the Philippines
8 The Philippines is a multilingual and multicultural country consisting of 170 languages
(Dumanig, 2007) and has a population of 88.57 million (National Statistics, 2008). People in the Philippines speak different languages and dialects however Filipino, the Philippine national language, is widely spoken. Apart from Filipino, English is also used as an official language which serves other functions specifically in government and education. Most
Filipinos can speak English because it is used as the medium of instruction in the kindergarten, elementary, high school and college. Although bilingual education is encouraged, many people give importance to English because of the economic benefits that it brings particularly the opportunity to work abroad. Due to the high demand of English, some Filipinos tend to compare intelligence with their ability to communicate in English
(Darunday, 2006). A person who can express himself or herself freely in English can be regarded smart but those who have a poor command of English are regarded as less intelligent (Darunday, 2006).
Working overseas has become one of the aims of many young working professionals and even non-professionals in the Philippines. Due to economic and political instability in the country, most people are motivated to go overseas and work. In addition, the Philippine government has motivated Filipinos to master English because of its aim of sending workers overseas so as to increase the country‟s revenue. In some cases, Filipinos marry people of the host country then eventually live and reside permanently in these countries (Japp, 2001).
In fact, the remittances of overseas Filipino workers have contributed much to the improvement of Philippine economy (Manalansan, 2008). In 2008, the monthly remittance average reached up to 1,368,905.00 US Dollars as shown in Table 1.1.
9 Table 1.1 OFW Remittances by Origin, 2008-2007, in Thousand US Dollar
World Group of Overseas 2008 (US Dollars) 2007 (US Dollars) Filipino Workers Asia 1,883.996 1,543,173 Middle East 2,502,639 2,172,417 Europe 2,658,726 2,351,704 Americas 9,213,372 8,244,344 Africa 17,746 16,027 Others 952 846 Land based Total 13,392,301 12,213,565 Sea based Total 3,034,553 2,236,363 Grand Total 16,426,854 14,449,928 Monthly Remittance Average 1,368,905 1,204,161
Source: http://www.poea.gov.ph
The remittances of OFW have increased continuously due to the increase of Filipinos working overseas. The 2008 report shows that Filipinos working in America have the highest remittances as compared to the other continents.
The increasing number of OFW in various parts of the world influences the people‟s perception of English in the Philippines. Learning English for Filipinos is no longer a choice but a necessity. Learning the language is not just for the sake of communicating internationally but for economic access to the global world. The English learned is however of a distinct Philippine English variety (Dumanig & David, 2010). It is a New
English variety that is influenced by the local languages in the Philippines (Dumanig &
David, 2010). This is evident in the lexical, syntactic, and prosodic features of Philippine
English. When Filipinos work overseas they communicate in this variety of English
(Dumanig & Manueli, 2009).
10 At present, there is a huge number of Filipinos working overseas and they are referred to as Overseas Filipino workers (OFW). Statistics shows that the number of
Overseas Filipino Workers who worked abroad from April to September 2007 was registered at 1.75 million (National Statistics Office, July 30, 2008). Based on the special report released by the Philippine National Statistics Office in July 2008 the percentage of
Filipinos working in other countries had increased up to 15.3% from 2006-2007.
Table 1.2 Percentage Distribution of Overseas Filipino Workers by Region of Origin in 2006 and 2007
2007 2006 Region 100.0 100.0 National Capital Region 16.0 16.4 Cordillera Administrative Region 2.1 2.2 I - Ilocos 7.7 7.6 II – Cagayan Valley 5.9 5.3 III – Central Luzon 14.3 14.5 IVA - CALABARZON 17.7 16.8 IVB - MIMAROPA 1.7 1.3 V - Bicol 3.0 2.5 VI – Western Visayas 8.5 9.5 VII – Central Visayas 5.1 5.5 VIII – Eastern Visayas 2.1 2.2 IX – Zamboanga Peninsula 2.0 2.2 X – Norhtern Mindanao 3.1 2.8 XI - Davao 2.6 3.1 XII - SOCCSKSARGEN 4.2 4.0 XIII - Caraga 1.0 1.1 Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao 3.1 3.1
Source: Survey on Overseas Filipinos Income and Employment Statistics Division Household Statistics Department Philippines National Statistics Office Manila, Philippines. (http://www.census.gov.ph).
Table 1.2 shows the percentage of Filipinos working overseas and their place of origin in the Philippines. It is clear that the Filipinos who work abroad come from the various regions in the Philippines. The data reveal that most Filipino overseas workers come from
11 the Tagalog region like the CALABARZON and the National Capital region (see Table
1.2).
Table 1.3 Percentage Distributions of Overseas Filipino Workers by Place of Work Abroad in 2006 and 2007
2007 2006 Place of Work 100.0 100.0 Africa 1.2 1.7 Asia 78.1 78.3 Hongkong 6.7 7.0 Japan 5.6 6.0 Taiwan 5.5 6.1 Other countries in East Asia (ex. China, South Korea) 3.1 3.5 Southeast and South Central Asia 10.3 9.9 Malaysia 2.5 2.8 Singapore 6.0 5.0 Other countries in Southeast and South Central Asia (ex. Brunei) 1.7 2.1 Western Asia 46.8 45.8 Kuwait 4.4 4.8 Saudi Arabia 19.8 21.8 United Arab Emirates 12.1 9.2 Qatar 4.5 3.7 Other countries in Western Asia (ex. Bahrain, Israel, Lebanon, Jordan) 6.0 6.3 Australia 1.9 1.2 Europe 9.2 9.5 North and South America 9.3 9.2 Other countries 0.3 - Country not reported 0.1 0.2
Source: Survey on Overseas Filipinos Income and Employment Statistics Division Household Statistics Department Philippines National Statistics Office Manila, Philippines. (http://www.census.gov.ph).
Table 1.3 shows the percentage of Overseas Filipino Workers (OFW) in various parts of the world. In Southeast Asia, a huge number of overseas Filipino workers and 6.0% of the
11,000,000 OFW work in Singapore while 2.5% work in Malaysia.
12 In Malaysia, Filipinos are found in various professions. However, domestic help outnumbers other professions. Based from the interview conducted in the Philippine
Embassy at the Philippine Overseas Labor Office (POLO) there are 10,972 registered legal
Filipino domestic helpers in Malaysia. Filipino workers in Malaysia (see Table 1.2) do not stay for long because after a few years some of them return to the Philippines. Those who have married the Malays, Malaysian Chinese, Malaysian Indians and other ethnic groups remain in Malaysia.
1.4.2 Malaysia
Figure 1.2. Map of Malaysia
13 Malaysia is a multi-ethnic and multilingual society with a population of 28.31 million
(Department of Statistics, Malaysia 2009, see map of Malaysian in figure 1.2). Malaysia has three major ethnic groups; Malays, Chinese, and Indians and there are also other minority groups like the Orang Asli and other ethnic groups in Sabah and Sarawak.
Religions in Malaysia
6.3% 9.1% Islam
Buddhism 19.2% Hinduism 60% Christianity
Chart 1.1 Religious Affiliations in Malaysia
Most Malaysians are Muslims which comprise 60% of the total population, followed by
Buddhists (19.2%), Hindus (6.3%), and Christians (9.1%) (Manalansan, 2008). Bahasa
Malaysia is the national language and English is the country‟s second language. Many people can speak English but have different levels of proficiency. The major languages spoken are Bahasa Malaysia, Chinese (Mandarin), and Indian (Tamil).
In the past, English was widely spoken in Malaysia and used as the medium of instruction in school. However, in 1960 Bahasa Malaysia was introduced and eventually replaced English as the medium of instruction (Venugopal, 2000). Different ethnic groups
14 are loyal to their own ethnic languages because the vernacular languages are used as the medium of instruction in the formative years in vernacular schools. According to David
(2007) and Abdul Rahman Arshad (2007) there are 1,800 vernacular schools consisting of
1,286 Chinese primary schools and 514 Tamil primary schools. In 1976, all English- medium primary schools were converted into schools where Malay was used as the medium of instruction (David, 2007). In 1982, all English-medium secondary schools were converted to National Schools in Peninsular Malaysia; however it was only in 1985 that the use of Malay as the medium of instruction was fully implemented in Sabah and Sarawak
(Solomon, 1988 as cited in David, 2007). Consequently, Bahasa Malaysia was given a high status while the status of English was changed from the medium of instruction to that of a subject (David, 2007:7).
The use of Bahasa Malaysia as the medium of instruction led to a decline in the standard of English (David, 2007). With the fast development of information technology, the emergence and popularity of globalization and the increasing importance of English resulted in a change in the language policy. The Private Educational Institutions Bill (1996) allows the use of English as the medium of instruction with the approval from the Ministry of Higher Education. Slowly, English was introduced in the national and national-type schools as second most important language. Consequently, in 2003 English was introduced as the medium of instruction to teach Mathematics and Science. However, this policy has recently been changed in 2009 where Bahasa Malaysia was again implemented as the medium of instruction in teaching Mathematics and Science.
15 At present, English has become an important language to many Malaysians. Some families particularly the Chinese and Indians have started using English as the medium of communication even at home (David, 2006).
1.4.3 Migration of Filipinos to Malaysia
The migration of Filipinos to Malaysia can be traced in two Diasporas. The first diaspora began during Marcos regime, when Filipino families escaped to Malaysia because of
Martial Law as well as the hostilities between the Philippine military and the Moro
National Liberation Front (MNLF) (Manalansan, 2008:4). Those Filipinos who migrated in
Malaysia were considered refugees by the United Nations High Commissioner for
Refugees (UNHCR). As of 2008, there were many Filipino refugees and asylum seekers in
Malaysia.
Table 1.4 Refugees in Malaysia as of 2008
Refugees & asylum 171,500 seekers Myanmar 79,000 Philippines 72,000 Indonesia 17,700
Source: http://www.worldrefugeesurvey.org/index.php?title=Malaysia#Statistics_for_Malaysia
Table 4.3 shows the number of refugees in Malaysia as 2008. The data shows that there are
171,500 refugees and asylum seekers. Most of the refugees are from Myanmar (79,000) followed by 72,000 Filipinos.
16 The second diaspora happened in the latter part of 1970s in which Filipinos came to
Malaysia as economic migrants (Manalansan, 2008). In the early 1980s more Filipinos came to Malaysia to work as domestic helpers without working permits. However, in the mid 1980s a group of authorized Filipino workers came to Malaysia to work as domestic helpers (Manalansan, 2008).
The migration of Filipinos to Malaysia for economic reasons has continued up to the present. The Philippine Overseas Employment Administration (POEA) data show that
Malaysia hired and re-hired some 19,073 documented Overseas Filipino Workers (OFW) or an average of 6,357 per year from 2001 to 2003 and another 3,502 from January to July in
2004 (Department of Labor and Employment, 2005 as cited in Uy, 2009). Uy (2009) reported that as of December 2007, there were 245,000 Filipinos in Malaysia, 26,002 are permanent residents, 90,965 temporary and an estimated 128,000 irregular. The continuous increase of Filipino migration in Malaysia has resulted in an increase in the number of intermarriages between Filipinos and Malaysians.
1.4.4 Interracial Marriages
Interracial marriages among Asians were not common in the past, however due to the emergence of new technological advancements and other means of transportation, people today are mobile. Globalization has increased cross-cultural flow and resulted in a high tolerance in dealing with people who come from different cultural, racial, and linguistic backgrounds. The result of such interactions across cultures has resulted in an increasing number of intermarriages (Holmes, 2008). Acceptability of Filipino and Malaysian marriages has not been a major problem because the two races share almost similar roots.
17 However, the differences in the cultural practices, values, and languages of two races are evident. (Lumayag, 2004).
In the past interracial marriages between Filipinos and Malaysians occurred in
Sabah and Mindanao particularly among the Muslims because of the proximity of the two countries (Manalansan, 2008). The geographical location of the Philippines and Malaysia specifically Sabah and Mindanao has led to easy access in entering both countries (see
Figure 1.3).
Figure 1.3 Proximity of Location between the Philippines and Malaysia
At present, interracial marriages between Filipinos and Malaysians occur due to migration of Filipinos who work in Malaysia. Most Filipinos specifically Filipino women came to
Malaysia to work as doctors, physical therapists, nurses, accountants, IT professionals, engineers, architects, teachers, entertainers, technicians, caregivers, and domestic helpers.
As of December 2007, there were 245,000 Filipinos in Malaysia and more or less 40% of them were employed as domestic helpers (Uy, 2009). Among these groups, those who came
18 to Malaysia as single, widow or separated and eventually found their life partners.
According to Lumayag (2004) Filipino women who marry Malaysians are entertainers and domestic helpers. These entertainers have more chances of marrying Malaysians because of their type of work which allows them to interact and socialize often with their customers.
Language has been viewed by many Filipinos as a problem in dealing with the
Malaysians (Dumanig & David, 2010). Although both races can speak a common language like English, they still find some problems in their interactions due to some differences in lexical, grammatical, and prosodic features of the English variety they speak. Despite these communication problems, Filipino and Malaysian couples believe that they achieve happy and successful marriages (Dumanig, 2009).
1.5 Research Questions
Language choice is an important feature in interracial couple‟s communication.
Inappropriate choice of language may lead to misunderstanding and communication breakdown. To explore and investigate the language choices of interracial couples, this study was conducted to examine and analyze the language choice, accommodation strategies, and code switching patterns of Filipino-Malaysian couples‟ communication in the home domain.
More specifically, this study sought to answer the following questions:
1. What is the preferred language of Filipino-Malaysian couples in the home domain?
2. How do ethnicity, first language, and gender influence language choice?
3. What accommodation strategies are used by couples in verbal communication in the
home domain?
19 1.6 Significance of the Study
This research is significant because it investigates, explains, and analyzes the language choice, accommodation strategies and code switching of interracial couples when communicating with their spouse. Consequently, this research may provide some suggestions and recommendations in dealing with problems emerging in cross-cultural communication specifically among Filipino-Malaysian couples. To discuss the significance of this research, explanations on the theoretical contribution, extension of empirical data base and usefulness of findings are given emphasis.
1.6.1 Theoretical Contribution
This research makes use of Giles and Powesland‟s (1975) Communication Accommodation
Theory (CAT). The theory posits that speakers accommodate each other either to converge or diverge in interactions. Divergence and convergence can either be upward or downward accommodation. In a study conducted by Harwood, Soliz and Lin (2006) it was found that
Communication Accommodation Theory is not limited to common cross-cultural or inter- cultural interactions but can be applied in family interactions. The occurrence of approximation, interpretability, discourse management, and interpersonal control accommodation strategies are evident in most interactions among family members. This research may provide new insights in interracial couples‟ language choice, accommodation strategies and code switching in interactions in the home domain. This research also highlights the importance of Conversation Analysis in analyzing the occurrence of code switching in interactions. The examination of turn-takings and sequential order of talk provides a clearer understanding on how code switching occurs when communicating with others who come from different linguistic and cultural backgrounds (see Chapters 2 and 3).
20 1.6.2 Extension of Empirical Database
This research aims to contribute to the existing studies on language choice, accommodation strategies and code switching in communication in interracial marriages. Studies on language choice show that factors such as age, social network, social status (Tan 1993, Nor
Azni Abdullah 2004); power (Heller 1995), education (Kioko & Muthiwii 2003, Mugambi
2003); media (Ledesma & Morris 2005), ethnicity, relationship of speakers (Goebel 2002), referee (Yau, 1997), numeric factor and neutrality of language (Degefa 2004), first language (Piller 2004), community language (Johansson, 1991), dominant language and language exposure (Warshauer, El Said, & Zohry 2002; Ferrer & Sankoff 2004) and gender
(Esdahl 2003) influence a speaker‟s language choice.
Language choice of mixed married couples can be triggered by ethnicity, religion and gender. Even in more private communication between husband and wife; the previously mentioned sociolinguistic factors can influence the couples‟ language choice.
Consequently, ethnicity, religion and gender are explored and analyzed in this research to provide an explanation on the occurrence of language choice, accommodation strategies, and code switching in interracial couples‟‟ communication. It is hoped that the findings of this research may contribute in understanding the reasons for language choice and accommodation strategies of Filipino-Malaysian couples.
1.6.3 Usefulness of Findings
The findings of this study will fill the gap in determining language choice, accommodation strategies, and code switching in interracial marriages between Filipinos and Malaysians.
This will also provide an explanation on the patterns of language choice and the reasons for
21 language choice, communication strategies and code switching in interracial couples‟ communication.
Previous studies on interracial communication focused on conversations among friends and strangers but limited studies have been conducted in communication between husband and wife in interracial marriages. This research may bridge the gap and provide explanations on language choice, accommodation strategies and code switching in interracial couples‟ communication.
1.7 Scope and Limitations of the Study
This research limits its scope to language choice, accommodation strategies, and code switching in interracial marriages between Filipino and Malaysian couples in the home domain only. Communication at home is believed to be more ideal to study because speakers are not distracted by outside factors like the context, presence of other interlocutors and place.
The participants of the study were limited to 60 spouses however this is compensated by a mixed methodology. Interviews, questionnaire, and recording of couples‟ actual conversation were the instruments used. The use of snowball sampling, description of participants, and data gathering procedure are explained in detailed in Chapter 3 and the steps for analysis is illustrated in Chapter 3 (see figure 3.3).
1.8 Definition of Terms
To provide clarification of the terminologies used in this study, the following terms are defined operationally.
22 Accommodation strategies – are sociolinguistic encoding strategies that describe the communication accommodation behavior of speakers both in interpersonal and intergroup level (Harwood, Soliz & Lin, 2006: 27).
Interracial couples – are Filipino-Malaysian couples from two different races or ethnic groups who do not share similar cultural and linguistic backgrounds. They do not belong to the same speech community and community of practice.
Interracial marriages – refer to the marriages between Filipinos and Malaysians who come from different ethnic affiliations such as Malay, Chinese and Indians.
Language choice - refers to the language preference of Filipino-Malaysian couples in their communication in the home domain.
Verbal communication – refers to the interracial couples‟ oral form of communication in exchanging messages using certain linguistic and non-linguistic features to convey their message.
23 CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
This chapter discusses the review of related literature and studies on language choice, accommodation strategies, and code switching in intercultural communication. The first part of the chapter examines the Communication Accommodation Theory (CAT) proposed by Giles and Powesland (1975). The second part discusses the studies of foreign and local scholars on language choice, accommodation strategies, and code switching. To present an organized literature review, a thematic arrangement of studies is used in the entire chapter.
2.2 Theoretical Framework
The theoretical framework strengthens the study and provides a strong foundation in the data gathering and analysis. This section examines the theories and issues that shape the development of the conceptual framework of the research. It reviews the development of
Communication Accommodation Theory (CAT) and its extension to family communication.
2.2.1 Communication Accommodation Theory
Communication Accommodation Theory (CAT) is widely used in various communication studies. It has been applied in areas like mass media (Bell, 1991), families (Fox, 1999),
Chinese students (Hornsey & Gallois, 1998), the elderly (Harwood, 2002), works or jobs
(McCroskey & Richmond, 2000), interviews (Willemyns, Gallois, Callan, & Pittam, 1997), and even with messages left on telephone answering machines (Buzzanell, Burrell,
Stafford, & Berkowitz, 1996).
24 Giles and Powesland (1975) explained that CAT formerly known as Speech
Accommodation Theory (SAT) started from the premise that accommodation takes place when an interlocutor subconsciously changes the style of speech with the way the conversational partner speaks. In interactions between two interlocutors, there are chances that speakers may accommodate or change the way they speak in a given context. An instance of the occurrence of accommodation can be observed in an adult and child interaction. Adults normally adjust the way they speak and the words they use become more simplified to accommodate a child. On the other hand, when speaking to the elderly it is often observed that young speakers change their speech patterns and behaviors to show politeness (McCann, & Giles, 2006). Changing the style and patterns of communication helps both interlocutors in reaching certain agreement and liking. As a result, both speakers develop a positive attitude and mitigate face-threatening acts in conversations.
When one speaker tries to accommodate another speaker, convergent behavior is created. Convergence indicates an attempt to build solidarity and conformance, which is interpreted as a sign of being cooperative in conversation. In fact, convergence is considered as a polite speech strategy which implies that the addressee‟s speech is worth acceptable and imitating (Brown and Levinson, 1978:57).
Convergence occurs when an individual changes his or her speech pattern in interactions to build solidarity. However, the idea of changing the speech pattern has been extended to include the changes of behavior. For instance, in a job interview, an interviewee normally changes his or her manner of speaking, manner of dressing and becomes careful in his or her language choice in order not to be perceived negatively by the
25 interviewer. It shows that there are possibilities where individuals converge in interactions to gain the approval of the speech partner (Gibbons, 2005). Miller (2005: 155) argues that convergence suggests that we are attracted to people who we are similar to and that, concurrently, we want to be similar to those we like. It is also evident that convergence occurs in interactions when one interactant identifies with another and wants to be integrated with that other, the first interactant will converge toward the communicative behaviors of the other (Miller, 2005, p. 155).
The convergence of two interlocutors in interactions can be classified as downward or upward convergence. When a speaker simplifies the vocabulary and grammar in order to be understood by the other speaker, it is known as downward convergence. In downward convergence the other speaker adjusts his or her linguistic choice/s to accommodate the less proficient interlocutor. However, upward convergence occurs when a speaker uses a higher linguistic proficiency to accommodate another speaker who is more proficient (Giles and
Powesland 1975).
Divergence is also emphasized in Communication Accommodation Theory. The occurrence of divergence in communication takes place when a speaker does not conform to the speech partner. This nonconformity may lead to the use of different linguistic code to emphasize the difference between the two speakers. Miller (2005) emphasized that it is common that there are instances where interlocutors are looking for differences in others.
Over the years, Communication Accommodation Theory has undergone some developments and has been extended to family communication, which focuses on
26 communication between husband and wife. Harwood, Soliz & Lin (2006) proposed that there are different strategies used in family communication, i.e. approximation, interpretability, discourse management and interpersonal control strategies.
Approximation accommodation strategy is described as an accommodation to the interlocutor‟s productive performance and focuses on the partner‟s speech style. It includes whether the speakers converge or diverge in communication. For example when a husband uses the language of his wife he signals his recognition and appreciation of his wife‟s language and cultural background. The husband‟s act of accommodation can be interpreted as convergence. On the contrary, a wife who does not use the husband‟s language intentionally dissociates herself and unwillingly builds solidarity in interactions which signals divergence.
Interpretability accommodation strategy involves accommodating the partner‟s perceived interpretive abilities, which refer to the ability to understand (Harwood, Soliz &
Lin, 2006). Interpretability strategy is evident when a spouse adjusts his or her speech by simplifying the grammatical construction of a sentence or by lowering the rate of speech.
However, too much downward convergence as a strategy because of the interpretive deficit towards the other speaker may result in over accommodation.
Discourse management accommodation strategy focuses on a person‟s conversational needs and are often discussed in terms of topic selection, face management, and the like (Harwood, Soliz & Lin, 2006). This strategy is applied when a spouse discusses his or her traditions and cultures and avoids issues that are sensitive to the
27 partner. The purpose of such careful interaction is to establish balance in intercultural communication.
Interpersonal control accommodation strategy attempts to direct the course of a particular conversation or more generally a relationship by strategies such as interruption or even direct power claims (Harwood, Soliz & Lin, 2006). This strategy is used to show power and dominance of the other speaker as dictated by culture or society. For instance in a highly patriarchal society, men are always perceived to be superior. Moreover, the extent of control can be evident when men attempt to interrupt the conversation.
Using CAT as the theoretical framework in examining the language choice of
Filipino-Malaysian couples in verbal communication provides an explanation as to how and why couples choose a particular language in their interactions.
2.2.2 Conceptual Framework
Based on the Communication Accommodation Theory (Giles and Powesland, 1975), a conceptual framework of the study is formulated.
28 Filipino-Malaysian couples
Communicative intent
Ethnicity;
First Convergence language; Divergence Gender Factor Relationshi p Gender
Language choice, accommodation strategies and code switching
Figure 2.1 Language Choice, Accommodation Strategies, and Code Switching Patterns of Filipino-Malaysian Couples in Verbal Communication
Figure 2.1 explains the use of Communication Accommodation Theory (Giles and
Powesland, 1975) to examine the language choice, accommodation strategies, and code switching in Filipino-Malaysian couples‟ verbal communication.
The conceptual framework of this research originates from the idea that language choice, accommodation strategies, and code switching are some of the common features in interracial couples‟ communication in the home domain. The framework shows that
Filipino-Malaysian couples‟ language choice, accommodation strategies and code switching patterns can be influenced by some sociolinguistic factors such as ethnicity, religion, first language and gender. In communication, the tendency to converge and
29 diverge is expected depending on the spouse‟s communicative intent. Convergence occurs when couples try to build solidarity however divergence occurs when couples show difference in interactions.
Convergence in communication can be downward or upward depending on how the speaker accommodates other speakers. They converge when both of them accommodate each other and establish solidarity in conversation. This means that one speaker has to adjust to his or her linguistic style in order to be understood and liked by the other speaker.
When a speaker changes the speech style to a more prestigious speech and accommodates another speaker of higher prestige it is regarded as upward convergence. On the other hand, there is a possibility that a speaker may diverge in communication. This happens when a speaker changes his or her speech style to accommodate a more informal and less standard speech (Holmes, 2008). In this context, a speaker may choose a language or switch to a language that is not favorable to the other speaker to show difference. For example when two interlocutors start communicating in English then suddenly the other speaker shifts to another language (ethnic language) to show disapproval (Romaine, 2000).
The framework of this research provides an understanding that the occurrence of language choice, accommodation strategies, and code switching is prevalent and follows a certain pattern in interracial couples‟ communication (see Chapters 6, 7 and 8).
2.3 Existing Research
This section examines the previous studies related to language choice, accommodation strategies, and code switching in intercultural communication. The literature review focuses on sociolinguistic factors mentioned in Chapter 1 which are identified to be influential in
30 determining a speakers‟ language choice. At the same time, studies on codeswitching are also reviewed to provide background knowledge on the occurrence of code switching in couples‟ interactions. The review specifically focuses on various sociolinguistics phenomena that influence language choice, accommodation strategies, and code switching.
2.4 Language Choice and Sociolinguistic Factors
Language choice is a careful selection of a word, phrase, clause or sentence of another language within the speakers‟ linguistic repertoire. For bilinguals, the occurrence of language choice seems natural, automatic, and unplanned (Coulmas, 2005). However, this also happens to mono-dialectal speakers who also face a wide range of linguistic choices
(Coulmas, 2005).
Language choice occurs because every speaker chooses an appropriate register, genre, style, medium, or tone of voice in relation to the interlocutor (who), topic (what), context (where) and medium (how) in every talk. The language choice made by a speaker can be motivated by some factors such as social status, gender, educational attainment, ethnicity, age, occupation, rural and urban origin, speakers themselves, topic, place, media and formality of the situation (David 2006, Myers-Scotton and Bolonyai 2001 and Ting
2001). This section specifically reviews the factors that influence language choice.
2.4.1 Social Status
One factor that influences language choice is the speakers‟ social status which is associated to income, education, occupation, wealth, religion, age, role, and race (Haslett in Giles and
31 Robinson, 1990). Social status serves as an indicator of a person‟s rank in society such as upper class, middle class, and lower class. The social categorization is considered to be influential in speaker‟s language choice because it helps in maintaining and identifying the individual‟s status in the community. In other words, language choice can be a basis for status symbol especially in multilingual and multiracial societies. This is evident in a study on language choice and social class in the transaction domain conducted in Singapore by
Tan (1993). The findings showed that there is a correlation between the language choice and the perceived social status of speakers. The study specifically examined the relationship between the language choice of the interlocutor (shop assistant) and the perceived socio-economic class of the addressee (customer) in furniture shops and boutiques as the transaction domains. Thirty (30) shops were surveyed out of which 15 were located in an up market establishment and others were in the Housing Development
Board (HDB) residential estates. The researcher pretended to be a customer and observed the linguistic behavior of the shop assistants. The findings further revealed that shop assistants tend to choose a language code that corresponds to the perceived social status of the customer. A high language status like English is used by shop assistants when a customer is perceived to be from a higher social class. Similarly, when a customer is perceived as someone from the lower class, the shop assistants tend to choose Mandarin,
Hokkien, Teochew, and Cantonese. This shows that when there is a change in the perceived social status of customers, shop assistants (consciously or subconsciously) switched their language code accordingly (Tan, 1993). The notion that language choice is influenced by a speaker‟s social status also supports the claim that the choice of words, ways of speaking, and rules in conversation are determined by certain social requirements
(Wardhaugh, 1992). In addition, language choice also proves that interlocutors vary in
32 their code choices or language preferences in various domains which according to Fasold
(1996) is influenced by factors such as location, topic and participants.
In a study conducted by Nor Azni Abdullah (2004) in Malaysia on the factors that influence code choice and code-switching reveals that language choice is influenced by the role and status of an interlocutor in an organization or in a group. The status of language has reflected the speaker‟s status when the speaker uses that language. Nor Azni
Abdullah‟s findings show that code choice in communication is institutionalized. In dealing with subordinates and sending official communication to the company, Bahasa Malaysia is preferred by the manager but when the subordinates communicate with their superior they use English. It can be said that English is used to communicate with people of higher rank or status while Bahasa Malaysia is used in dealing with people of lower rank. Similarly,
Spolsky (2004) argued that in many groups, different linguistic choices are influenced by different role relationships which are evident in all types of talk. When dealing with people of higher social status, formal language is commonly used but when dealing with people of lower status, informal language is used. The dominance of English as the language of high status is already expected and perhaps this can be considered as the impact of colonialism in Malaysia. English is regarded as superior language and the language of educated individuals. It is evident that English becomes the language marker for superior status.
Bonvillain (1993) also explained that speakers employ a variety of languages as markers of their status within a hierarchical order. This means that people of superior status may have different linguistic choices when communicating with people of subordinate status. This is possible because in a multilingual setting, they are exposed to different language varieties.
Thus, language choice and manner of speaking can be understood as accommodation
33 strategies. In like manner, linguistic hierarchy is evident in Kenya in which English is used to gain prestige while Swahili is widely used in urban homes as a first language and in talking with the house help (Mungambi, 2003). This means that speakers choose languages that are appropriate to their social status.
Studies conducted by Tan (1993), Wardhaugh (1992), Fasold (1996), Nor Azni
Abdullah (2004), Bonvillain (1993) and Mugambi (2003) have proven that social status can be an influential factor in a speaker‟s language choice. Based on their findings, speakers use language to accommodate others who have different status. For example, every interlocutor chooses a language in certain communicative event that would fit the linguistic need of another interlocutor like an interaction between customer-seller, superior
(manager)-subordinate (ordinary employee) or master-house help. The aforementioned studies show that social stratification and language choice are evident in some multilingual societies.
Social stratification through language is common in many societies where people group themselves according to their social status (Wardhaugh, 2007; Labov, 1972; Fowler,
1986). Thus people of lower, middle and upper status are aware of their role in the society because their identity is revealed through their manner of speaking, behavior, manner of dressing, etc. In some societies, language choice can be considered as a determining factor of the speaker‟s status. This is possible because the choice of codes varies according to the status and role of the interlocutors involved in communication.
34 It is undeniable that when language gains status in a society there is a possibility that it becomes dominant. Consequently, the number of language users and the functional use of language increases within a speech community.
2.4.2 Dominant Language
The status of language determines whether it is dominant or weak. When a language becomes dominant, it gains more power and prestige and it attracts more speakers. For instance in the Philippines and Malaysia, speakers of English may continually increase because English is an index of dominance, power, and prestige.
In a speech community, there is always a dominant or weak language (Myers-
Scotton, 2006). The dominant language is widely used and spoken in various domains of communication for instance in business, education, and government. It is a language that possesses power, authority, and superiority as compared to other languages. With such a status, dominant language can be regarded as superior and powerful.
Since dominant language possesses a high status in a community, multilingual speakers tend to choose it because using the dominant language provides an opportunity to enjoy more economic benefits (Bradley and Bradley, 2002). Such choices may help speakers to expand their social network and be socially accepted in the community.
At present English is regarded as important language in many parts of the world particularly in Malaysia and the Philippines. Even in countries like Japan, China and Korea in which English does not have an official status, people are learning the language
35 (Harnisch, David & Dumanig, 2009). This phenomenon has become a trend and perhaps will continue in future generations because of globalization. Consequently, the world is becoming a global village with one dominant language, which is English (Dumanig, 2008).
With the emergence of dominant languages other than English, people are eager to learn other languages. As a result, bilingual speakers have increased in number and multilingualism has become common. The expansion of multilingualism can also be a product of migration, intermarriages, economic, social, political, and demographic factors
(Holmes, 2008). Frequent intermarriages between speakers of different languages may lead to fragmentation of speech communities and eventually endanger the minority languages
(Wurm, 2002). Consequently, minority languages may become less important while dominant languages may continue to gain more importance and popularity. In most cases, dominant languages might be used as a tool to exercise power and authority over other interlocutors.
Kamwangamalu (1998) studied the use of “we-codes”, “they-codes” and “codes-in- between” in identities of English and code-switching in post-apartheid Africa which shows the power of dominant language over the weak. The dichotomy of “we code,” the language of the home, family and informal activities; “they-code,” the language of socio- economic advancement associated with more formal, stiffer and less personal out-group relations; and “code-in-between,” known as a neutral code were emphasized. The use of three codes was applied in different contexts through codeswitching. Such observation of linguistic codes was studied on a sample soap opera conversation. The findings reveal that during the ante-apartheid era, English was used as “they-code.” In that period, English was predominantly used especially in politics and eventually became the lingua franca.
36 However, during the apartheid era, English was used as “we-code.” At that time, the Bantu
Education Act was drafted to promote Afrikaans so as to reduce the influence of English in black schools, to improve the use of Afrikaans and English on equal basis as media of instruction and to extend the mother tongue education from grade 4 to grade 8. During this period there was an inclination towards choosing the Afrikaan language rather than
English. Generally, in the post apartheid era, English was used as “code-in-between”. At this time, English served as a neutral language. In the same period, the use of English and other languages in Africa was given importance.
Language choice varies in different domains of communication which can be triggered by the idea of “we code”, “they code” and “code-in-between”. It reveals that language choice is influenced by the domain of communication and the large socio-political background (Kamwangamalu, 1998). Bilingual or multilingual speakers vary their linguistic choices depending on their attitudes towards the language they use. However, powerful or dominant languages have more chances to be chosen and used by many speakers. In fact, the emergence and continuous increase of speakers of dominant language may result to language change and language loss of minority languages.
Therefore, the choice of the dominant language can be a contributory factor towards the abandonment of weak languages.
Heller (1995) conducted a study on language choice, social institutions, and symbolic domination. She explored the institutional exercise of symbolic domination through language choices which allow speakers to attempt to wield power and to resist it.
The study was conducted in two classes; the Francias Avance, a class designed for students
37 who are expected to go to the university and Fancais General, a class for students who are expected to enter the job market or vocational training after high school. The teacher in
Francais Avance class used French while the teacher in Francais general class used French and English. The findings reveal that the two classes differ both in terms of how the school‟s monolingual norm is presented and how students respond to it. In Francais
Avance, the norm is unified where all the teacher‟s practices and ways of organizing the classroom reinforces the message that the most highly valued form of language is the standard French which is based on the written variety. However, the Francais General sends a message of ambivalence towards the norm. The value of French language is a recognized classroom practice which opens the door to code-switching in vernacular and other language varieties. The differences between the two classes are evident. In Francais
Avance class, students speak in French although most of them have English background and their peer group language is English. They switch to English if they do not know
French words. Most students in class show their resistance to French language by switching from French to English through whispered conversations. On the other hand, in the Francais General class most students code-switch openly from French to English because the classroom practice opens the door to code-switch from the vernacular and other language varieties. Most students deviate from monolingual norms. Students‟ resistance in
French was shown by openly switching codes from French to English although the school is a French medium school. It is evident how language resistance and power wielding occur in communication. Speakers‟ loyalty to the ethnic language may lead to language resistance towards the dominant language. Speakers can display their resistance against another language by simply switching from one code to another.
38 Similarly Ferrer and Sankoff (2004) explored the effects of linguistic normalization after the removal of Franco‟s repressive measures against the Valencian language variety.
They found that the language preference of a speaker is influenced by dominant languages.
Most bilinguals and multilinguals may choose a dominant language as the medium of communication because it provides them greater advantage and better opportunities. The choice of dominant language may bring economic benefits to speakers. In fact, due to
Castilian‟s predominance and prestige, Castilian is used by most nationalistic students as the language in public interactions outside school and other government associated contexts.
Speakers‟ preference for dominant languages can be triggered by the wider acceptance and functions of a language. Furthermore, dominant language may help a speaker expand his or her social network. For example if English is widely spoken in a certain speech community, those individuals who speak English would have an advantage of interacting with people in the community. However, those who cannot speak English will be disadvantaged because they will have limited interactions with people and professional mobility.
In the study conducted by Warshauer, El Said, and Zohry (2002) they found that
English is the dominant language used online especially in formal communication among a group of early internet adopters while Romanized Egyptian Arabic is widely used in informal communication. English is commonly used because of the general dominance of
English in the professional milieu. Lack of Arabic software standards, computer and internet and fluency in English motivated the participants to learn English. On the other
39 hand, code switching from English to Egyptian Arabic occurs only when speakers express highly personal content that they cannot express in English. Egyptian Arabic is frequently found in greetings, humorous or sarcastic expressions, food, holidays and religious expressions.
The emergence of dominant language nowadays is becoming inevitable because of its expansion in the cyberspace. Even if a country has a strong language policy with the expansion of internet technology, the intrusion of a dominant language like English seems inevitable. In fact, at present the use of English is common in online communications because of its dominance in the professional milieu and in information technology
(Warshauer, El Said & Zohry, 2002).
In the study conducted by Jariah Mohd. Jan (2003) on formal talk exchange in the
Malaysian context, instances of code switching in interactions between working adults were observed. The presence of linguistic power-wielding between male and female participants and how strategies of domination, negotiations of personal rights, and obligations and control are enacted in conversation seems to be evident in couples‟ communication.
Twenty four government officers, 11 males (8 Malays, 2 Chinese and 1 Indian) and 13 females (11 Malays, 1 Chinese and 1 Indian) were involved in the study. Data were gathered through meetings which were considered as formal situations because they were meetings of high level officials in the management unit of a government sector where issues and policies are discussed. There were two departmental meetings that were tape recorded for 63 and 68 minutes respectively. The recordings were transcribed and rendered a total of 240 utterances. The findings show that conversations between HM, a Malay
40 chairperson and F, a Chinese subordinate reveal power difference between the two interlocutors. The head who had more power maintains the Malay matrix while the female subordinate switches to English to show her assertiveness and dominance. Such kind of language choice and code switching in interactions can be classified as power wielding. On the other hand, F (M) does not code switch according to topics or theme but used code switching to indicate the plan of action. HM code switches from Malay to English to immediately assign tasks for F (M) to undertake. This shows that English may appear to have greater linguistic power than the national language, Bahasa Malaysia and is eventually used as a tool to exercise power.
A dominant language signals power and authority. A speaker can assert his or her power by using a dominant language. In contrast a speaker can project a subordinate image by using a weaker language. In multilingual societies in which two languages function as official languages, language dominance reveals through the language choice of speakers.
For instance if English is used in a particular society to show power and authority against the national language, it can be said that English could be more dominant and powerful than the national language.
Dominant language influences the language choice of a speaker. More prestigious language is usually favored as the medium of communication in various domains because of its wider social functions. In addition, dominant languages can be used in formal and informal domains of communication (Pillai, 2006). The preference of the dominant language can help to gain prestige; better economic access in the community, and authority and power (Piller, 2004).
41 The use of dominant language expresses impersonal messages which create social distance between speakers. On the other contrary, the choice of a less dominant language is useful to express personal messages because it helps the speakers to establish solidarity in interactions (Holmes, 2008).
In another study Managan (2004) conducted an ethnographic study from formal to informal events of voluntary organizations in a small Guadeloupean town with a population of 17,000 people. Most residents are agricultural workers, wealthy business owners, civil servants and workers who commute to the nearby urban centers. The study includes troisieme age (retiree) group, youth group, and traditional dance group. Managan (2004) examined the naturally-occurring speech practices of one youth group consisting of a core group of 6 friends, aged 16-20 years old. The study shows that French is considered as H
(high variety) language which is often used in formal association activities like meetings and receptions and the “Kreyol” is considered as L (low variety) language which is often used in informal activities like group outings and casual conversation during meetings. It is evident that the participants‟ language choice pattern varies among groups and individuals depending on factors such as content, tone of utterance, speaker‟s background and political inclination. Similarly, the hiking club members prefer the “Kreyol” because of their political leanings although many of them had lived in Midland France. “Kreyol” is used by hiking club members because most of them actively supported an independent mayoral candidate. However, the retiree‟s club usually of older members aged 50 years old and up was mostly former well-educated town leaders. These groups take pride in speaking formal
French in meetings and “Kreyol” is used occasionally. However, in casual conversation most of them speak “Kreyol”. Sometimes they use French with those who had lived a long
42 time in France. In contrast, the youth group members are all fully bilinguals and they used both French and “Kreyol”. In meetings and formal group events, French is used however in informal events “Kreyol” is used. The study reveals that “Kreyol” is indeed undergoing change because it has acquired syntactic features and lexical items from French. It shows that “Kreyol” is shifting in favor of French monolingualism although it is also acquiring
English lexical items.
In a highly diglossic society, dominant language is usually the H (high) variety which has always an edge in influencing people‟s language choice. The H (high) variety provides people the prestige and the chance to socialize more with other people which leads to a possibility of expanding the social network and gaining more economic success. The need to enjoy the economic benefits and to be part of the dominant group can be rewarding to speakers even if it requires the members to conform to the norms and practices of the dominant group. When a person becomes a member, the group becomes his or her social network (Managan, 2004). Consequently, every member develops a sense of identity which can be revealed through language choice and manner of speaking.
2.4.3 Social Network
The speakers‟ social relationships with other people who they frequently meet can be considered as social network. Holmes (2008; 184) described the concept of network as a pattern of informal relationships of people involved on a regular basis which plays a role in mediating the speaker‟s speech habit. Finch (2000) believed that networks operate their own group dynamics and influence speech in a subtle way. Due to the frequent meetings and interactions of people in a network they develop speech habits similar to other
43 members of their network. However, it has to be noted that people acquire a conglomeration of speech styles from different networks. This means that every speaker may have one or more networks. Holmes (2008) argued that networks can be plex network which measures the range of different types of transactions people are involved in with other persons in only one area. The plexity of social network can further be classified into uniplex network and multiplex network. Uniplex network refers to a single network that a speaker is involved while multiplex network refers to a relationship where the speaker is involved in interactions with others along several dimensions (Holmes, 2008).
The influence of social network to the speakers‟ language choice is also evident in the study on language shift in Oberwart, Austria which reveals that people who interact with the peasants prefer Hungarian as their primary language while those who interact with people engaged in industrial jobs prefer German (Gal, 1979). The peasant‟s preference of
Hungarian signifies membership of the peasant group and it helps in building solidarity among the members of its social network. On the other hand, speakers who prefer German language are engaged in industrial jobs and their language choice helps them to differentiate their social networks with that of the peasants. The language choice of speakers in a particular social network helps to identify the speaker‟s membership based on the language they speak. It is evident that the speakers‟ social networks categorize their social status. As their language becomes established people tend to identify themselves according to their group membership. For example, Hungarian language signifies membership of the peasant group while the German language signifies membership of people in higher status.
44 Bortoni-Ricardo (1985) in his study on the urbanization of rural dialect speakers in
Brazil found that the language used by people who moved to the city of Brazil differs from the people who stayed in the countryside. He found that most people who moved to the city use more standard Portuguese while those people who remained in the countryside use their own rural language varieties. The choice of standard or non standard language can be an indicator of speaker‟s social network due to mobility.
People in the rural areas and urban areas belong different social networks. Rural people are able to maintain their local language due to limited social networks. As a result, there are chances of maintaining the local language variety. However, people in urban areas have wider social networks and are more conscious of the standard language. Due to the wider use of the standard language, people will tend to favor and use the standard language variety (Holmes, 2008).
The studies of Gal (1979) and Bortoni (1985) show that speakers‟ network influences their language choice. In any speech event, speaker‟s network is sometimes revealed through language choice, which signals their group affiliation.
2.4.4 Gender
People of similar gender usually form their networks easily. For example most men are involved in a network where most members are men while women form their networks where most members are women. Cameron (1992) argued that the different preferences of networks between male and female are perhaps influenced by their differing gender identities and speech styles.
45 Men and women choose their words differently (Coulmas, 2005: 36). Such differences in language choice are culturally indexed where males and females speak and behave according to the acceptable norms in a society in order to maintain masculinity for males and femininity for females. These practices are expressed in the labeling of words, actions, and behaviors as masculine or feminine. Because of such categorization of status between men and women, they tend to maintain their roles as males and females according to the standard created by the society they live in. Eventually, such categorization has contributed in sustaining the unequal power relations between male and female (Fairclough,
1989). Males try to show their masculinity by using the non-standard speech and their physical strength as a sign of masculine supremacy (Bassoff and Glas, 1982; Cook, 1985).
On the other hand, there is a possibility that women try to show their femininity by conforming to a more standard speech. In fact, women‟s conformity to the use of standard speech can be a form of compensation for their subordinate status in the society (Coates,
1998). Women tend to conform by being collaborative while men are less cooperative in most interactions (Holmes, 2008). According to Kavkava (1997) women used indirect strategies in showing their disagreement while men are more direct with less mitigating remarks. As a result, women are perceived to be more polite than men. Moreover, such politeness is expected from women because they are considered as guardian of society‟s cultural values (Holmes, 2008). The concept of gender and politeness is evident in the lexical choices and grammatical features used by males and females. This is evident in some Asian languages like the Javanese, Korean and Japanese (Coulmas, 2005).
Male and female differences are observed in the study of Trudgill (1972) on Sex and Covert Prestige that the Norwich male informants favored the non-standard speech known as “bad speech” to maintain their masculinity while women favored the standard
46 speech to maintain their femininity. Similarly, Fishman (1968) in his study of American
English found that males showed a preponderance of non-standard (n) forms of speech compared to females. Fishman‟s finding is consistent with the findings of Trudgill and proves that males have a tendency to use non-standard speech.
2.4.5 Education
Gender is one factor that categorizes the speakers‟ group membership. In some instances, speakers categorize themselves according to their educational background. In the Asian context, people who are highly educated consider themselves as professionals while those people who are not highly educated like the non-degree holders are classified as non- professionals. This categorization of status according to education influences the social status of people. Having high educational attainment helps in raising a person‟s status in the society and eventually carries higher respect. A person of high status has to maintain the socially constructed status in order not to lose such respect. Maintaining the social status requires proper and appropriate use of language in various domains of communication. For instance, the use of English by educated speakers in a study conducted in Sarawak villages is regarded as a marker of “educatedness” (Cullip, 2000). The ability to speak English in some rural areas may signify that a person is educated because English is seen as a language of educated people.
In some societies, people speak a language that reflects their educational status. In a socially stratified society people categorize themselves according to the language they speak. The categorization is not ethnic-related but for status differentiation. Kioko and
Muthiwii (2003) examined the attitude of Kenyan speakers towards three varieties of
47 English: ethnically marked Kenyan English (E-marked), standard Kenyan English (non E- marked) and Native Speaker English (British, Australian and American). There were 210 participants in the study who were classified according to their educational attainment
(primary, secondary and tertiary), ethnic language, and urban and rural setting. The subjects were taken from 5 ethnic groups. Two methods were used for the data gathering such as tape-recording and direct measurement questionnaire. Questionnaires were used to analyze statistically the preferred language in formal domains such as school, law-courts, and media. The findings show that in the place of work, English is the preferred language both in urban and rural areas. It also reveals that differences in language choice are influenced by the educational attainment of the participants either in rural and urban areas.
Those people who are educated have strong preference for English than those who are not.
As a result, the use of the local language decreases as education increases. Primary and secondary school graduates prefer their mother tongue or L1 in their workplace. Some people who prefer to use English as the official language of the workplace believe that it fosters integration among people of different ethnic groups. Because English is not the preferred language of participants who are not fluent in English, they do not speak English when dealing with subordinate staff. As a result, Kiswahili is used as a unifying language in a multi-ethnic group.
In the school domain, Kenyan variety of English becomes the preferred language which is considered as E-marked English (ethnically marked Kenyan English) of students while the non E-marked variety of English is the preferred language of the teachers. The non-E marked English is regarded as a language of those who are more educated while the
E-marked English is considered as the basilect variety of Kenyan English.
48 As discussed in the above studies, it is clear that language choice is influenced by the speakers‟ educational attainment. In some cultures, the status of a person is categorized according to the language that he or she speaks. It might be the language of educated versus the language of non-educated. People have the possibility of finding their own social network where they develop a feeling of belongingness. Moreover, their membership helps them to acquire a language competence of a group which eventually serves as identity marker of a person‟s social group membership.
2.4.6 Formality of Talk
The formality or informality of conversation determines the language chosen by the speaker. Apart from the topic and the speakers involved, conversation can be formal or informal through the speaker‟s language choice. Ledesma & Moris (2005) examined the patterns of language preference of children in a bilingual society. In her study, 81 middle class male bilingual children who studied in English medium schools were randomly selected from two schools in Metro Manila. The findings show that most students prefer
English because of the media factors (language used in media, school activities, and formal institutions). Others prefer Filipino because of social factors (language used in informal conversation and social situations). In general, three preference factors like social, formal and media are identified in the kindergarten. Children prefer Filipino for social use, English for media and English or Filipino for formal purpose. In the first grade, children prefer
English for media and formal use and Filipino for social purpose. The study illustrates that the choice of language varies according to the purpose of the speaker. If the intention of the speaker is to emphasize formality in a conversation, a formal language might be preferred.
49 Most multilingual speakers are perhaps aware which language standard will be used in certain communicative events. Some languages are categorized as language for formal communication while other languages are used for informal communication. Such categorization is also evident in the study of Mugambi (2003) on language choice and shift in Kenya where she analyzed the current language situation in Kenya. The findings show that Kiswahili is preferred by speakers in informal settings like in the home domain while
English is used in formal situations. The use of English does not create a more convergent behavior among speakers but it creates social distance. However, in dealing with other colleagues and staff, they sometimes use Kiswahili. The preference for Kiswahili seems inevitable because it is the lingua franca in the workplace. Kiswahili is used to create symmetrical relationship of different hierarchical levels while English is used to create distance and difference resulting in asymmetry.
Some languages are used to create formal interaction while other languages are used to minimize the formality of talk. If a speaker wants to establish solidarity in communication, informal language is preferred because it creates a relaxed and friendly environment for both speakers. On the other hand, if a speaker wants to establish social distance and emphasizes hierarchy in interactions, formal language can be preferred. The formality of talk makes interactions distant and speakers become careful in their language in order not to violate any norms.
The formality and informality of talk may influence the speaker‟s language choice.
However, such categorization on the formality and informality of talk can be socially constructed by people in a certain speech community.
50 2.4.7 Community Language
In every speech community, people establish certain linguistic norms to signal their group membership and group identity. As a result, speakers tend to use a language that all members understand. When a language is widely spoken and understood by a group or a community it becomes a community language.
In a multilingual society, the language spoken by a larger community can be considered superior than those languages spoken by the minority. The community language is spoken by the majority and has a wider social function. Therefore using the community language serves more benefits to the speakers and it can be influential on the language choice of people in a multilingual society because it helps in expanding their social network. When a person belongs to a certain network he or she develops his or her identity which can be evident in the language that he or she speaks. Piller (2004) in her study on language choice in bilingual, cross-cultural interpersonal communication among couples argued that social construction approach contributes in the study of intercultural communication. In order to identify language choice as a major factor in the linguistic construction of cultural identity an experimental research design was used. It included two approaches in data gathering such as elicited data and naturally occurring data. The elicited data were gathered through sociolinguistic interviews and the naturally occurring data were gathered by tape-recording the couple talk. The questionnaire was in two languages:
German and English to give couples the choice of their preferred language. The questions were classified into different sections: language usage and skills, language and culture, language and identity, perceived and self-reported attitudes towards intercultural couples and their children. There were 180 couples who returned the questionnaires and 51 tapes
51 were returned. The findings show that there were problems encountered in the language choice during inter-cultural encounters, like the choice of the medium and the interference of the mother tongue. It is found that there are factors affecting language choice such as the community language (the language of the monolingual area where the couples live), dominant language (the choice of more prestigious language if the couple lives in a bilingual area), non-native or less prestigious language (the language used to establish solidarity) and male partner‟s language. Out of 51 couples, 21 use German as their common language, 16 English and 14 mixed code. The use of the German language becomes dominant because it is the community language in the area where the couples live.
German language becomes influential in their language choice because the majority in the area is German speakers.
Using the community language as the preferred language in the home domain is also evident in the study conducted by Johansson (1991) on language choice of bilingual couples when communicating with their partners and children. The findings show that most wives obtained a fair degree of fluency of their husbands‟ language. However, husbands did not have a similar degree of fluency with the language of their wives. It shows that the wives accommodated the husbands because they resided in their husbands‟ home country. Moreover, husbands‟ language is a widely spoken language (community language) in the community where the couples stay. The ability to speak the community language apart from the idea of accommodating the husband results in more opportunities for the wives to expand their social network and career opportunities.
52 In another study Durham (2003) found that the global community language which is
English has greatly influenced the speakers‟ language choice. He examined how the language situation in Switzerland affects and may be affected by the choice of languages for Internet use within the country. Nine hundred ninety six (996) messages were collected from May 1999 until June 2002 over a total of 38 consecutive months. To achieve simplicity and ease in analyzing the data, all e-mails were sorted according to the calendar year, such as 1999, 2000, 2001 and 2002. Moreover, all messages were sorted into three groups: monolingual messages (messages written plainly in one language); mixed- dominant messages (most of the message was in one language with a sentence or two in another language) and mixed-balanced messages (e-mails in which two or more languages were roughly equally represented). The emails were grouped because there are four national languages in Switzerland: German, French, Italian and Romans. Out of four languages, German, French and Italian are the common languages while English serves as the second language.
The findings show that English is the preferred language because it is easy to communicate and understand. Using the three languages such as German, French and
Italian can be difficult for others to comprehend. English is seen by many in Switzerland as a necessary tool to further oneself in a society. Consequently, English is frequently used compared to other languages and is favored in email messages because French speakers do not understand German messages and German speakers do not understand French. English proves to be a readily accessible foreign language to both German and French speakers.
During the first meeting English was frequently used although when French was used there was no request for a change in language but French was not easily understood by Germans.
As a result, the use of code switching was prevalent in most interactions. Code switching
53 follows a pattern by starting in French then switches to German and ends in English. In fact, in email messages there was code switching. In the second meeting, there were a lot of French speakers as a result there was no change of language from French to German or
English. This shows that if there are more French speakers than German or Italian, French will be used as the main language. A similar situation applies to German and Italian speakers. In case of heterogeneous groups English is used.
The preference of English shows that English has truly become an important language in various domains of communication. It has influenced a lot of speakers to interact with people in intra-national and international communication. English users benefit socially and economically. English does not serve only as a global community language but it serves as the lingua franca in multilingual countries.
In a multilingual society the importance of speaking the community language is essential to expand the speaker‟s social network and group membership. Having a wider social network also brings economic benefits such as in business and employment purposes.
2.4.8 Numeric Factor
Language becomes a community language when it is spoken by the majority. Therefore, the number of speakers is essential in maintaining the status of a language. The speakers‟ language choice can be influenced by the number of speakers of a language because if there are a number of speakers of a language, there is also the possibility that language would be
54 spoken in various domains of communication. Degefa (2004) conducted a study on the criteria for language choice in multilingual societies. She examined the language choice in
Ethiopia which was reflected in the constitution of the Federal Democratic Republic of
Ethiopia. The choice favors one language against all others despite the fact that there were other compelling languages and other major languages with a considerable number of speakers. The results of the study show that Oromo language has the largest number of speakers of about 17,080.318 (32.15%) and this was followed by Amhara consisting of
16,007.933 (30.13%) then followed by Tigray, Somali and Guragi. The use of Amhara as the national language did not really unite the people because of the larger number of native speakers of Oromo. Using Amhara as the working language in Ethiopia did not bring any advantage to the non-speakers of the language. It shows that people who have good knowledge of Amharic as stated in article 5(2) of the FDRE constitution would have more access to different opportunities like better jobs with the government. However, those who were non-native speakers of Amharic were seriously disadvantaged. In effect, speakers of the favored language continue to have an easy gateway to job opportunities at the Federal level. In making the language choice in Ethiopia, several factors should be considered, such as the numerical factor, economic and political position of the linguistic groups and neutrality of the language.
Language choice does not just occur naturally but it happens because of some underlying reasons such as the numeric factor, economic, and political position of the linguistic groups and neutrality of the language. The numeric factor, which refers to the number of speakers of a certain language, can be considered an influential factor in language choice. If there are a number of speakers of a particular language, it has a wider
55 social function and users will have an easy access in the community. Therefore, the use of such a language could be an advantage. However, the economic factor is also vital because it is easier for a person to look for a job and to start a business if he or she knows the community language (Degefa, 2004).
2.4.9 Habit
The number of language speakers can be influential in people‟s language choice. However, it is also evident that language choice can be developed through habit. The frequency of use on a specific language may result in habitual use of the language in the future. For instance the use of some expressions like “oh my God”, “gosh” etc. may become part of the speaker‟s linguistic repertoire and eventually occur naturally because it has become a habit to express oneself.
In a wider context, language choice can be accounted in choosing the community language, national language or international language (Coulmas, 2005). The preference of any language can be developed through habitual language use (Piller, 2004). For example if English has become the preferred language at home, the family members will eventually use English most of the time because of the frequency of use. Eventually, the family members will become more familiar of the language in interactions.
In a study conducted by Piller (2004) on bilingual, cross-cultural interpersonal communication she argues that language choice in intercultural or interracial communication is influenced by habit. The habitual use of language can eventually lead to
56 permanent use of language. This language will later become part of the speaker‟s linguistic repertoire.
Habit starts with the frequency of use of a specific language. However, the choice of a particular language begins with the speaker‟s attitude towards the language (Piller, 2004).
A person may not be comfortable using a language if he or she has negative attitude towards it. Consequently, there can be a feeling of resistance against the language.
2.4.10 Language Attitude
People classify different languages or varieties as elegant, expressive, vulgar, guttural, musical, polite, impolite, pleasing or unpleasing (Holmes, 2008). This categorization of language has influenced the users‟ attitudes towards the language because it reflects who they are and represents the social groupings they belong to. As a result, people develop either a positive or negative attitude to other languages based on how the community identify and label them.
Fasold (1984) reported that the French language spoken in Europe is considered more prestigious as compared to the French language in Canada. This is despite the fact that those people who speak French in Canada are native speakers of French. Similarly, in the US, people differentiate the General American English (GE) from that of the African
American Vernacular English (AAVE). Speakers of AAVE are labeled to be speakers of non-standard English variety while those who speak General American English are labeled to be the standard speakers of American English (Jenkins, 2004). People‟s categorization
57 of language as standard or non-standard, pleasing or not pleasing, formal or informal influences speakers‟ perception and attitude towards a language. To some extent speakers‟ attitude to a language influences their language choice. They develop either positive or negative attitude towards the language depending on how their respective communities perceive it. A language becomes appealing to the speakers who have positive attitude towards it. As a result, people may prefer a language in most interactions. On the contrary, if speakers have negative attitude towards the language, they develop resistance in using it.
In another study, Adegbite (2003) described the effect of enlightenment on attitudes of Nigerian elite to the roles assigned to English and indigenous languages in Nigeria.
There were 200 undergraduate students from Obafemi Awolowo University who took part in the study. Questionnaires were used to gather data on the preferred language for personal communication, social interaction and official transactions at the local, state and national levels. Student participants were also asked their reasons for such preferences. The findings show that before the lectures on multilingualism all students preferred English.
After the lecture, students shifted their preference and they preferred Hausa, a local language in Nigeria. The lectures resulted in shifts of attitudes of students towards languages. Moreover, enlightenment has brought change to the participants‟ attitudes towards the language they use.
Prior to the talk, many bilingual or multilingual speakers preferred English.
However, after the lecture, participants realized the importance of their own ethnic language. Enlightenment influences the speaker‟s attitudes and behavior towards the
58 language they use and increases their ethnic language loyalty. Moreover, frequent exposure to ethnic language can also motivate speakers to use their own language at home.
2.4.11 Ethnicity
The ethnicity of a speaker can also be a factor that influences the speaker‟s language choice. If speakers want to emphasize their ethnic identity, using their ethnic language completely may not be possible; they might use short phrases, verbal filters, or linguistic tags to signal ethnicity (Holmes, 2008). For example in Malaysia when people use English inevitably they use the particle “lah” which signals their identity as Malaysians (Dumanig,
2007).
Asmah Haji Omar (1993) examined identity and its linguistic correlation at various levels: the community, the group and the individual. In her study, she collected data using three methods; the first was an in-depth interview, the second was a questionnaire and the third was a survey of small group to determine a speaker‟s language choice. Twelve (12) respondents were interviewed consisting of 4 Malays, 4 Chinese and 4 Indians. The questionnaire was administered to a group of 83 students at the University of Malaya.
There were 53 Malays and 30 non-Malays (Chinese and Indians). The questionnaires were categorized according to self-categorization, attitudes toward certain identity features and language choice in different situations. Furthermore, 65 students of the researcher were asked to carry out a survey of a small group of speakers so as to get a picture of language choice. The analysis of the study was based on the interview conducted which was also supported by the quantitative analysis to support statements of identity at the group, national and supra-national level. The participants did the self–categorization. Most
59 respondents considered their ethnic group as the nucleic component. From the questionnaire (67%) or 57 out of 85 students placed the national category of “Malaysian” as the nucleus of their self-categorization and more than half of the 57 people answered that they were Malays. The results show that Malaysians have ethnic-centered self- categorization which is evident in the age group and educational background of two groups of respondents. It also turned out that many Malaysians are cued by the word Keturunan
(descent) where many younger groups have been attuned to the phrase Orang Malaysia berketuunan Melayu/Cina/India etc. (Malaysians of Malay/Chinese/Indian descent).
Another reason for their ethnic centeredness is an influence from their position in the
Malaysian society particularly in terms of being a member of the majority group with certain privileges being given to them. Their membership gave them a sense of security and had a bearing on their self-categorization. In their language choice, the participants are influenced by their linguistic and social background. One proof is the use of English which serves as determinant factor that identifies people in the higher social status. On the other hand, the choice of another language is triggered by an effort to accommodate other speakers depending on the ethnic group they belong to. The participants‟ language and identity feature show that they have different identity features when they speak Malay and
English. When they speak their national and ethnic language, they project a national and ethnic image; however they project a different identity when they speak English. Asmah
Haji Omar‟s (1993) study shows that language helps the speakers to construct their identity.
The participants‟ linguistic expressions and ethnic heritage show that most of them use different languages in expressing themselves. In some cases they use their second language but they are expressing their cultural values in that language. This is evident in the varieties of English used in Malaysia and the Philippines. When people from these countries speak
60 English, their ethnicity is reflected in their lexical, phonological and pragmatic features of their own English variety (David & Dumanig, 2009; Dumanig, 2007).
It can be said that language represents the speaker‟s cultural, ethnic, linguistic and social backgrounds. A speaker chooses a language because he or she wants to exhibit his or her own ethnic identity.
2.4.12 Referee
Aside from the speaker‟s ethnicity, people choose a language because they want to send a message to others and not directly to the person they speak. For example, a mother talks to her younger daughter but the message is actually intended to her elder daughter. It is one way of avoiding a direct attack towards the person concerned which can be deemed as a polite strategy. It can be said that the mother‟s language choice is influenced by the referee
(Yau, 1997).
Aside from the speaker‟s ethnicity, referee is also a factor that influences language choice. A person may use a language in order to encourage the hearers to use similar language, to accommodate the listeners, to gain acceptance and favorable treatment and to build solidarity. Yau (1997) examined the language choice of the legislative councilors and government officials and their code switching behaviors in the meeting of the legislative council of Hongkong during 1991-1995. All the data used were extracted from the government Hansard both the English and Chinese versions. The English version of the minutes was used in the first 10 sittings of each legislative year from 1991-1995. A total of
61 40 sittings were analyzed. The study focused on three aspects such as choice of language by councilors and officials, code switching of bilingual officials, and code switching of councilors in interactions with the President.
The findings show that the directly elected members used Cantonese and only 37% of the non-directly elected members used Cantonese in 1991 but the percentage increased in 1995. The directly elected officials speak to their colleagues in the council but they are actually directing their speech to their constituents “the referee” to show that they are living up to their election promises to fight for the rights of the people they represent. To get the message across they use Cantonese, the mother tongue of the constituents. The non- directly elected officials use English because their referees are business and professionals who receive western education and are fluent in English. Yau (1997) argued that the preferred code choice depends on community norms, or individual life histories, which might be a result of a set of social and educational factors.
It is undeniable that speaker‟s language choice is sometimes influenced by the referee. The interlocutor who is impliedly targeted by the speaker is identified as the referee. A person maybe speaking face to face to another interlocutor but the language used is not intended to the person who is actually involved but the person who is not directly involved in the conversation. It is evident that the presence of a third party who acts as the referee may trigger a speaker‟s language choice.
62 2.5 Language Choice and Code Switching
Previous studies show that language choice is influenced by some sociolinguistic factors such as social status, gender, educational attainment, ethnicity, age, occupation, rural and urban origin, speakers themselves, topic, place media and formality of the situation (Piller,
2004; Johansson, 1991; Burhanudeen, 2003; Warshauer, 2002; Tan, 1993 & Degefa, 2004).
It is evident that language is chosen in various ways which can be done by simply borrowing some lexical items from another language or by switching from one language to another.
2.5.1 Code Switching and its Background
At present, code switching has become a trend in many parts of the world. In multilingual countries like the Philippines and Malaysia code switching has emerged as a new language variety (Bautista, 2004 & David, 2003).
Code switching has continually developed its scope of study since 1950 up to the present. It was initially perceived as a peculiar act and has developed into a subject matter which sheds light in understanding the fundamental linguistic issues from universal grammar to the formation of group identities and ethnic boundaries through verbal behavior
(Auer, 2003).
In the past, several studies on code switching emphasized more on the regularities in alternating the use of two or more languages in a specific speech community which is considered as rights and obligations. Moreover, the focus was on the syntactic constraints which include the intersentential and intra-sentential code switching (Bautista, 2004).
However, these concepts fail to consider the speaker‟s ability to process the language and
63 the code selection during the actual conversation. At present, code switching has been explored on how to create a communicative and social meaning in a specific communicative event (Auer, 2003).
It can be considered that code switching in some aspects provides a built-in sensibility that conversational regularities are both content-independent and context- sensitive (Auer, 2003:4). Therefore code switching can be studied and analyzed by looking at the discourse-related code switching, discourse-related insertion, and preference-related switching. Discourse-related code switching refers to the use of code switching to organize the conversation by contributing to the interactional meaning of a particular utterance
(Auer, 2003:5). This means that speakers alternate the code in a sequential order. In addition, code switching can be considered as discourse-related insertion (Auer, 2003:6).
2.5.2 Code Switching and its Functions
Code switching occurs when an interlocutor switches from one language to another. There have been a lot of studies that examine the factors that influence code switching and the different patterns of code switching in verbal communication. Bautista (2000) examined how and why Tagalog-English speakers code switch. An analysis on the functions of
Tagalog-English code switching was given emphasis. One corpus was studied because the email shows the most masterful use of Tagalog and English code switching. R is 49 years old who grew up and was educated in Manila but now is a resident of the U.S, where she has lived for 13 years. She has mastered the colloquialism of English while still being adept at using the idioms of her native Tagalog. The messages were written from
November 1- 20, 1996 consisting of two pages of single-spaced type. Each message was
64 read carefully, with each code switched passage highlighted. Each instance of code switching together with the sentence before it and after it, then copied onto the index card.
The function of codeswitching was identified using the framework of John Gumperz in
1982. The study reveals that the fastest and easiest way of saying something is through code switching. The occurrence of code switching commonly appears using the function words, content words, idioms, and linguistic play. The findings also show that there are two kinds of codes switching; deficiency driven code switching which refers to a speaker who is not competent in L2 and has to go back to L1, and proficiency driven code switching refers to a speaker who is competent in two languages and competent in two codes making one aware that the other language has a better way of expressing a particular idea. These reasons provide an explanation why code switching commonly occurs in multilingual societies. A speaker switches from one language to another for emphasis and clarification which can be classified as proficiency-driven code switching. Saville-Troike
(2003) states that code switching occurs for other reasons such as group identification, solidarity, and distancing.
Code switching is also used to clarify certain vague statements in communication.
Tan (1992) examined the teacher‟s reasons in code switching in the teaching of English as a second language where two classes at UITM Shah Alam were observed. An ethnographic and interview approaches in gathering the data were used. The findings show that the teacher‟s code switching patterns in classes were meaningful and had not simply occurred at random. Code switching from English to Bahasa Malaysia took place when the use of the former did not appear to be effective. The findings further show that the reasons for
65 choosing a language are for precision and ease of expression, for metaphoric reasons which include emphatic, emotional utterances and social reasons.
Ng and He (2004) examined the code switching pattern of tri-generational members of Chinese immigrant families in New Zealand. The study used a corpus-based approach to code switching and the analysis used both quantitative and qualitative methods. The data were collected from Chinese-speaking families in New Zealand. The families selected could at least communicate 30% of utterances in English in every conversation. Each conversation consists of 6 speakers; two young, middle and old generations. The ages of participants were from 10-25, 30-59 and beyond 60 years old. The findings show that code switching is common among Chinese immigrant family conversations. “Between-turns code switching” is significantly lower than that of “with-in code switching.” There is a higher “between-turns” than “within-turn code switching” among grandchildren and grand parents. Ninety percent (90%) of the grandchildren use “between-turns code switching” in
English. On the other hand, 91% of the grandparents use “between-turns” in Chinese.
For immigrants, code switching has become a favorable language variety nowadays.
Although, most first generation immigrants try to maintain their ethnic language it is undeniable that they still have to use the host country‟s language for some economic, social and political reasons. As a result, the ethnic language may not be passed on to the next generations particularly to younger generations. Ng and He (2004) believed that code switching is influenced by a speaker‟s age. Speakers of different ages may have varying language exposure. They may have different idioms or different ways of saying things.
66 This can be the outcome of a generation gap among speakers. Age difference helps to determine if speakers use “between-turn code switching” or “with-in turn code switching.”
Bautista (2004) studied how Taglish is used as a subject of linguistic inquiry. The study used the data from various researchers on Tagalog-English code switching. Data of previous research were analyzed according to code switching structures and code switching functions. The findings reveal that whenever there is a point in the utterance where structures of two languages converged, it is possible for two interlocutors to converge. The study shows that the sentential unit leads the code switch to participial, infinitive, relative phrases and noun relative, adverbial, main, independent clauses in Tagalog and English. It is also evident that Tagalog-English code switching is also labeled as constituent insertion, an insertion of grammatical constituent in a sentence of other languages.
Generally, code switching is made for some reasons such as for precision, transition, comic effect, atmosphere, bridging or creating social distance, snob appeal and secrecy (Bautista, 2004). Goulet (1971) found in his study on English, Spanish and
Tagalog, that code-switching is done for ease in understanding, brevity, lack of indigenous terms, emphasis and clarity.
Code switching also occurs in various domains of communication. In fact, it is used even in the courtroom. David (2003) argued that code switching is common in Malaysian courtrooms and occurs for some metaphorical and pragmatic reasons specifically in giving directives, quoting someone, emphasizing a point, achieving legal communicative tasks at
67 hand and to coerce the witness to provide the required answer. It can be said that code switching is triggered by some goals in communication.
For Malaysian speakers, code switching seems to be a normal phenomenon because of the various ethnic groups such as Malay, Chinese, Indians and other minorities who preserve their own language and culture. Morais (1995) emphasized that code switching in
Malaysia is often practiced to show group identification of various ethnic groups. Code switching is used to show the speaker‟s identity. For instance, switching from English to
Malay, Chinese or Indians may reveal the ethnic affiliation of the speaker. Venogopal
(2000) explained that code switching in Malaysian context particularly from English to
Bahasa Malaysia signals a conscious act of group identification.
This study on language choice, accommodation strategies and code switching of interracial couples may provide an explanation which will help in understanding the occurrence of codeswitching in interactions. It shows that the competence of the speaker in both languages could also be identified through the structure in code switching. A speaker can be considered competent in both languages when he or she does smooth code switching or switching at equivalence from one language to another (Myers-Scotton, 1983).
2.5.3 Competing Models in Code Switching
Several competing models have emerged like the Markedness Theory of code switching,
Language Matrix Frame (MLF) Model and the Conversation Analysis (CA) approach to conversational code switching. These models provide the analyst some ideas on how to
68 examine the occurrence of code switching in different context. Of the three models, CA approach to conversation analysis code switching is appropriate in analyzing the occurrence of code switching in intercultural and interracial encounters. The approach provides a comprehensive model in analyzing the occurrence of code switching in conversation for some reasons.
(1) “The sequential implicativeness of language choice in conversation, i.e. the fact that whatever language a participant chooses for the organization of his or her turn, or for an utterance which is part of the turn, the choice exerts an influence on subsequent language choices by the same or other speakers” (Auer, 1984:5). (2) “It limits the external analyst‟s interpretational leeway because it relates his or her interpretations back to the members‟ mutual understanding of tier utterances as manifest in their behavior” (Auer, 1984:6).
It is essential to focus in the entire conversational discourse to analyze code switching in conversation. Therefore, adopting the CA approach in analyzing a conversational code switching, three fundamental points have to be considered such as relevance, procedural consequentiality and the balance between social structure and conversation structure (Li Wei, 2003:162).
There is relevance in conversational code switching when the analysis is demonstratively relevant to the participants. This means that the analyst must understand thoroughly the language and context of the entire conversation. On the other hand, the procedural consequentiality in conversational code switching requires the analyst to understand how the extra-linguistic context influences the outcome of the conversational interaction. This is essential because the context influences the sequence of interaction which is shaped, maintained, and changed by the speakers in the entire conversation.
69 Understanding the context contributes in explaining the reasons why speakers switch from one code to another. The analyst must also maintain the balance between social structure and conversation structure. This means that it is not appropriate to assume that a speaker switches in order to index his or her identity, ethnicity or attitude but the analyst must explain how identity, ethnicity, and attitude are presented, understood, accepted or changed throughout the conversation (Li Wei, 2003).
Using the CA approach in analyzing code switching in interactions specifically in this study requires a thorough understanding of conversation analysis.
2.6 Code Switching and Conversation Analysis
Conversation analysis can be a good model in analyzing code switching patterns in interactions. Observation in interactions between two multilingual speakers will provide an idea in understanding the way in which language figures in everyday interaction and cognition (Ochs, Shegloff, and Thompson as cited in Chad Nilep, 2006). It is believed that to analyze code switching in interactions there is a need to examine the entire discourse to find out the occurrence of code switching. Auer (1984) argued that code switching is not essentially semantic but it is embedded in the sequential development of the conversation.
Various studies have been conducted on the sequential patterns of code switching which captures the entire discourse.
The occurrence of code switching in interactions may function in various ways. Li
Wei (1998) found that code switching is used to enhance turn selection in conversation.
This means that the switching in every turn is influenced by the previous turn made by the
70 speaker. Therefore, it can be difficult to isolate the entire discourse in code switching analysis.
On the other hand, code switching has multiple functions and it can be used to soften refusal (Bani-Shoraka, 2005; Li Wei, 2005), to performs repair in a conversation
(Auer, 1995; Sebba and Wooten, 1998), to show dispreferred remarks (Li Wei 1998; Bani-
Shoraka, 2005) and to show speakers‟ identity (Li Wei 2002; David 2006).
2.6.1 Conversation Analysis as an Approach in Analyzing Code Switching
It is necessary to understand that conversation analysis (CA) is an approach to the study of talk in interaction grew out of the ethnomethodological tradition which was developed by
Harold Garfinkel (Liddicoat, 2007). CA describes the orderliness, structure, and sequential patterns of interaction, in an institutional or casual conversation. The word conversation seems to be confusing to call this disciplinary movement. As a result, Emanuel Schegloff
(1979) discovered and identified talk-in-interaction as one of the CA‟s topic. Since it has been identified as talk-in-interaction other practitioners who used CA called themselves discourse analysts.
Inspired by ethnomethodology, conversation analysis was developed in 1960s and in early 1970s led by the sociologists Harvey Sacks, Emmanuel Schegloff, and Gail
Jefferson. Harvey Sacks has made contributions in the development of CA. However, after his death there were a number of sociologists like Irvin Goffman and David Sudnow who explored it. CA is now a established method in many areas such as sociology, anthropology, linguistics, speech-communication and psychology. It has also become influential specifically in interactional sociolinguistics and discourse analysis.
71 Using conversation analysis as an approach in analyzing conversational code switching requires an understanding on turn-taking and adjacency pairs in conversation
(See Chapter 1, Section 1.1)..
2.6.2 Turn-taking
In conversation analysis, turn-taking plays an important role for it serves as one of the fundamental organizations of conversation. It is essential in analyzing conversations particularly in analyzing the communicative patterns. Turn-taking is a process by which interactants allocate the right or obligation to participate in an interactional activity (Sacks,
Schegloff, & Jefferson, 1974). It consists of two components like the turn constructional component and the turn allocational component (Liddicoat, 2007) which are helpful in understanding how turn-taking works in conversation. The turn constructional component describes the basic unit known as turn constructional unit (TCU) which refers to a grammatical unit which can be a word, phrase, clause or sentence (Liddicoat, 2007). It is a context-sensitive and a decision about what constitutes a TCU can only be made in context.
However, there are some instances in which a turn cannot be considered as TCU particularly if it is not recognized as a complete turn in an ongoing talk. Moreover, a turn can be classified as an allocation component if it describes how turns are allocated among participants in a conversation in which the current speaker selects the next speaker by using certain strategies such as using the pronoun “you”, mentioning a person‟s name, and self- selection of the next speaker. In short, the turn allocational component consists of three ordered options such as current speaker selects next speaker; next speaker self-selects as next; or current speaker continues (Liddicoat, 2007).
72 Turn-taking organization can be described as the simplest systematic for the organization of turn-taking in conversations (Sacks, Schegloff, & Jefferson, 1974). It is one of the most noticeable features when one speaker changes his or her role as listener or speaker. It helps in making the conversation more organized because it signals the speakers when to talk and when not to talk. However, it is still inevitable that in a conversation both interlocutors overlap during the conversation specifically if both speakers are very much involved in the conversation. Overlap seems to be a common feature, however gaps in conversation also occurs.
In a conversation both interlocutors take turns when one is selected or nominated by the current speaker or if no one is selected, one of them may speak in their own accord
(self-selection) (McCarthy, 2002). Therefore, it is essential for the speakers to be familiar with the specific linguistic devices that will help the individual in getting the turn. This is necessary especially when one of the interlocutors is unable to enter the normal flow of turn-taking or when the setting demands that specific conventions must be followed
(McCarthy, 2002).
There are also some linguistic devices that are useful in order not to take turns but still attending to the speaker‟s message. These linguistic markers or back-channeling devices like yeah, right, no, yes, sure, mm, and ah-ha signal that the listener is paying attention to what the speaker is saying. .
Turn-taking can be considered as a socially constructed behavior and not a result of an inevitable process (Liddicoat, 2007). When one overlaps or creates gap in a conversation, it does not mean that it occurred due to some physical or psychological
73 constraints but they are used unproblematically to make the conversation more understandable and to signal laughter, greetings, etc. that the interlocutor clearly gets the point of the other speaker.
2.6.3 Adjacency Pairs
In a conversation many turns of talk occur in pairs like greeting- greeting, question-answer, or request-acceptance/rejection. These paired utterances are called adjacency pairs
(Schegloff and Sacks (1973). Adjacency pairs are the basic unit in conversation where an organization or sequence of talk is built (Liddicoat, 2007). Moreover, it can be easily recognized because it has certain features. Liddicoat (2007) emphasized some features of adjacency pairs; it has two turns (turns are from different speakers) and it follows an order
(pairs are differentiated into pair types).
The sequence of the pairs does not follow at all times in the same order because some insertions within the pair may occur. The insertion is called as the insertion sequence which can sometimes be a lengthy stretched of talk.
Using conversation analysis in analyzing conversational code switching may provide a comprehensive analysis on the occurrence of code switching in interactions. It is essential to analyze the occurrence of code switching by examining the entire discourse rather than focusing only in the alternation of lexical items in every utterance.
74 2.7 Synthesis of the Reviewed Studies
All the reviewed studies on language choice, accommodation strategies, code switching, and conversation analysis bear relevance to the present study.
David (2006), Myers-Scotton and Bolonyai (2001), and Ting & Sussex (1999) argued that language choice is triggered by factors such as social status, gender, educational attainment, ethnicity, age, occupation, rural and urban origin, speakers, topic, place, media and formality of situation. These findings are supported by Haslett in Giles and Robinson
(1990), Tan (1993), Wardhaugh (1992), Fasold (1996), Nor Azni Abdullah (2004), Spolsky
(2004), Bonvillain (1993) and Mugambi (2003). In short, language choice is influenced by several factors, specifically the speaker‟s social status. It means that language choice varies depending on the social, economic and political factors that motivate the speakers to choose a particular language.
Some studies also emphasize that the presence of the dominant language in a community influences the language choice of speakers (Coulmas, 2005). It shows that most speakers have higher chances of choosing the dominant language over the weaker languages because of personal and economic benefits it brings (Bradley and Bradley, 2002,
Wurm, 2002, Kamwangamalu, 1998, Heller, 1995, Ferrer & Sankoff, 2004, Warshauer, El
Said & Zohry, 2002, Jariah Mohd. Jan, 2003, Piller, 2004, and Johansson, 1991).
Moreover, language choice is also influenced by the social network, education, formality of talk, community language, language identity, referee and numeric factors (Gal, 1979,
Bortoni-Ricardo, 1985, Cullip 2000, Ledesma & Moris 2005, Mugambi 2003, Managan
2004, Piller 2004, Adegbite 2003, Durham 2003, Yau, 1997, and Asmah Haji Omar,
75 2004). The various factors examined in the aforementioned studies have shown that language choice can be considered as a complex sociolinguistic phenomenon. It can be influential in causing language change, language shift, language loss and to some extent language death.
The occurrence of language choice can be a speaker‟s conversational intent in order to accommodate other interlocutors. Multilingual speakers choose a particular language to converge or diverge in communication. The occurrence of convergence or divergence in communication in Giles and Powesland‟s (1975) Communication Accommodation Theory
(CAT) has been explained earlier in the theoretical framework of the study.
It is also evident that in interracial or intercultural communication especially in multilingual societies, the occurrence of code switching can be one of the common features.
The reviewed studies show that code switching occurs for emphasis, clarification, precision, transition, comic effect, bridge or create social distance, snob appeal and secrecy
(Bautista 2004, Tan 1992, Ng & He 2004, Poplack & Sankoff 1998, Goulet 1971). In conversational interaction, code switching can be analyzed using the Conversational
Analysis (CA) approach because it captures the occurrence of code switching in the entire conversation.
This present study on language choice, accommodation strategies, and code switching of interracial couples‟ communication in the home domain is based on the concept of the previous studies. Applying the theoretical framework of Giles‟ (1979)
Communication Accommodation Theory (CAT) and the Conversation Analysis approach
76 in analyzing the code switching patterns, this research explains how language choice, accommodation strategies and code switching occur in interracial couples‟ communication.
2.8 Conclusion
The reviewed literature on language choice, accommodation strategies, and code switching has provided some insights in examining language choice in interracial communication.
The factors identified such as age, gender, social status, social network, education, ethnicity, community language, first language of the speaker, national language and international language have made language choice a complex sociolinguistic phenomenon.
These factors that emerged in many studies have contributed in constructing the conceptual and methodological framework of the study which will be described in Chapter 3.
77 CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
This chapter discusses the methodology employed in the study. It specifically describes the research design, participants, sampling method, data collection, research instrument, validation of instrument, and plan for analysis. The analysis on methodological issues in communication and language choice are also given emphasis to establish valid and reliable data gathering.
3.2 Exploratory Mixed Method
Mixed research method is a combination of both qualitative and quantitative research approaches. In a strict sense, both approaches have different epistemological and ontological underpinnings. However, as research approaches began to develop, the combination of both qualitative and quantitative approaches have started to gain more importance in conducting comprehensive research (Creswell, 2008: 552).
An exploratory mixed method is specifically used in this research. Mixed research design is a procedure for collecting, analyzing, and mixing both qualitative and quantitative data in a single study or in a multiple series of studies (Creswell, 2008: 561). More specifically in some cases exploratory mixed method can be used as an effective method in writing a mixed research. Exploratory mixed research design includes two phases. The first phase of the study focuses on the collection of qualitative data and the second phase focuses on the collection of quantitative data. During the first phase, a small number of participants are needed for qualitative data collection. Interviews and observations are
78 usually done to identify the major themes, questions, ideas, and perspectives that may be included in the survey (Lodico, Spaulding & Voegtle, 2006). This method is useful for the researcher to develop an instrument like a survey questionnaire which will be used in the second phase of the study. Creswell (2008: 561) described exploratory mixed research design as a procedure which gathers first the qualitative data to explore the phenomenon and then collect the quantitative data to explain the relationships found in qualitative data.
In the second phase of the study the quantitative data collected are analyzed to support and build the findings of qualitative analysis. Creswell (2008: 561) emphasized that exploratory mixed research design focuses on qualitative (QUAL) data more than the quantitative data (quan) and it follows the sequence of data collection.
The use of exploratory mixed method design helps in exploring the language choice of Filipino-Malaysian couples. Examining their language choice may help in identifying the variables necessary in developing a questionnaire for quantitative data collection. Since both qualitative and quantitative approaches were used in this research, three phases of data collection were conducted. The first phase of data collection focused on interviews and observations, the second phase was the recording of couple‟s actual conversation at home and the third phase of data collection was focused on the survey questionnaire.
3.3 Statistical Treatment of Survey Data
To make a valid interpretation of the survey data, this study used two simple statistical treatments such as the computation of the percentage and mean. The percentage was used to determine the occurrence of language choice and accommodation strategies in interracial couples‟ verbal communication (See Chapters 5 and 6). In computing the percentage, SPSS software was used.
79 In Chapter 6 the comparison of mean on accommodation strategies are presented.
The computation of mean using SPSS software was employed to determine the average results of the survey conducted (See Appendix C). The mean determines the average results of the survey on four accommodation strategies employed in interactions between Filipino and Malaysian couples.
3.4 Participants
The participants of the study were Filipinos married to Malaysians and had stayed in
Malaysia for at least one year. Two cities were chosen as research sites: Kuala Lumpur and
Kuching because most referrals know more Filipino-Malaysian couples in these two cities.
Thirty (30) couples (60 individuals) were grouped into three; 10 Filipino-Malay, 10
Filipino- Malaysian Chinese and 10 Filipino-Malaysian Indian couples. Nineteen (19) couples (32 spouses) from Kuala Lumpur and eleven (11) couples (22 spouses) from
Kuching participated in the study.
Table 3.1: Number and Percentage of Participants from Kuala Lumpur and Kuching
Location Filipino-Malay Filipino-Chinese Filipino-Indian Couples Couples Couples Kuala Lumpur 6 (20%) 3 (10%) 10 (33.33%) Kuching 4 (13.33%) 7 (23.33%) 0 Total number of couples 10 10 10
Table 3.1 shows the total number and percentage of participants from Kuala Lumpur and
Kuching who took part in the study. Six (20%) Filipino-Malay couples came from Kuala
Lumpur and 4 (13.33%) came from Kuching; 3 (10%) Filipino-Chinese couples came from
80 Kula Lumpur and 7 (23.33%) came from Kuching; and 10 (33.33%) Filipino-Indian couples came from Kuala Lumpur.
The participants from Kuching and Kuala Lumpur vary in terms of number due to the limited Filipino-Malaysian couples in both cities. There are only 202 registered
Filipino-Malaysian couples throughout Malaysia in 2007 (Philippine Embassy, 2007). In
Kuala Lumpur, Filipino-Indian couples (10) have the highest number of participants because there is a very small number of such mixed marriage in Kuching. On the contrary, the majority of the participants in Kuching are Filipino-Malaysian Chinese couples (7) due to a larger number of Filipinos married to the Chinese in Kuching.
All the participants came from Kuala Lumpur and Kuching because the majority of the referrals were from these two cities. However, the place of residence is not taken into consideration in the data analysis because seven couples from Kuching frequently travel in
Kuala Lumpur.
All spouses speak at least two or more languages, either their own ethnic language
(Mother tongue), or English (International language), Bahasa Malaysia (National language of Malaysia), and Filipino (National language of the Philippines).
The participants were introduced to the researcher and had frequent contact with them prior to the interview, tape-recording of actual conversation and distribution of the survey questionnaire. Other participants whom the researcher did not personally know were referred by other participants and other Filipinos who worked in Kuching and Kuala
Lumpur. The researcher and all the participants had informal contacts before the
81 sociolinguistic interviews, recording of actual conversations, and distribution of questionnaire. Informal contact through home visits and telephone conversations were maintained for at least one month to establish familiarity and rapport between the researcher and the researched. This is to ensure that the participants will not be inhibited in answering questions during the interviews.
Thirty (30) Filipino spouses consisting of 27 females and 3 males and thirty (30)
Malaysian spouses consisting of 27 males and 3 females took part in the study. All Filipino participants had stayed for at least one year in Malaysia.
3.5 Sampling Method
This research used a purposive sampling technique, more specifically snowball or network sampling in which the selection of participants was conducted through referrals (See
Chapter 1, Sections 1.1 and 1.7). The participants referred those Filipinos who were married to Malays, Chinese and Indians and had stayed in Malaysia for at least one year.
Snowball sampling technique was made by selecting participants who possess certain characteristics needed in the research to refer other participants with similar characteristics (Lodico, Spaulding, & Voegtle, 2006). Considering the marital aspect of the research, the sampling technique helped in minimizing the chance of refusal from the potential participants. Using the snowball sampling method is an appropriate sampling technique because it offers more advantages for studies that focus on ethnic group, immigrants, and rural populations (Milroy and Gordon, 2003: 32).
82 Snowball sampling method helps in getting more participants to participate in the research data gathering. The process continues until the required information is reached or when saturation point is reached (Kumar, 1997). Snowball sampling is applicable in this research on language choice, accommodation strategies and code switching of interracial couples because of the limited number of Filipinos who are married to Malaysians. As mentioned earlier, the Philippine Embassy in Kuala Lumpur registered 202 Filipino-
Malaysian couples who had legal capacity but only 52 reported to register from January
2006 to April 2007 (Philippine Embassy in Kuala Lumpur, 2006). There are only few married Filipino and Malaysian couples who reported and registered their marriage to the
Philippine Embassy. Therefore, finding the married couples to participate in the study would have been difficult if the social network of the researcher had been limited.
The data gathering was divided into three different phases. The first phase was the sociolinguistic interview, the second phase was the recording of the couples‟ actual conversation and the third phase was the survey questionnaire.
3.5.1 Sample for Sociolinguistic Interviews
The first phase of data gathering was the sociolinguistic interview. There were 60 Filipino and Malaysian spouses consisting of 30 Filipino-Malaysian couples who participated in the interview. As stated earlier, ten of them were Filipino-Malay couples, 10 Filipino-
Malaysian Chinese, and 10 Filipino-Malaysian Indian. The sociolinguistic interviews were conducted by following a procedure in data gathering:
1. Participants were classified according to their spouses‟ ethnic backgrounds like
Filipino-Malay, Filipino-Malaysian Chinese and Filipino-Malaysian Indian couples.
83 2. Weekly meetings for two to three times with the participants were held to establish
better relationship and to build rapport between the researcher and the researched.
3. Informal interviews were conducted after three or more meetings with the
participants.
The interview centered on three areas such as language choice, accommodation strategies and code switching. Interviews were informally conducted in couples‟ respective homes to ensure that they felt comfortable in discussing issues related to language choice.
All interviews were recorded with the couples‟ approval. There were informal written consent (see appendix E) and verbal consent given by the couples prior to the interview.
Before the participants were interviewed, they were asked if they would be comfortable to take part in an interview. Out of 60 participants (30 couples) there were five (5) spouses who requested the interview not to be recorded. These five participants did not give their reasons for not allowing the researcher to record the interview. For these participants, the researcher jotted down the important details of their answers.
3.5.2 Couples’ Actual Conversation
The second phase of data collection was the recording of the couples‟ actual conversation at home. Not all couples agreed but nine (9) couples (18 spouses) gave their consent. In order to maintain balance and to avoid inconsistencies of the findings 3 Filipino-Malay, 3
Filipino-Malaysian Chinese, 3 Filipino-Malaysian Indian couples became the participants in the recorded conversations. The setting of the recording was at each couple‟s residence and there was no specific time and topic. An MP3 recorder was left with the couples to record the 30-minute (maximum) conversations at home. They were given the choice to record any topic as long as the conversation was a casual conversation between husband
84 and wife. The couples were free to edit or erase any recordings that they did not want to include in their conversations. Some recordings were interrupted by members of the family who wanted to participate in the conversations. Circumstances like these were expected especially in families with children and other family members like the parents-in-law, brother-in-law or sister-in-law staying in the same household.
3.5.3 Sample Used for the Questionnaire
The third phase of the research involved the distribution of survey questionnaires to the participants. The content of the questionnaire examined the couples‟ language choice and accommodation strategies. There were 80 sets of questionnaires disseminated but only 65 were returned. The returned questionnaires were further classified into three groups;
Filipino-Malay, Filipino-Malaysian Chinese, Filipino-Malaysian Indian. To obtain an equal number of participants, 30 couples were chosen to represent three groups consisting of 60 spouses.
3.6 Research Instrument
This research used semi-structured interviews, actual recording of Filipino-Malaysian couples‟ interactions and survey questionnaire to analyze language choice, accommodation strategies and code switching patterns of Filipino-Malaysian couples‟ communication in the home domain. The survey questionnaire includes the demographic profile of participants and a 7-point Likert scale to describe the couples‟ language choice. The language choice was categorized into three options such as first language, Bahasa Malaysia (national language) and English (international language). The other section was a 7-point Likert scale questionnaire on the accommodation strategies of speakers.
85 3.6.1 Interviews
Semi-structured interviews were held to enquire about the couples‟ language choice, accommodation strategies, and code switching. Interviews were conducted in an informal atmosphere in order to make the participants feel more comfortable when answering the questions and issues on interracial couples‟ language choice. All interviews were conducted in English, Filipino, Cebuano, Taglish, with some switching from English to Tagalog and
Cebuano. In interviewing the Filipino spouses, code switching from English to Filipino and Bahasa Malaysia was common to both interviewer and interviewees. If an interviewee was from the Northern part of the Philippines, the English language was used with some switching in Filipino; however if an interviewee was from the Northern part of the
Philippines, English language was used with some switching in Cebuano. It was evident that in the interviews, code switching was frequently used by the researcher and the researched. Switching from one language to another helped the interviewer and the interviewee to establish better communication and closer relationship. If there were words that could not be described clearly in English, other languages like Tagalog, Cebuano or sometimes Bahasa Malaysia were used. Although the researcher was not proficient in
Bahasa Malaysia some switching in Bahasa Malaysia was done to show the researcher‟s interest to communicate with the Malay participants. For Malaysian Chinese and Malaysian
Indian participants, the English language was frequently used. Although there were three
Indians and one Chinese participant who could converse in Filipino, the use of English was prevalent.
The interview questions were asked in a friendly manner. Interviews started with some questions related to the paticipant‟s families, friends or children. It was an informal conversation and the researcher followed a guide (see Appendix F) in asking questions. As
86 the conversation became more informal, questions related to the language choice at home and the reasons for language choice occurred. The informal conversation contributed in gathering authentic information from Filipino-Malaysian couples.
Questions related to the language choice of Filipino-Malaysian couples were the first few questions asked. This was followed by questions on the reasons for language choice. Since all couples were multilingual, questions related to code switching and accommodation strategies were taken into consideration. The questions asked helped the researcher to identify the specific accommodation strategies used by couples such as approximation strategies, interpretability strategies, discourse management strategies, and interpersonal control strategies.
To carry out the interview smoothly, the researcher informed all couples about the purpose and focus of the research before the interview.
3.6.2 Conversation
The second phase of the research was the actual recording of the couples‟ conversation.
This was done to capture the actual use of the language in the home domain. Couples agreed to record their actual conversations. An MP3 recorder was left with them and couples were asked to record their conversations. They were given instructions as to how to operate the MP3 and to record the conversation. They were also instructed to record only 15-30 minutes of their actual conversation. Other couples used their cell phones to record their conversations and forwarded them to the researcher through bluetooth connection.
87 3.6.3 Questionnaire
A self-made questionnaire was constructed based on the qualitative findings on couples‟ language choice, accommodation strategies and code switching. The questionnaire used a
7-point Likert scale to identify the couples‟ language choice and accommodation strategies
(see Appendix B). The questionnaires were face-validated before they were distributed to the participants. The face validation was done by asking 8 English lecturers who were teaching English and Applied Linguistics subjects from Inti University College, Unimas,
Universiti Malaya and UCSI University to review and comment on the research questionnaire. Five of the lecturers were Ph.D. degree holders and the other 3 lecturers were currently working their Ph.D. thesis. After the moderation, the questionnaire was revised and tested through a pilot study to measure its validity and reliability.
Six spouses took part in the pilot study. After the pilot study, changes were made on some question items on language choice, and accommodation strategies. Interview questions were also revised to capture comprehensive information from the interviewees.
3.6.3.1 Language Choice Questionnaire
A questionnaire identifying the language choice of interracial couples was designed. The questionnaire used a 7-point Likert scale which emphasized the four major linguistic choices of Filipino-Malaysian couples such as ethnic language/mother tongue, national language (Bahasa Malaysia) and international language (English). A sample of the questionnaire is found in Appendix B.
88 3.6.3.2 Accommodation Strategies Questionnaire
The questions used in identifying the couples‟ accommodation strategies were based on
Communication Accommodation Theory (CAT). The 7-point Likert scale was used to measure the accommodation strategies used by couples. The questions were classified according to different types of accommodation strategies such as approximation, interpretability, discourse management, and interpersonal control strategies (see Appendix
B). A detailed explanation of various accommodation strategies used is shown in Chapter
6, Section 6.2.
3.7 Data Collection
The data collection was done in three phases. The first phase was an interview with the
Filipino-Malay, Filipino-Malaysian Chinese, and Filipino-Malaysian Indian couples. A preliminary and informal interview with each couple which lasted for at least 60 minutes was conducted to establish familiarity and to build rapport between participants and the researcher. Interviews on language choice, accommodation strategies, and code switching were conducted in a casual and informal manner. The interviews included some questions that would establish better relationship between the couples and the researcher. At this stage, the researcher arranged a schedule for interviews with the couples. This was to ensure that the participants were willing to participate in the data gathering.
After conducting the preliminary and informal interviews, tape-recorded semi- structured interviews (see Appendix F) were conducted. All couples were informed about the purpose of the interview. The procedure was explained clearly and thoroughly prior to the interviews for couples to be ready and prepared in the data gathering procedure.
Interviews were conducted in a conversational style in order to obtain full cooperation and
89 participation from couples. The setting was informal and switching from English to
Tagalog, Cebuano or Bahasa Malaysia was made to make the interviewee feel comfortable.
However, translation from Filipino language was sometimes made by the spouse or the researcher so that the Malaysian spouse would not feel left out and uncomfortable.
The interview questions centered on couples‟ preferred language, reasons for language choice, accommodation strategies, and code switching. After the interviews, the recorded data were transcribed. Then the transcripts were shown to the couples for verification and correction (i.e., addition, deletion, etc.) to ascertain the reliability and validity of the data so as to guarantee that the information gathered was authentic (Miles and Huberman, 1994).
After the interviews, nine selected couples were requested to record their actual conversation to determine the language used. This was done to support and validate the findings in the interviews. A recorder was left for them to record their actual conversations; however some couples used their mobile phones in recording their conversations for convenience. In recording the conversation, couples were given the option to delete some parts of the conversation especially some sensitive family matters that they thought were private.
After the interviews and actual recording of conversations, a quantitative survey was conducted in which questionnaires focusing on language choice and accommodation strategies were distributed. The first part of the questionnaire gathered the participants‟ personal information which helped the researcher in identifying other factors that influence the couples‟ language choice. The second part of the survey questionnaire focused on
90 language choice and accommodation strategies used by the couples when communicating in the home domain.
The survey questionnaires consisting of three sets of questions such as personal information, language choice and accommodation strategies were distributed to all spouses.
The three phases of data gathering were conducted to obtain comprehensive findings on language choice, accommodation strategies, and code switching of Filipino-
Malaysian couples.
The data gathering is illustrated in Figure 3.1.
Meet the interview record the actual distribute couples conversation at home survey questionnaire
1st interview 2nd interview data transcription
Figure 3.1 Data Gathering Procedure
Figure 3.1 illustrates the process of data gathering procedure which starts from the casual meeting with couples before the interviews took place. Two interviews were held first before the recording of actual conversations of couples. The first interview was a preliminary and informal interview which lasted only 60 minutes for each couple to establish familiarity and rapport between the researcher and the researched. The second interview focused on the couples‟ language choice, accommodation strategies and code
91 switching which lasted at least 30 minutes for every couple. All data were recorded and transcribed and they were shown to the couples to confirm their answers in the interviews.
After transcribing the data, a qualitative analysis was conducted and this is discussed in the following sections. After the qualitative data gathering, a survey questionnaire was disseminated to 60 Filipino-Malaysian couples.
3.8 Data Analysis
The data gathered in the interviews, survey and recording of conversations were analyzed qualitatively and quantitatively so as to obtain a comprehensive analysis. In describing the data analysis a brief background of the qualitative analysis is provided.
3.8.1 Qualitative Data Analysis
The micro level of analysis is focused on the individual act, choice and agency which can be classified as qualitative. Language choice, accommodation strategies, and code switching were examined using the micro sociolinguistic analysis (Coulmas, 2005). The analysis was based on the transcribed interviews and recording of the couples‟ conversations. The micro analysis was made to provide an analysis of couples‟ language choice and accommodation strategies. The quantitative findings help in constructing the questionnaire. The data in quantitative analysis provides additional information to comprehensively explain the existence or emergence of certain communicative phenomena.
Language choice in the micro analysis was examined in a detailed manner which focused on the language choices in the individual level. The choices made during the
92 interviews and actual conversations were closely examined. In addition, the reasons for language choice and the occurrence of accommodation strategies were examined.
3.8.2 Analysis and Development in the Interview Process
Couples‟ language choice and accommodation strategies were analyzed from the data collected during the interview. The way couples answered the questions during the interview was taken into consideration when the interviews were conducted. Before the interview was conducted, there were frequent meetings and contacts with the participants to build better relationship and for the participants to share their personal experiences without any inhibition.
3.8.3 Analysis of Sociolinguistic Interviews
In the earlier section of this chapter it is mentioned that this study on interracial couples‟ language choice, accommodation strategies and code switching in verbal communication follows certain steps in analyzing the data. This was done to support the quantitative analysis and to explain data that were not quantifiable like the reasons for language choice, accommodation strategies and conversational code switching.
Burns (1998) believed that qualitative methods like semi-structured interviewing permits access to individual meaning in the context of ongoing daily life. It is appropriate to use qualitative method in the analysis for it is not concerned with the objective truth but with the truth as the participants perceive it through their own experiences. The collected data were analyzed by finding the meaning within the data, which were systematically arranged and presented in a narrative form.
93 In analyzing data, it requires procedure that must be followed and observed. As part of the procedure, a narrative report based on the semi-structured interviews must be read and re-read to understand thoroughly the message of the informants (Miles & Huberman,
1994). In this stage, writing down the impressions was done to clearly evaluate the data.
The next step was the coding and indexing of data in which words, phrases and sentences were manually categorized. At this stage, the data gathered were classified into themes. In coding the interview data, several stages were required to obtain a reliable analysis and interpretation. The first stage was to develop a list of coding categories in which a short name was assigned to each category. The data were coded by supplying the appropriate code in the margin of the transcript file.
After categorizing the data, all categories were linked together in order to make good inferences. Moreover, as the analysis progressed, a constant comparative analysis was made. This was done by frequently comparing the interview transcripts with the codes to ascertain rigor in the analysis and interpretation of data.
3.8.4 Coding Principles
The analysis of a qualitative research began when coding started. Creswell (2008) defines coding as a process of segmenting and labeling text to form descriptions and broad themes in the data. A visual model of the coding process in qualitative research is shown in figure
3.2.
94 Initially read divide the text label the segments Reduce overlap Collapse codes through into segments of information with and redundancy into themes text data of information codes of codes
Many pages Many segments 30-40 Codes Codes reduced of text of text codes reduced to 5-7 themes to 20
Figure 3.2 Visual Model of the Coding Process in Qualitative Research (Creswell,
2008:251)
In coding the data, it does not necessarily require to follow definite steps. However, Tesch
(1990), Creswell (1994) and Creswell (2005) offered and recommended the following steps such as get a sense of the whole, pick one document, start the process of coding the document, after coding the entire text, make a list of all code words, take the list and go back to the data, and reduce the codes to get five to seven themes or descriptions of the setting or participants.
3.8.5 Descriptive Coding
Description is essential for it provides a detailed rendering of people, places, or events in a setting in qualitative research (Creswell, 2008). A description on the gathered data will help readers visualize the person or the actual action that occurs. Such coding helps in providing comprehensive information of the interviews. In addition, the description specifically on couples‟ non-verbal behavior during the interviews enriched the data gathering and analysis because some messages can be revealed through non-verbal actions.
95 3.8.6 Thematic Coding
Aside from the description, the use of themes was done in categorizing the data because themes are similar codes aggregated together to form a major idea in the database, they form a core element in qualitative data analysis (Creswell, 2008: 251).
Creswell (2008: 252) provides several types of themes like the ordinary themes, unexpected themes, hard-to-classify themes, major and minor themes. In thematic coding, it is essential that it requires layering and interrelating themes. This is important in this research to identify the reasons of language choice, code switching and accommodation strategies because participants do not give direct or explicit reasons.
3.8.7 Reductionism
Reductionism refers to the process of selecting, focusing, simplifying, and transforming the data that appear in the transcriptions (Miles & Huberman, 1994). Data reduction happens when a researcher starts writing the summaries, coding, writing themes, making clusters, making partitions and writing memos. Doing the data reduction is already part of the analysis because the researcher is now deciding which information has to be discarded and to be retained. Miles and Huberman (1994) defined further the data reduction as a form of analysis that sharpens, sorts, focuses, discards, and organizes data in such a way that final conclusions can be drawn and verified. Doing the data reduction can be of help in condensing the qualitative data. It helps the researcher to focus on the specific data that need to be analyzed and interpreted.
96 3.8.8 Quantitative Analysis
Macro analysis presents the bigger picture of couples‟ language choice and accommodation strategies. The identification of couples‟ language choice was based on the language they chose which varies from one couple to the other and their accommodation strategies were based on the types of accommodation strategies identified by Harwood, Soliz & Lin (2006) such as approximation, interpretability, discourse management and interpersonal control.
The data used to analyze language choice, and accommodation strategies were based on the survey questionnaires and interviews. The language choice of interracial couples was analyzed by examining their language choice in a macro level like choosing a mother tongue, community language, national or international language. .
3.8.9 Outline of the analysis
The analysis is shown in Figure 3.3.
97 Steps of Data Analysis
1. Analysis of language choice and sociolinguistic factors (questionnaire and interviews
2. Qualitative and quantitative analyses of language choice and accommodation strategies (interviews, questionnaire and actual conversation)
3. Analysis of code switching as emerging accommodation strategy (interviews and actual conversation)
4. Analysis on the reasons for language choice (interviews)
Figure 3.3 Steps of Data Analysis
Figure 3.3 shows the steps in analyzing the qualitative and quantitative data collected through interviews, recording of conversations and survey questionnaire. These steps of data analysis are based from the conceptual framework of this study (see Chapter 2, Section
2.2.2). The first step of the analysis focuses on language choice of couples and sociolinguistic factors such as ethnicity, education, religion, and the first language spoken by the spouses. The second step consists of qualitative and quantitative data analyses on language choice and accommodation strategies. The qualitative analysis is based on
98 interviews conducted and the quantitative data analysis is based on the survey questionnaire disseminated. The quantitative analysis focuses on the 7-point likert scale questionnaire on language choice and accommodation strategies. A detailed explanation of the questionnaire is provided in Chapter 3.
The third step is the analysis of code switching as an emerging accommodation strategy in interracial couples‟ communication. The analysis is based on the interviews conducted and the recording of couples‟ conversations. The fourth step of the analysis focuses on the reasons for language choice.
3.9 Conclusion
Using qualitative and quantitative approaches in data collection provides comprehensive and empirical findings on language choice, accommodation strategies, and code switching.
These two research approaches guided the researcher in conducting interviews, disseminating survey questionnaire, and recording of actual conversations. Consequently, having a good methodological framework leads to a valid and reliable findings and data analysis.
99 CHAPTER FOUR
DEMOGRAPHIC PROFILE OF FILIPINO-MALAYSIAN COUPLES
4.1 Introduction
This chapter describes the participants‟ demographic profile. The data are presented in tables to provide information on couples‟ education, ethnicity, religion, occupation, years of marriage, first language, age, and languages spoken at home. The demographic profile of participants provides a background in analyzing language choice, accommodation strategies, and code switching of couples in their verbal communication in the home domain.
4.2 Couples’ Demographic Profile
This chapter describes only the demographic profile and the influence on language choice.
A detailed analysis on couples‟ language choice, accommodation strategies and code switching is provided in Chapters 5, 6, 7, and 8.
4.2.1 Education
Participants‟ education can be a source of additive bilingualism specifically in the
Philippine and Malaysian contexts where students are taught in at least two languages:
English and the national language. For instance, in the Philippines, the medium of instruction is English and Filipino while in Malaysia, it is English and Bahasa Malaysia.
Philippines and Malaysia are considered bilingual in their educational system but the degree of use of the two languages like English and the national language differs. In the
Philippine context, students have to learn both Filipino and English based on the prescribed
100 curricula of the Department of Education Culture and Sports (DECS) for elementary and secondary levels. In the tertiary level both English and Filipino are also used as the medium of instruction. As a result, most books that are used in the classroom are written in English and Filipino. On the other hand, Malaysia‟s bilingual education is a bit different. English has been used as the medium of instruction in three subjects like English, Science, and
Mathematics since 2003 while Bahasa Malaysia is used for the rest of the subjects.
However, in tertiary education, Bahasa Malaysia and English are used as the medium of instruction in private colleges and universities. As a result, Filipino and Malaysian participants who were exposed to bilingual education can speak more than two languages;
English, ethnic language, and the national language.
The table below shows the educational background of couples who took part in the study.
Table 4.1 Educational Background of Filipino Wives and Malaysian Husbands
Education Husband Wife Post Graduate 0 1 (3.33%) Graduate 2 (6.67%) 6 (20%) College 14 (46.67%) 18 (60%) Some College 12 (40%) 4 (13.33%) Secondary 1 (3.33%) 1 (3.33%) Some Secondary 1 (3.33%) 0
Table 4.1 reveals that nine spouses completed their graduate studies: 6.67% are Malaysian husbands and 20% are Filipino wives. Forty six point sixty seven percent (46.67%) of husbands and 60% of wives completed their college degree, 40% of husbands and 13.33% of wives have some college education and 3.33% of husbands and 3.33% of wives
101 completed their secondary education. It is clear that a high percentage of Filipino wives are college degree holders as compared to their Malaysian husbands.
Obtaining a college degree is not unusual for Filipinos since education is highly valued in Philippine culture. Filipinos believe that education provides them with a better future. At the same time, for Filipinos to leave the country and work overseas they need minimum educational requirement, they need to be high school graduates or college graduates with minimum English language proficiency as required by the employers
(Manalansan, 2008).
4.2.2 Ethnicity
In the Philippines, ethnicity is not emphasized. People are categorized according to their region of origins and not their ethnic membership. Filipinos are regionalistic people and in every region people speak different languages. Despite the regionalistic mindset of
Filipinos, everyone still values the importance of the national language which is Filipino
(Manalansan, 2008).
In contrast, ethnicity is a major issue in Malaysia. People are identified based on their ethnic membership such as Malay, Chinese, Indians, and other minority ethnic groups in Sabah and Sarawak. Similar to Filipinos, Malaysians speak different languages and a large number of non-Malay Malaysians might also speak the national language, Bahasa
Malaysia, in varying degrees of proficiency.
Table 4.2 shows the ethnic background of couples who participated in the study.
102 Table 4.2 Ethnicity of Filipino-Malaysian Couples
Ethnicity Husband Wife Filipino 1 (3.33%) 29 (96.67%) Malay 10 (33.33%) 0 Malaysian Chinese 9 (30%) 1 (3.33%) Malaysian Indian 10 (33.33%) 0
Table 4.2 shows that 29 (96.67%) of the 30 wives are Filipinos and 1 (3.33%) is a
Malaysian Chinese. On the other hand, one 1 (3.33%) Filipino, 10 (33.33%) Malays, 9
(30%) Malaysian Chinese and 10 (33.33%) Malaysian Indians are husbands. The data show that most Filipinos who married Malaysians were women. This is because most
Filipinos who leave the Philippines and work in Malaysia are single, widow or separated women. As of December 2004 there were 6,600 Filipino women as domestic workers deployed in Malaysia (Manalansan, 2008: 6). For them the chances of looking for a marriage partner outside while working in Malaysia might be higher.
4.2.3 Religion
According to the National Statistics Office of the Philippine (http://www.census.gov.ph/),
92.6% of the total population of 92,226,600 million people are Christians. The Christians in the Philippines belong to different religious denominations which include Catholics
(81.0%), Protestants (7.3%), Iglesia ni Kristo (2.3%) and Aglipayans (2.0%). The Muslim population is (5.1%) and Buddhists (0.1%).
Table 4.3 shows the percentage of religious affiliations in the Philippines.
103 Table 4.3 Religious Affiliations in the Philippines
Religious Affiliation, Censuses 2000 1960 1903a Christian 92.6% 92.9 91.5 Roman Catholic 81.0% 83.8 91.5 Protestant 7.3% 2.9 Iglesia ni Kristo 2.3% 1.0 Aglipayan 2.0% 5.2 Muslim 5.1% 4.9 Buddhist 0.1% 0.1 Othersb 1.7% 2.1 8.5 None/DK 0.5%
Source: The Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life. http://pewforum.org/world- affairs/countries/?CountryID=163
Table 4.3 shows that most Filipinos are Catholic Christians. The Christian dominance in the
Philippines is reflected in the Filipino culture like celebrating Christmas, Lent season, and names of places that are patterned after the Saints (Rodell, 2002).
In contrast, Malaysia is dominated by Muslims (see Table 4.4). According to the
2009 census, Malaysia has a total population of is 28.31 million people. The 2009 census shows that approximately 63.2% of Malaysians are Muslims; 16.6% Buddhists; 9.55%
Christians; 5.7% Hindus; and 2.45% follow Confucianism, Taoism, and other traditional
Chinese religions (see Table 4.4).
104 Table 4.4 Percentage Distribution of Population by Religion and Stratum, Malaysia, 2000
Religion Urban Rural Islam 53.5 72.9 Christianity 7.6 11.5 Hinduism 7.9 3.5 Buddhism 26.3 6.9 Confucianism/Taoism/Other 3.2 1.7 traditional Chinese religion Tribal/Folk 0.1 1.9 Others 0.4 0.4 No religion/Unknown 1.1 1.2 Total 100.0 100.0 Number (thousands) 13,714.9 8,483.4
Source: Population & Housing Census of Malaysia 2000 Population Distribution & Basic Demographic Characteristics (Population and Housing Census Division)
Table 4.4 shows that Islam is a major religion in Malaysia, followed by Buddhism and
Christianity. The Islamic religion of Malaysia has also influenced the Malay culture which is reflected in celebrations, other cultural practices and foreign policies (Nair, 2003).
In this research most Filipino and Malaysian participants came from diverse religious affiliations. The table below shows the religious affiliations of the participants.
Table 4.5 Religion of Filipino-Malaysian Couples
Religion Husband Wife Buddhist 4 (13.33%) 0 Christian 12 (40%) 20 (66.67%) Hindu 4 ((13.33%) 0 Islam 10 (33.33%) 10 (33.33%)
Table 4.5 shows the religious affiliations of participants who took part in the study. There are 4 (13.33%) Buddhist husbands, 12 (40%) Christian husbands and 20 (66.67%) Christian
105 wives, 4 (13.33%) Hindu husbands, 10 (33.33%) Muslim husbands and 10 (33.33%)
Muslim wives. The Muslim Filipino wives were originally Catholic Christians but converted to Islam when they married the Malays. Majority of the participants are
Christians (53.34%) with the exception of those who married the Malays and converted to
Islam.
4.2.4 Occupation
The participants‟ occupations vary from managerial position to routine unskilled manual work (see Table 4.6).
Table 4.6 Participants’ Occupation
Occupation Husband Wife Managers and Administrative Professionals 2 (6.67%) 2 (6.67%) Businessman/Businesswoman 10 (33.33%) 3 (10%) Technical, Scientific 7 (23.33%) 3 (10%) Clerical and Secretarial 0 0 Craft and Skilled Service 5 (16.67%) 0 Personal Service (domestic work) 0 4 (13.33%) Sales 6 (20%) 2 (6.67%) Operative and Assembly 0 0 Routine Unskilled Manual 0 6 (20%)
Table 4.6 shows that the participants came from different employment backgrounds. Ten
(10) (33.33%) husbands mainly Chinese are engaged in business and 6 (20%) wives are engaged in routine unskilled manual work. There are 2 (6.67%) husbands and 2 (6.67%) wives who work as managers and administrative professionals, 3 (10%) businesswomen; 7
(23.33%) husbands and 3 (10%) wives who work in the technical sector; 5 (16.67%) husbands are engaged in craft and skilled services, 4 (13.33%) wives are engaged in personal services (domestic work), 6 (20%) husbands and 2 (6.67%) wives are in sales.
106 It is evident that 30 husbands are engaged in business, technical work, and sales. On the other hand, 12 Filipino wives are engaged in routine unskilled manual and personal services. The data show that Filipino women married Malaysian men who had secured employment and stable financial capability.
4.2.5 Years of Marriage
The number of years of marriage of the participants varies. Table 4.7 shows how long the participants have been married.
Table 4.7 Years of Marriage of Filipino-Malaysian Couples
Years of Marriage Couples 1-5 years 6 (20%) 6-10 years 7 (23.33%) 11-15 years 9 (30%) 16-20 years 7 (23.33%) 21-25 years 1 (3.33%)
Table 4.7 shows that 6 (20%) couples have been married from 1-5 years, 7 (23.33%) couples have been married from 6-10 years, 9 (30%) couples have been married from 11-15 years, 7 (23.33%) couples have been married from 16-20 years and only 1 (3.33%) couple has been married for 21-25 years. The majority of participants have been married for 11-
15 years.
4.2.6 First Language Spoken by Spouses
The first language spoken by spouses in the home ranges from Malay, Chinese, English,
Filipino and Indian languages. In some cultures the wife‟s first language is influential
107 however in other cultures the husband‟s first language becomes dominant at home
(Johansson, 1991).
Table 4.8 shows the first language spoken by Filipino-Malaysian couples in the home.
Table 4.8 First Language Spoken by Filipino-Malaysian Couples
First Language Husband Wife
10 (33.33%) 0 Bahasa Malaysia
Chinese (Mandarin, 8 (26.67%) 2 (6.67%) Cantonese, Hakka, Hokkien) 4 (13.33%) 0 English
2 (6.67%) 28 (93.33%) Filipino (Tagalog, Cebuano, Ilokano, Waray, Ilongo) 6 (20%) 0 Indian (Tamil)
Others 0 0
Ten 10 (33.33%) of the husbands speaks Bahasa Malaysia as their first language, 8
(26.67%) speak Chinese, 4 (13.33%) speak English, 2 (6.67%) speak Filipino, and 6 (20%) speak Tamil. Twenty eight 28 (93.33%) wives speak Filipino and other Philippine languages. It is evident that the Malay husbands‟ first language is Bahasa Malaysia while the Chinese husbands‟ first language is Chinese which can be Mandarin, Cantonese, Hakka, or Hokkien. On the other hand, Indian husbands‟ first language is Tamil while other
Indians use English. Filipino respondents‟ first language is Tagalog, Cebuano, Ilokano,
108 Waray and Ilongo. All participants who took part in the study have varied first language background but they speak English as their second language.
4.2.7 Age
The table below shows the age of Filipino-Malaysian couples who took part in the study.
Table 4.9 Age of Filipino-Malaysian Couples
Age Husband Wife 25-29 2 (6.67%) 3 (10%) 30-34 7 (23.33%) 20 (66.67%) 35-39 9 (30%) 4 (13.33%) 40-44 6 (20%) 2 (6.67%) 45-49 4 (13.33%) 1 (3.33%) 50-54 2 (6.67%) 0
Malaysian husbands are older than their Filipino wives. Two 2 (6.67%) of the husbands and 3 (10%) wives are between 25-29 years old, 7 (23.33%) husbands and 20 (66.67%) wives are between 30-34 years old, 9 (30%) husbands and 4 (13.33%) wives are 35-39 years old, 6 (20%) husbands and 2 (6.67%) wives are between 40-44 years old, 4 (13.33%) husbands and 1 (3.33%) wife was between 45-49 years old and 2 (6.67%) husbands are between 50-54 years old. The data show that majority of the husbands are older than their wives.
4.3 Conclusion
The demographic profile has provided background information of couples who took part in the study. Such information shows the differences of couples in terms of education, ethnicity, religion, occupation, years of marriage, first language, and age. It further shows
109 that Filipino-Malaysian couples speak different first languages and dialects and English serves as the preferred language where everyone can speak.
In the next chapter (Chapter 5), the patterns of language choice and the dominance of English in Filipino-Malaysian couples‟ interactions are discussed.
110 CHAPTER FIVE
PATTERNS OF LANGUAGE CHOICE AND DOMINANCE OF ENGLISH IN THE
HOME DOMAIN
5.1 Introduction
This chapter examines the social factors that influence the language choice of Filipino-
Malaysian couples in the home domain. Both qualitative and quantitative findings are presented, discussed, and analyzed. This data include the interviews and transcripts of the recording to determine the dominant language choice of the participants. The analyses are narrowed down to the ethnic affiliations of interracial couples such as Filipino-Malay,
Filipino-Malaysian Chinese, and Filipino-Malaysian Indian. This chapter specifically discusses the patterns of language choice and the dominant language spoken as the medium of communication in the home domain.
The discussion begins by showing the language choice patterns of Filipino-
Malaysian couples and this is followed by a discussion of couples‟ choice of the first language and its impact on couples‟ identity and language loyalty. Then the use of Bahasa
Malaysia at home is examined. Lastly, the emergence of English as dominant language in the home domain is discussed.
The analysis in this chapter is provided with interview extracts and supported by the data collected through the questionnaire.
111 5.2 Patterns of Language Choice
The pattern of language choice of Filipino-Malaysian couples is based on participants‟ self- reports in the sociolinguistic interviews conducted. The patterns are presented in three tables (Table 5.1, Table 5.2 and Table 5.3).
Table 5.1 Patterns of Language Choice of Filipino-Malay Couples
Filipino- Bahasa Filipino English English English Malay Malaysia (Cebuano, (E) (dominant) (dominant) Couples (BM) Ilokano, and and Ilongo, Bahasa Filipino Waray) Malaysia (E/F) (F) (E/BM) FCMA1 BM E/BM FCMB1 F E/BM E/F FCMA2 BM E/BM FCMB2 E E/BM E/F FCMA3 E E/BM E/F FCMB3 E E/BM E/F FCMA4 BM E/BM E/F FCMB4 E E/BM E/F FCMA5 E E/BM FCMB5 BM E E/BM E/F FCMA6 BM F E/BM FCMB6 E/BM E/F FCMA7 BM E/BM FCMB7 BM E/BM E/F FCMA8 E E/BM E/F FCMB8 E E/BM E/F FCMA9 BM E/BM FCMB9 BM E/BM E/F FCMA10 BM E/BM FCMB10 E E/BM E/F Total speakers 10 2 9 20 13
FCMA- Malay spouse, FCMB- Filipino spouse
Table 5.1 shows that all Filipino-Malay couples (20) prefer a mixed code of English and
Bahasa Malaysia where English serves as the dominant language. Ten (10) spouses (7
112 Malays and 3 Filipinos) prefer Bahasa Malaysia, 13 spouses (3 Malays and 10 Filipinos) prefer English and Filipino, 9 spouses (3 Malays and 6 Filipinos) prefer English and 2
Filipino spouses prefer Filipino.
The findings shown in Table 5.2 are clear that code switching from English to
Bahasa Malaysia is highly preferred by all Filipino-Malay couples. However, switching from English to Filipino is also common to Filipino spouses. In addition, the use of Bahasa
Malaysia at home is commonly used by the Malay husbands while English is preferred by the Filipino wives.
Comparing the pattern of language choice between Filipino-Malay and Filipino-
Malaysian Chinese couples, a different language choice pattern is found. The data are presented in Table 5.2 which shows the preferred language of Filipino-Malaysian Chinese couples.
113 Table 5.2 Patterns of Language Choice of Filipino-Malaysian Chinese Couples
Filipino- Chinese Bahasa Filipino English English English English Malaysian (Mandarin, Malaysia (Cebuano, (E) (dominant) (dominant) (dominant) Chinese Cantonese, (BM) Ilokano, and and and Couples Hakka, Ilongo, Chinese Bahasa Filipino Hokkien) Waray) (E/C) Malaysia (E/F) (C) (F) (E/BM)
FCCA1 C E E/BM FCCB1 F E E/BM E/F FCCA2 C E/C FCCB2 E E/C FCCA3 E E/BM FCCB3 E E/BM FCCA4 C E/C FCCB4 C E/C FCCA5 C E/C FCCB5 F E/C E/F FCCA6 E E/F FCCB6 E E/BM FCCA7 E E/BM FCCB7 E E/F FCCA8 E E/C E/F FCCB8 E E/C FCCA9 E E/BM FCCB9 E E/BM FCCA10 E E/C FCCB10 E E/C E/F Total speakers 5 0 2 15 10 8 6
FCCA- Malaysian Chinese spouse, FCCB- Filipino spouse
Table 5.2 shows that Filipino-Malaysian Chinese couples (15) spouses (7 Chinese and 8
Filipinos) choose English as the medium of communication at home, 10 spouses (5 Chinese
and 5 Filipinos) prefer English and Chinese, 8 spouses (4 Chinese and 4 Filipinos) prefers
English and Malay, 6 spouses (2 Chinese and 4 Filipinos) prefer English and Filipino, 5
spouses (4 Chinese and 1 Filipino) prefer Chinese and only 2 Filipino spouses prefer
Filipino.
114 The findings are clear that English is the preferred language by Filipino-Malaysian
Chinese couples. However, switching from English to Bahasa Malaysia and English to
Filipino is commonly used by the Filipino spouses. Similar findings are obtained with
Filipino-Malaysian Indian couples where English is the preferred language as the medium
of communication in the home domain. The data are shown in Table 5.3.
Table 5.3 Patterns of Language Choice of Filipino-Malaysian Indian Couples
Filipino- Tamil (T) Bahasa Filipino English English English English Malaysian Malaysia (Cebuano, (E) (dominant) (dominant) (dominant) Indian (BM) Ilokano, and Tamil and and Couples Ilongo, (E/T) Bahasa Filipino Waray) Malaysia (E/F) (F) (E/BM)
FCIA1 E FCIB1 E E/BM E/F FCIA2 E FCIB2 E E/BM E/F FCIA3 E E/BM E/F FCIB3 F E E/F FCIA4 T E E/T FCIB4 E E/BM E/F FCIA5 E E/BM FCIB5 E FCIA6 E FCIB6 F E E/BM FCIA7 E E/BM E/F FCIB7 E E/BM E/F FCIA8 E FCIB8 E FCIA9 T E E/T FCIB9 E FCIA10 E FCIB10 F E E/BM E/F Total speakers 2 0 3 20 2 8 8
FCIA- Malaysian Indian spouse, FCIB- Filipino spouse
115 Table 5.3 shows that all Filipino-Malaysian Indian couples (20) spouses (10 Indians and 10
Filipinos) prefer English as the medium of communication in the home domain. Two (2)
Indian spouses prefer English and Tamil, 8 spouses (2 Indians and 6 Filipinos) prefer
English and Bahasa Malaysia, 8 spouses (2 Indians and 6 Filipinos) prefer English and
Filipino, 2 spouses prefer Tamil and 3 spouses prefer Filipino.
Data shown in Tables 5.1, 5.2 and 5.3 reveal that Filipino-Malaysian couples regardless of their ethnic affiliation prefer a mixed code between English and Bahasa
Malaysia, English, and Chinese, English and Filipino with English as the dominant language. The data also shows that the first language such as Bahasa Malaysia, Chinese and
Filipino are still used by couples as embedded language.
5.3 Language Vitality of Filipino-Malay Couples’ First Language
This research examined the use of couples‟ first language at home. In the interviews conducted it is clear that couples‟ first language be it Bahasa Malaysia or Filipino is sometimes used in the home as embedded languages while English serves as the matrix language. In the interviews conducted with Filipino-Malay couples, the Malaysian husbands said:-
“FCMB: My first language is Bahasa Malaysia but at home we speak English most of the time. Although, we use also Malay often and Filipino (laugh) Bisaya.”
“FCMA: Sometimes I mix with Malay and my wife sometimes uses Tagalog.”
FCMB: Filipino spouse; FCMA: Malay spouse (See Appendix A)
116 Although English is the dominant language, couples frequently switch to Bahasa
Malaysia. However, Filipino is sometimes used at home. Switching from English to
Filipino is common because their Malay spouses can understand a bit of the language. The
Filipino wives sadi:-
“FCMB: I am forced to speak in Filipino (Bisaya).”
“FCMB: My husband does not speak Tagalog but he understands some words. When we talk sometimes I use Tagalog and he understands it.”
“FCMA: At home we mix English, Malay and Tagalog.”
“FCMB: I speak Tagalog to my husband because he understands.”
FCMB: Filipino spouse; FCMA: Malay spouse (See Appendix A)
Apparently, English is one of the languages that both Malays and Filipinos can converse in and understand each other. Filipino-Malay couples who have been married for a number of years have become more proficient in English and Malay languages. Therefore using
English or Bahasa Malaysia as the medium of communication at home becomes natural. In fact, using English at home is almost comparable to the use of Bahasa Malaysia (see Table
5.1). Four Filipino spouses said:-
“FCMB: I am better than my husband in speaking Malay”
“FCMB: I can speak Malay fluently now but of course I am more fluent in Cebuano.”
“FCMB: I speak Tagalog, Malay, English and Arabic.”
“FCMB: I speak Malay with my husband and children”
FCMB: Filipino spouse (See Appendix A)
117 A questionnaire was disseminated to examine the use of the first language of Filipino-
Malay couples at home.
Table 5.4 Language Choice and First language of Filipino-Malay Couples
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1. I am comfortable using my 12 0 0 0 0 3 5 first language in communicating (60%) (15%) (25%) with my spouse. 2. Using my first language 10 2 1 0 0 0 7 makes our conversation as (50%) (10%) (5%) (35%) husband and wife easier. 3. I feel that my first language 10 0 0 0 0 4 6 must be learned by my spouse to (50%) (20%) (30%) have better communication 4. Using my first language 10 1 0 1 0 5 3 facilitates better understanding to (50%) (5%) (5%) (25%) (15%) both of us. 5. Every time I use my first 11 1 0 2 0 2 4 language, a friendly atmosphere (55%) (5%) (10%) (10%) (20%) is created. 6. Using my first language helps 11 0 0 1 0 3 5 us discuss various topics about (55%) (5%) (15%) (25%) friends, family and work. 7. Using my first language 8 0 2 2 0 2 6 enhances my relationship with (40%) (10%) (10%) (10%) (30%) my spouse. 8. I feel that my first language is 9 3 1 1 0 2 4 more important than any other (45%) (15%) (5%) (5%) (10%) (20%) languages. 9. I encourage my family 8 3 1 1 0 2 5 members to use my first (40%) (15%) (5%) (5%) (10%) (25%) language at home. 10. Using my first language 6 3 3 1 0 3 4 makes my family closer. (30%) (15%) (15%) (5%) (15%) (20%) Total respondents
7- strongly agree, 6- agree, 5-moderately agree, 4-undecided, 3- moderately disagree, 2- disagree, 1- strongly disagree
Table 5.4 shows the reasons for the use of the first language of Filipino-Malay couples in the home domain. Sixty percent (60%) of Filipino-Malay couples strongly agree that they use their first language because it is comfortable to use when communicating with their spouse, 50% strongly agree that using the first language makes the conversation easier, it
118 must be learned by the spouse for better communication as it facilitates better understanding, 55% strongly agree that using the first language creates a friendly atmosphere and helps in discussing various topics, 45% strongly agree that their first language is more important than any other language and 40% strongly agree that using the first language enhances the couple‟s relationship and encourages the members of the family to use this language at home.
Filipino-Malay couples have a positive attitude towards their first languages;
Bahasa Malaysia for Malay spouses and Filipino for Filipino spouses. However in reality,
Bahasa Malaysia is frequently used at home and the Filipino language is rarely used.
Although they have a positive attitude towards their respective languages, the reality is that
Bahasa Malaysia dominates rather than Tagalog.
However, due to limited social functions of their first language like Filipino and
Bahasa Malaysia as compared to English, couples have shifted to English as their medium of communication at home. The use of the first language has become a secondary choice.
5.4 Language Loyalty and Hybrid Identity of Filipino Spouses
The findings reveal that Filipino-Malay couples maintain the use of their first language in
English and Bahasa Malaysia code switching. Despite the dominance of English, Bahasa
Malaysia is given importance. The importance given to Bahasa Malaysia is perhaps influenced due to the status of Bahasa Malaysia as the national language and its association with Islam. Non-Muslim Filipinos convert to Islam when they marry Malays and their names change too. Changing the religion and name and practicing other cultural norms related to Malay and Islamic culture contribute in the construction of a new or hybrid
119 identity of Filipino spouses. Frequent encounters by Filipino spouses with the Malay community have helped in developing their sense of belongingness with the Malay community. This is inevitable because Malay culture emphasizes solidarity and involvement (Zuraidah Mohd. Don, 2008: 24). Consequently, Filipino spouses tend to assimilate and develop loyalty towards Malay culture and Bahasa Malaysia. However, the mixing of two different cultures; Filipino and Malay cultures may result to a hybrid identity which is noted in the language that Filipino spouses speak. Creating a hybrid identity is evident when speakers mix two identities into one i.e mixing the Filipino and Malay identities. The findings are similar to the study of Le Page (1986) as cited in Coulmas
2003:182 that people create their linguistic choice (and we all have more than one) so as to resemble those of the groups with which from time to time they wish to identify. Both the groups, and their linguistic attributes, exist solely in the mind of each individual (Coulmas,
2003:182). We behave in the way that –unconsciously or consciously – we think appropriate to the group with which at the moment we wish to identify. This is evident in the interviews conducted when the Filipino spouses said:-
“FCMB: When people see me, they think I’m a Malay because I speak Bahasa Malaysia and I look like Malay”
“FCMB: Everytime I speak with my husband in Chinese, other people will identify me as a Chinese because I can speak fluently and I think I look like a bit of Chinese (Laugh).”
FCMB: Filipino spouse (See Appendix A)
120 English & BM*, English & Filipino, Filipino, English, BM
Filipino Malay spouse spouse
English & BM*, BM, English,
English & Filipino, Filipino
(*) Represents a dominant language
Figure 5.1 Cycle of Language Choice in Filipino-Malay Couples’ Interaction
Figure 5.1 shows the patterns of language choice of Filipino-Malay couples‟ communication in the home domain. Malay spouses prefer a mixed language between
English and Bahasa Malaysia (BM) which is dominant in most interactions. However,
Bahasa Malaysia, English and Filipino are also used. On the other hand, for Filipino spouses the use of English and BM is dominant. However, English, Filipino and BM are also used when communicating with their Malay spouses.
5.5 The Role of Filipino-Malaysian Chinese Couples’ First Language at Home
Both spouses, Filipino and Malaysian Chinese speak different first languages. Most
Chinese spouses speak different Chinese dialects such as Cantonese, Hokkien and Hakka but they all speak Mandarin. On the other hand, Filipino spouses speak Filipino and other
Philippine languages like Cebuano, Ilongo and Ilokano. These first languages spoken by the spouses seem to diminish in importance in the home domain. For Filipino-Malaysian
121 Chinese couples they use their first language but due to social and economic demands, the use of English dominates. However, Chinese language particularly Mandarin is given importance and it becomes the second most important language in the home domain after
English. As a result, couples tend to switch from English to Mandarin and in some cases
Filipino when it is necessary.
The role of the Chinese language is also essential at home not only between the couples but in interactions with the in-laws who stay with them. Because of this, Filipino spouses are motivated to learn Chinese language and eventually develop certain level of proficiency in Mandarin language.
5.5.1 In-laws’ Influence on Language Choice
Malaysian in-laws such as the parents-in-law, brothers-in-law and sisters-in-law influence the language choice of Filipino-Malay and Filipino-Malaysian Chinese couples at home.
The influence of family members in maintaining the use of the Chinese language and culture is evident due to strong family ties. Their values particularly the filial piety in
Malay and Chinese cultures give emphasis to natural sensitivity, caring love, sincere concern, and natural respect. These good values can be shown by maintaining language and culture.
The presence of the family members at home has influenced the language choice of
Filipino-Malaysian couples. Although the family members do not directly tell the couples to speak Malay or Chinese when they are around but it has become automatic that the
Malay or Chinese spouses tend to speak their mother tongue. The use of the first language establishes solidarity in interactions among family members. The presence of a Filipino
122 spouse, does not affect the language choice in interactions among the Malaysian family members. As a result, Filipino spouses commented that they felt excluded every time the
Malay, Chinese and Indian family members interact with each other in their own language.
In order to interact with the family members, Filipino spouses are forced to learn the language by talking with their Malaysian spouses respective languages like Malay and
Chinese.
In the interviews conducted with Filipino spouses married to Malaysian Chinese, they responded:-
“FCCB: I speak Chinese because my in-laws do not speak English”
“FCCB: Because my mother-in-law does not speak English, so we speak in Chinese”
FCCB: Filipino spouse (See Appendix A)
Filipino spouses try to speak Chinese with their Chinese spouses because they need to develop their language proficiency in Chinese so that they can talk to their in-laws. To some extent, Filipino spouses accommodated their Chinese spouses by learning the language so that they can interact with their in-laws. One spouse said “I speak Chinese because my in-laws do not speak English.” which can be interpreted that the language choice of Filipino-Chinese couples can be influenced not only by the spouse but also the family members.
Filipino spouses learned the language of her husband and used it because as they say, “We have no choice, I think for him he prefers to speak Mandarin” and “I need to
123 learn Chinese so I can talk to my in-laws.” This means that they have accommodated their husbands.
A survey questionnaire was disseminated to examine the reasons for language choice of Filipino-Malaysian Chinese couples at home.
Table 5.5 Language Choice and First language of Filipino-Malaysian Chinese Couples
7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1. I am comfortable using my first 0 0 2 0 0 6 12 language in communicating with my (10%) (30%) (60%) spouse. 2. Using my first language makes 1 0 1 0 0 6 12 our conversation as husband and (5%) (5%) (30%) (60%) wife easier. 3. I feel that my first language must 2 1 0 0 0 5 4 be learned by my spouse to have (10%) (5%) (25%) (20%) better communication 4. Using my first language 2 1 0 0 0 5 12 facilitates better understanding to (10%) (5%) (25%) (60%) both of us. 5. Every time I use my first 1 2 0 0 0 6 11 language, a friendly atmosphere is (5%) (10%) (30%) (55%) created. 6. Using my first language helps us 1 3 0 0 0 6 10 discuss various topics about friends, (5%) (15%) (30%) (50%) family and work. 7. Using my first language enhances 1 1 0 0 0 4 14 my relationship with my spouse. (5%) (5%) (20%) (70%) 8. I feel that my first language is 1 0 0 0 0 1 18 more important than any other (5%) (5%) (90%) languages. 9. I encourage my family members 3 11 0 0 0 2 4 to use my first language at home. (15%) (55%) (10%) (20%) 10. Using my first language makes 5 0 0 0 0 3 12 my family closer. (25%) (15%) (60%) Total respondents
7- strongly agree, 6- agree, 5-moderately agree, 4-undecided, 3- moderately disagree, 2- disagree, 1- strongly disagree
Table 5.5 shows the language choice of Filipino-Malaysian Chinese couples. The findings show that the first language of both husband and wife is least preferred as the medium of communication at home. Ninety percent (90%) of Filipino-Malaysian Chinese couples
124 strongly disagree that their first language is more important than any other languages, 70% strongly disagree that using the first language enhances relationship and 60% strongly disagree that their first language gives comfort in communication, makes the conversation easier, facilitates better understanding and makes the family closer. Fifty five percent
(55%) of Filipino-Malaysian Chinese couples strongly disagree and 30% disagree that using the first language creates a friendly atmosphere and 50% strongly disagree and 30% disagree that using the first language helps in discussing various topics.
Using the first language particularly the Filipino language is not highly favored by
Filipino-Malaysian couples because of the limited functions in various domains of communication in Malaysia. However, Chinese language is used when Chinese family members are at home. In addition when Chinese and Filipino languages are used in some interactions they are usually seen in code switching from English to Chinese, Bahasa
Malaysia and Filipino as shown in Conversation 5.1.
Conversation 5.1
W- Filipino wife H-Malaysian Chinese husband
W- Yeah, kaya nga group nila(their group can do it). Sila yung smallest group sila pa ang nag first (they are the smallest group yet they rank first). Three lang yung team nila (they have only three teams) Yellow, Red, Blue H- Mei Mei knows the game lah. W- Oo, alam nya yung game. Alam nya (she knows the game. She knows) H- [First siya] (she is the first) W-Hindi, yung group nila (No, their group). H- Do you think she can follow? W- Oo, syimpre (yes, of course) she can follow the game
125 Engl ish*, English & Filipino, Filipino, English & BM, Chinese
Filipino Malaysian spouse Chinese spouse
English*, Chinese, English & Chinese, English & Filipino, BM, Filipino
(*) Represents a dominant language
Figure 5.2 Cycle of Language Choice in Filipino-Chinese Couples’ Interaction
Figure 5.2 shows the patterns of language choice of Filipino-Malaysian Chinese couples‟ communication at home. Malaysian Chinese spouses choose English with some switching in Chinese, sometimes Bahasa Malaysia and Filipino. On the other hand, Filipino spouses choose English and sometimes switch to Filipino, Bahasa Malaysia and Chinese.
5.4 First Language and Language Choice of Filipino-Malaysian Indian Couples
The interviews conducted with Filipino-Malaysian Indian couples show that 8 Malaysian
Indian spouses consider English as their first language and was the language spoken at home when they were young. The Indians can also speak Bahasa Malaysia because it is a required subject and it is also the medium of instruction in the national primary and secondary schools and all Malaysian students regardless of the race must learn Malay as a subject in vernacular school and as a medium of instruction in national secondary schools.
Apart from their exposure to Bahasa Malaysia they also learn English in school as a subject. In an interview conducted with Filipino-Malaysian Indian couples they said:-
126 “FCIA: We speak English most of the time, we simply talk in English”
“FCIB: English lang, pag nag Tagalog ako I translate ko in English” (English only, if I speak in Tagalog I translate it in English)
“FCIB: English kasi from the start English talaga ang first language namin” (English because from the start English was really our first language)
“FCIB: English, as in pure English, we do not mix but sometimes I make some jokes in Filipino”
“FCIA: English because at home that’s what we speak often”
FCIA: Malaysian Indian spouse; FCIB: Filipino spouse (See Appendix A)
Based on the couples‟ answers, it is clear that English is the language used by Filipino-
Malaysian Indian couples at home. Saying “we speak English most of the time, we simply speak English” indicates that couples have a strong preference for English. It has become the dominant language in interactions in the home. However, like the others (Chinese and
Malays), code switching is common. One participant mentioned “English only, if I speak in
Tagalog I translate in English” and another participant said “sometimes I make some jokes in English” and “English because that’s what we speak often”.
The result of the questionnaire is shown in Table 5.6.
127 Table 5.6 Language Choice and First language of Filipino-Malaysian Indian Couples
7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1. I am comfortable using my first 5 0 1 0 0 6 8 language in communicating with (25%) (5%) (30%) (40%) my spouse. 2. Using my first language makes 2 0 0 0 0 7 11 our conversation as husband and (10%) (35%) (55%) wife easier. 3. I feel that my first language must 1 1 1 0 1 4 12 be learned by my spouse to have (5%) (5%) (5%) (5%) (20%) (60%) better communication 4. Using my first language 4 2 0 0 0 6 8 facilitates better understanding to (20%) (10%) (30%) (40%) both of us. 5. Every time I use my first 4 2 0 0 0 7 7 language, a friendly atmosphere is (20%) (10%) (35%) (35%) created. 6. Using my first language helps us 2 2 0 0 0 5 11 discuss various topics about (10%) (10%) (25%) (55%) friends, family and work. 7. Using my first language 4 0 0 0 0 4 12 enhances my relationship with my (20%) (20%) (60%) spouse. 8. I feel that my first language is 5 0 0 0 0 5 10 more important than any other (25%) (25%) (50%) languages. 9. I encourage my family members 5 1 0 0 0 7 7 to use my first language at home. (5%) (5%) (35%) (35%) 10. Using my first language makes 3 1 0 0 0 6 10 my family closer. (15%) (5%) (30%) (50%) Total respondents
7- strongly agree, 6- agree, 5-moderately agree, 4-undecided, 3- moderately disagree, 2- disagree, 1- strongly disagree
The data reveal that 40% of the participants strongly disagree and 30% disagree that using the first language is more comfortable when talking with their spouse, 55% strongly disagree and 35% disagree that the use of their first language makes the conversation easy,
60% strongly disagree and 20% disagree feel that each spouse must learn each others language, 40% strongly disagree and 30% disagree that using their first language facilitates better understanding and 55% strongly disagree and 25% disagree that their first language helps to discuss various topics.
128 The findings show that the first language of Filipino-Malaysian Indian couples is not given priority as the medium of communication at home. Consequently, Tamil or
Filipino languages are seldom used at home. It can be interpreted that Filipino-Malaysian
Indian couples might have not seen the necessity of these two languages in many domains of communication in Malaysia since they have limited social functions unlike English,
Bahasa Malaysia and Mandarin which are widely used in various domains of communication.
At present, the choice of the first language or mother tongue in a globalized society has been compromised in favor of English, the world‟s dominant language. People believe that they can improve themselves economically and academically through their knowledge of English. As a result, the use of English rather than the mother tongue has gained much popularity.
English*, English & Filipino, English & BM, Filipino
Filipino Malaysian
spouse Indian spouse
English*, English & BM, English & Filipino, English & Tamil, Tamil
(*) Represents a dominant language
Figure 5.3 Cycle of Language Choice in Filipino-Indian Couples’ Interaction
129 Figure 5.3 shows the patterns of language choice of Filipino-Malaysian Indian couples‟ communication in the home domain. Malaysian Indian spouses choose English which serves as the dominant language in most interactions. However, switching from English to
BM, Filipino and Tamil appears to be common. On the other hand, Filipino spouses choose
English and sometimes code switch from English to Filipino and Bahasa Malaysia.
5.7 The Role of Bahasa Malaysia in Filipino-Malaysian Families
It cannot be denied that the national language influences the language choice of the participants. Filipino-Malaysian couples are encouraged and motivated to use Bahasa
Malaysia because of its various functions in different domains of communication.
Filipino-Malay couples show positive attitude towards Bahasa Malaysia. The positive attitude is perhaps influenced by the status of Bahasa Malaysia as the national language of Malaysia. Bahasa Malaysia serves as an identity marker for the Malays for it represents their ethnic and cultural identity. It has been inculcated in their minds that all
Malays must be able to speak Bahasa Malaysia.
Malay spouses maintain loyalty to Bahasa Malaysia. Using the language at home might be a way of encouraging and motivating the Filipino spouses to speak Malay. The motivation and encouragement for Filipino spouses do not come from the husband alone but also from the in-laws particularly the parents-in-law. Filipino spouses have no choice but to speak Bahasa Malaysia because it is the only way for them to communicate with their non-English speaking elderly, Malay spouses‟ family members and friends.
130 In contrast, the Chinese spouses do not encourage and motivate their Filipino spouses to learn Chinese. However, Filipino spouses learn Chinese because of the in-laws who do not speak English. In contrast, Indian spouses do not encourage their Filipino spouses to speak Tamil because they themselves do not speak Tamil.
Filipino spouses would like to use Filipino at home but their Malaysian spouses show no interest in learning Filipino language. As a result, Filipino spouses use English at home and code switch between English and Malay or Chinese depending on the ethnicity of the spouse.
For Filipino-Malay couples, the use of Bahasa Malaysia helps them to build stronger ties with the Malay communities. In the interviews conducted Filipino-Malay couples mentioned:-
“FCMB: We use only Bahasa Malaysia at home”
“FCMB: My husband and I speak only Bahasa Malaysia“
“FCMA: We speak in Bahasa Malaysia but if I cannot express myself I speak in English”
“FCMB: We speak Bahasa Malaysia because most of our neighbors are Malays”
FCMA: Malay spouse; FCMB: Filipino spouse (See Appendix A)
The use of Bahasa Malaysia is common among Filipino-Malay couples. Although seven out of ten Filipino-Malay couples prefer English as the medium of communication at home,
Bahasa Malaysia is also frequently spoken. Only two of the 10 spouses said “We use only
Bahasa Malaysia at home” and “My husband and I speak only Bahasa Malaysia.” These
131 two had been married for more than 20 years. As a result, the long-term married Filipino spouse has assimilated the Malay culture.
The use of Bahasa Malaysia at home is usually initiated by the Malay spouse in order to encourage the Filipino spouse to use the language. The encouragement made by the Malay spouse is perhaps motivated by his or her language loyalty towards Bahasa
Malaysia and with the aim to transmit the language to all family members. In the interviews conducted, the Malay spouses said:-
“FCMA: I speak Malay with her (Filipino wife) so she will learn”
“FCMA: We talk in Malay so that she can improve her Bahasa Malaysia”
FCMA: Malay spouse (See Appendix A)
A survey questionnaire was disseminated to find out the couples‟ language preference of Bahasa Malaysia.
132 Table 5.7 Bahasa Malaysia and Language Choice of Filipino-Malay Couples
7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1. I am comfortable using Bahasa 12 3 0 2 0 1 2 Malaysia in communicating with (60%) (15%) (10%) (5%) (10%) my spouse. 2. Using Bahasa Malaysia makes 12 5 0 0 0 2 1 our conversation as husband and (60%) (25%) (10%) (5%) wife easier. 3. I feel that Bahasa Malaysia must 12 4 0 1 0 1 2 be learned by my spouse to have (60%) (20%) (5%) (5%) (10%) better communication 4. Using Bahasa Malaysia 10 7 0 0 0 3 0 facilitates better understanding to (50%) (35%) (15%) both of us. 5. Every time I use Bahasa 10 8 0 0 0 1 1 Malaysia, a friendly atmosphere is (50%) (40%) (5%) (5%) created. 6. Using Bahasa Malaysia helps us 13 4 0 0 1 2 0 discuss various topics about (65%) (20%) (5% (10%) friends, family and work. ) 7. Using Bahasa Malaysia enhances 12 5 0 1 0 1 1 my relationship with my spouse. (60%) (25%) (5%) (5%) (5%) 8. I feel Bahasa Malaysia is more 10 6 1 1 0 2 0 important than any other languages. (50%) (30%) (5%) (5%) (10%) 9. I encourage my family members 12 4 1 1 1 0 1 to use Bahasa Malaysia at home. (60%) (20%) (5%) (5%) (5% (5%) ) 10. Using Bahasa Malaysia makes 13 3 1 1 0 2 0 my family closer. (65%) (15%) (5%) (5%) (10%)
Total respondents
1- strongly agree, 2- agree, 3-moderately agree, 4-undecided, 5- moderately disagree, 6- disagree, 7- strongly disagree
Table 5.7 shows the language choice of Filipino-Malay couples of Bahasa Malaysia as the medium of communication at home. It shows that 65% of the Filipino-Malay couples strongly agree that using Bahasa Malaysia at home helps them to discuss various topics and makes their family closer and 60% strongly agree that using Bahasa Malaysia can be more effective when communicating with their spouse, and enhances couples‟ relationship.
Consequently, 60% strongly agree that Bahasa Malaysia must be learned by the Filipino spouse and must be learned by the children. It also shows that 50% of the participants
133 strongly agree that the use of Bahasa Malaysia facilitates better understanding and creates a friendly atmosphere.
Bahasa Malaysia has been used as the medium of communication at home by
Filipino-Malay couples because their proficiency in Malay will eventually help them to find jobs particularly in government offices. Bahasa Malaysia brings economic benefits to couples. On top of that, the choice of Bahasa Malaysia is influenced by the ethnic loyalty of the Malay spouses.
Similarly, Filipino-Malaysian Chinese couples consider Bahasa Malaysia as an important language in Malaysia because it is the national language. Malaysian Chinese believe that Bahasa Malaysia is useful in local contexts specifically in business, education, employment and in other domains of communication. Bahasa Malaysia has a wide range of functions. Due to the role of Bahasa Malaysia as the national language in Malaysia,
Filipino-Malaysian Chinese couples‟ code switched often from English to Bahasa Malaysia at home.
Switching to Bahasa Malaysia in English dominated interactions is prevalent in
Filipino-Malaysian Chinese families. As a result both spouses can converse in Bahasa
Malaysia to a certain level of proficiency. However, English is the dominant language.
The findings show that Filipino spouses learn Bahasa Malaysia by watching local movies and TV shows. They also learn through their social networks who speak Malay. In the interviews conducted with Filipino-Malaysian Chinese participants, they said:-
134 “FCCB: As far as language is concerned English is dominant but we also mix it with Bahasa Malaysia”
“FCCA: We use Bahasa Malaysia because it is also useful in dealing with the government and other locals”
“FCCB: We speak Hokkien but we also speak Bahasa Malaysia at home”
FCCA: Malaysian Chinese spouse; FCCB: Filipino spouse (See Appendix A)
The interviews reveal that Bahasa Malaysia is sometimes spoken in English dominant utterances by Filipino-Malaysian Chinese couples. They believe that the use of Bahasa
Malaysia does help them in dealing with people who are working in government offices and with other local Malay friends. One spouse mentioned “We use Bahasa Malaysia because it is also useful in dealing with the government and other locals.” The use of
Bahasa Malaysia is not just symbolic but it is useful in some formal and informal domains of communication. For instance when Filipino spouses attend meetings in school or renew their visas.
The importance of Bahasa Malaysia for Filipino-Malaysian Chinese couples cannot be generalized to indicate a form of language loyalty but it shows their positive attitude towards the language.
A survey was conducted to find out more the attitude towards language of Filipino-
Malaysian Chinese couples (see Table 5.6).
135 Table 5.8 Importance of Bahasa Malaysia in Filipino-Malaysian Chinese Couples’ Interaction
7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1. I am comfortable using 2 1 0 0 0 7 10 Bahasa Malaysia in (10%) (5%) (35%) (50%) communicating with my spouse. 2. Using Bahasa Malaysia makes 2 0 0 0 0 6 12 our conversation as husband and (10%) (30%) (60%) wife easier. 3. I feel that Bahasa Malaysia 2 2 0 0 0 6 10 must be learned by my spouse to (10%) (10%) (30%) (50%) have better communication 4. Using Bahasa Malaysia 2 0 0 0 0 6 12 facilitates better understanding (10%) (30%) (60%) to both of us. 5. Every time I use Bahasa 2 0 0 0 0 6 12 Malaysia, a friendly atmosphere (10%) (30%) (60%) is created. 6. Using Bahasa Malaysia helps 2 0 0 0 0 6 12 us discuss various topics about (10%) (30%) (60%) friends, family and work. 7. Using Bahasa Malaysia 2 0 0 0 0 6 12 enhances my relationship with (10%) (30%) (60%) my spouse. 8. I feel that Bahasa Malaysia is 0 0 0 0 0 6 14 more important than any other (30%) (70%) languages. 9. I encourage my family 0 0 0 0 0 6 14 members to use Bahasa (30%) (70%) Malaysia at home. 10. Using Bahasa Malaysia 3 0 0 0 0 6 11 makes my family closer. (15%) (30%) (55%)
Total respondents
1- strongly agree, 2- agree, 3-moderately agree, 4-undecided, 5- moderately disagree, 6- disagree, 7- strongly disagree
Despite what was said in the interviews, the data from the questionnaire show that Filipino-
Malaysian Chinese couples do not use much Bahasa Malaysia at home. It reveals that 70% of the participants strongly disagree that Bahasa Malaysia is more important than the other languages and 60% strongly disagree that Bahasa Malaysia makes the couples‟ communication easy, facilitates better understanding, creates friendly atmosphere, helps to discuss various topics, and enhances the couples‟ relationship. Furthermore 55% of the participants strongly disagree and 30% disagree that the use of Bahasa Malaysia makes the
136 family closer and 50% strongly disagree that using Bahasa Malaysia makes the conversation comfortable and must be learned by other spouses.
The result shows that couples do not use much of Bahasa Malaysia. Most often
Chinese families use Chinese dialects as the language used at home. Chinese speakers in
Malaysia prefer their mother tongues such as Hokkien, Cantonese, Hakka, Teochew and
Hainnese as the medium of communication in the home domain (see Kuang 2006).
Like the Malay-Filipino couples, the use of Bahasa Malaysia is also common among Filipino-Malaysian Indian couples. Aside from English, Bahasa Malaysia is also widely spoken or mixed with other languages because the couples are proficient in Bahasa
Malaysia.
In the interviews conducted, some Filipino-Malaysian Indian couples said:-
“FCIB: Depende sa sitwasyon pagkailangan mag Malay mag Malay ko” (It depends on the situation if I need to speak in Bahasa Malaysia, I speak Bahasa Malaysia)
“FCIB: English tapos gagmay nga Bahasa Malaysia” (English with a bit of Bahasa Malaysia)
“FCIB: I speak Malay, English, and Tagalog, at home”
FCIB: Filipino spouse (See Appendix A)
English is widely spoken by Filipino-Malaysian Indian families however Bahasa Malaysia is also used in English dominant utterances. Although English plays an important role, code switching from English to Bahasa Malaysia and Filipino has become a common feature in
137 interactions. A survey was conducted with Filipino-Malaysian Indian couples to determine the role of Bahasa Malaysia in interactions in the home domain.
Table 5.9 Role of Bahasa Malaysia in Filipino-Malaysian Indian Couples’ Interactions
7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1. I am comfortable using Bahasa 4 0 0 0 2 8 6 Malaysia in communicating with (20%) (10%) (40%) (30%) my spouse. 2. Using Bahasa Malaysia makes 2 0 0 0 3 10 5 our conversation as husband and (10%) (15%) (50%) (25%) wife easier. 3. I feel that Bahasa Malaysia 2 2 0 0 1 8 7 must be learned by my spouse to (10%) (10%) (5%) (40%) (35%) have better communication 4. Using Bahasa Malaysia 2 1 0 1 1 6 9 facilitates better understanding to (10%) (15%) (15%) (5%) (30%) (45%) both of us.
5. Everytime I use Bahasa 0 0 0 0 3 8 9 Malaysia, a friendly atmosphere is (15%) (40%) (45%) created. 6. Using Bahasa Malaysia helps 0 0 0 0 3 7 10 us discuss various topics about (15%) (35%) (50%) friends, family and work. 7. Using Bahasa Malaysia 2 0 0 0 3 5 10 enhances my relationship with my (10%) (15%) (25%) (50%) spouse. 8. I feel that my national language 2 0 0 0 3 6 9 Bahasa Malaysia is more (10%) (15%) (30%) (45%) important than any other languages. 9. I encourage my family 3 1 0 0 2 6 8 members to use Bahasa Malaysia (15%) (15%) (10%) (30%) (40%) at home. 10. Using Bahasa Malaysia makes 0 0 1 0 3 7 9 my family closer. (15 (15%) (35%) (45%) %) Total respondents
1- strongly agree, 2- agree, 3-moderately agree, 4-undecided, 5- moderately disagree, 6- disagree, 7- strongly disagree
Table 5.9 shows the role of Bahasa Malaysia in Filipino-Malaysian Indian couples‟ interactions at home. It shows that couples prefer English as the medium of communication despite the important role of Bahasa Malaysia as the national language in
Malaysia. It reveals that 50% strongly disagree and 25% disagree that the use of Bahasa
138 Malaysia enhances their role relationship as husband and wife, 50% strongly disagree and
35% disagree that using Bahasa Malaysia helps to discuss various topics, 45% strongly disagree and 40% disagree that the use of Bahasa Malaysia creates a friendly atmosphere,
45% strongly disagree and 35% disagree the use of national language makes the family closer and 45% strongly disagree and 35% disagree that Bahasa Malaysia facilitates better understanding and it is more important than the other languages.
The findings of the study reveal that the use of English in Filipino-Malaysian Indian couples‟ interaction at home is prevalent although the use of Bahasa Malaysia through code switching also occurs.
5.8 The Influence of English in Interracial Couples’ Language Choice
Of all languages spoken by Filipino-Malaysian couples, English is highly preferred as the medium of communication at home because of its social and economic benefits. Apart from being an international language, English has become the language in business, knowledge, and education (see Dumanig, 2007). English has motivated the Filipino-
Malaysian couples as the medium of communication at home because it is the language in business and education. However, due to different linguistic backgrounds of couples, their extended family and friends, other languages are also used in English dominant code switching.
In the interviews conducted, all participants regardless of ethnicity believe that the use of Bahasa Malaysia is important in Malay families. However, they also value the importance of English not only in terms of economic and social benefits but they are concerned about their children‟s English language proficiency. Consequently, couples
139 communicate in English so that their children will follow and speak English at home. The couples have become the “referee” who speak English with the intention to teach their children. The term “referee” refers to the interlocutors who use a language that is intended to another person who is not actually involved in the conversation (see Yau, 1997).
In the interviews conducted some couples said:-
“FCMB: We speak in English because it is easy to understand”
”FCCB: We communicate in English even when we are angry”
“FCIB: Most of the time we speak in English even with my parents’-in- law”
FCMB, FCCB, FCIB: Filipino spouses (See Appendix A)
A survey was conducted to find out how Filipino-Malaysian couples give importance to English at home.
140 Table 5.10 English and Language Choice in Interracial Couples’ Interaction
7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1. I am comfortable using English 13 2 0 0 3 0 2 in communicating with my spouse. (65%) (10%) (15%) (10%) 2. Using English makes our 12 4 0 0 1 0 3 conversation as husband and wife (60%) (20%) (5%) (15%) easier. 3. I feel that English must be 12 4 0 1 0 1 2 learned by my spouse to have better (60%) (20%) (5%) (5%) (10%) communication 4. Using English facilitates better 12 5 1 0 2 0 0 understanding to both of us. (60%) (25%) (5%) (20%) 5. Everytime I use English 10 7 1 0 0 2 0 language, a friendly atmosphere is (50%) (35%) (5%) (10%) created. 6. Using English language helps us 15 3 1 0 0 1 0 discuss various topics about (75%) (15%) (5%) (5%) friends, family and work. 7. Using English language 12 5 1 0 1 1 0 enhances my relationship with my (60%) (25%) (5%) (5%) (5%) spouse. 8. I feel that English language is 10 5 2 0 2 1 0 more important than any other (50%) (25%) (10%) (10%) (5%) languages. 9. I encourage my family members 12 5 1 1 1 0 0 to use English language at home. (60%) (25%) (5%) (5%) (5%) 10. Using English language makes 15 3 0 1 1 0 0 my family closer. (75%) (15%) (5%) (5%)
Total respondents
7- strongly agree, 6- agree, 5-moderately agree, 4-undecided, 3- moderately disagree, 2- disagree, 1- strongly disagree
Table 5.10 shows the choice of English as the medium of communication between Filipino-
Malay couples at home. The data show that 75% of Filipino-Malay couples strongly agree that the use of English language at home helps them to discuss various topics and makes the family closer and 65% strongly agree that they feel comfortable when English is used as the medium of communication at home. It also shows that 60% of Filipino-Malaysian couples strongly agree that English makes their conversation easy, provides better communication, facilitates better understanding, enhances couples‟ relationship and encourages the family members to use the language.
141 Filipino-Malay couples have favorable attitude towards English. Although most of them value Bahasa Malaysia, they prioritize English because it provides them better economic and social advantage. English in the global world serves as the language for economic, social and political reasons. The prevalent use of English among Filipino-
Malaysian Chinese couples has continually existed because all Malaysian Chinese participants were educated in English medium schools and others further their university education in English speaking countries like the United Kingdom (UK), United States of
America (USA), Australia, and New Zealand. Consequently, the Malaysian Chinese participants are proficient in English rather than Bahasa Malaysia. Similarly, English is not a problem for Filipino spouses because in the Philippines English is considered as an official language. English is taught in the Philippines at all levels from primary to tertiary education and it is widely used in the media. As a result, Filipino-Malaysian Chinese couples choose English as the medium of communication at home however switching to other languages like Chinese, Bahasa Malaysia, and Filipino is widespread.
In the interviews conducted, Filipino-Malaysian Chinese couples said:-
“FCCA: We speak most of the time in English but we sometimes mix in Filipino and Chinese”
“FCCB: I speak English but sometimes I speak with her in Mandarin or Filipino”
“FCCA: Because we can communicate to all, I mean anywhere, so as for me I prefer English. It’s useful and convenient”
FCCA: Malaysian Chinese spouse; FCCB: Filipino spouse (See Appendix A)
The use of English provides the Filipino-Malaysian Chinese couples more access and connections inside and outside the house. This means that through English they are able to
142 expand their social network. Since English has wider social functions compared to other languages, speakers of English have better opportunities to expand their social network.
One spouse mentioned “Because we can communicate to all, I mean anywhere, so as for me I prefer English. It’s useful and convenient.” It shows that Filipino-Malaysian Chinese couples value English because it is widely spoken. The emphasis is focused on the usefulness and convenience of using English.
To examine further the extent of use of English by Filipino-Malaysian Chinese couples, a survey was conducted.
Table 5.11 Role of English in Filipino-Malaysian Chinese Couples’ Interaction
7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1. I am comfortable using English 10 5 0 5 0 0 0 in communicating with my (50%) (25%) (25%) spouse. 2. Using English makes our 8 5 2 5 0 0 0 conversation as husband and wife (40%) (25%) (10%) (25%) easier. 3. I feel that English must be 5 6 6 3 0 0 0 learned by my spouse to have (25%) (30%) (30%) (15%) better communication 4. Using English facilitates better 10 4 4 2 0 0 0 understanding to both of us. (50%) (20%) (20%) (10%) 5. Everytime I use English, a 5 10 2 3 0 0 0 friendly atmosphere is created. (25%) (50%) (10%) (15%) 6. Using English helps us discuss 9 5 5 1 0 0 0 various topics about friends, (45%) (25%) (25%) (5%) family and work. 7. Using English enhances my 5 10 2 3 0 0 0 relationship with my spouse. (25%) (50%) (10%) (15%) 8. I feel that English is more 10 10 0 0 0 0 0 important than any other (50%) (50%) languages. 9. I encourage my family 15 5 0 0 0 0 0 members to use English at home. (75%) (25%) 10. Using English makes my 5 0 0 0 3 5 7 family closer. (25%) (15%) (25%) (35 %) Total respondents
7- strongly agree, 6- agree, 5-moderately agree, 4-undecided, 3- moderately disagree, 2- disagree, 1- strongly disagree
143 Table 5.11 reveals that Filipino-Malaysian Chinese couples have strong preference for
English. It shows that 75% strongly agree and 25% agree that they encourage the family members to use English, 50% strongly agree and 50% agree that English is more important than any other languages, 50% strongly agree and 25% agree that couples feel comfortable in using English and 50% strongly agree and 20% agree that English facilitates better communication. Furthermore, it shows that 45% strongly agree and 25% agree and 25% moderately agree that using English helps couples to discuss various topics and 40% strongly agree and 25% agree and 10% moderately agree that English makes the conversation easy.
The findings reveal that Filipino-Malaysian Chinese couples consider English as an important language. It helps them to communicate comfortably with each other and it gives them the chance to discuss various topics and issues at home. Communication is essential when couples are not comfortable with the language they use, they might prefer not to talk with each other and this may result in miscommunication and misunderstanding.
The preference for English among Filipino-Malaysian Chinese couples can be considered a threat for ethnic languages spoken by both spouses because it can be expected that next generation might use English and eventually stop using the parents‟ first languages.
English as the medium of communication at home is also common among Filipino-
Malaysian Indian couples. English is the preferred language of Filipino-Malaysian Indian couples because most Malaysian Indians in the sample already speak English at home.
Although, Malaysian Indians participants are Tamil speakers, all of them were English
144 educated. In fact, English is the language that they used when communicating with the
Chinese and other ethnic groups in Malaysia. However, Bahasa Malaysia is sometimes used when communicating with the Malays and with people who do not speak English.
Filipino-Malaysian Indians give importance to the English language. Their preference of English is seen in the interviews conducted:-
“FCIA: We need to speak in English and at work I speak in English”
“FCIA: We speak English because it is easy to communicate”
“FCIB: I speak English because my husband speaks English all the time”
FCIA:Malaysian Indian spouse; FCIB:Filipino spouse (See Appendix A)
Using English at home perhaps can be considered natural for Filipino-Malaysian Indian couples. David (2006) found in her study of the Indians (Sindhi community) in Malaysia that most young generations have shifted and habitually use English in their discourse with their own generations. Therefore, the use of English among Filipino-Malaysian Indian couples is expected.
A survey was conducted among Filipino-Malaysian Indian couples on the language that they use at home. The data are presented below.
145 Table 5.12 Role of English in Filipino-Malaysian Indian Couples’ Interaction
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
1. I am comfortable using English in 12 6 0 0 2 0 0 communicating with my spouse. (60%) (30%) (10%) 2. Using English makes our 13 5 2 0 0 0 0 conversation as husband and wife (65%) (25%) (10 easier. %) 3. I feel that English must be learned 14 4 0 0 1 1 0 by my spouse to have better (70%) (20%) (5%) (5%) communication 4. Using English facilitates better 12 5 0 0 1 2 0 understanding to both of us. (60%) (25%) (5%) (10% ) 5. Everytime I use English, a friendly 15 2 0 0 0 3 0 atmosphere is created. (75%) (10%) (15% ) 6. Using English helps us discuss 12 8 0 0 0 0 0 various topics about friends, family (60%) (40%) and work. 7. Using English enhances my 13 4 0 0 0 3 0 relationship with my spouse. (65%) (20%) (15% ) 8. I feel that English is more important 12 8 0 0 0 0 0 than any other languages. (60%) (40%) 9. I encourage my family members to 13 7 0 0 0 0 0 use English at home. (65%) (35%) 10. Using English makes my family 12 4 0 0 0 4 0 closer. (60%) (20%) (20% ) Total respondents
7- strongly agree, 6- agree, 5-moderately agree, 4-undecided, 3- moderately disagree, 2- disagree, 1- strongly disagree
Table 5.12 shows the choice of English among Filipino-Malaysian Indian couples at home.
It shows that 75% strongly agree and 10% agree that the use of English creates a friendly atmosphere, 70% strongly agree and 20% agree that English results in better communication and 65% strongly agree that the use of English makes the couples conversation easy, enhances the couples‟ relationship and encourages the family members to use English at home. Furthermore, 60% of couples believe that using English in their interaction at home gives them comfort, facilitates better understanding, helps the discussion of various topics, makes the family closer and they feel that English is more important than any other language.
146 In short, there is a high percentage of use of English as the medium of communication at home among Filipino-Malaysian Indian couples. This seems to be related as to what David (2006) says for the Indians that English appears to be dominant because of the association of the language to economic and social mobility.
5.9 Language Choice in the Home Domain
Language is sometimes considered as less important than family issues that couples have to deal with at home. Most often couples focus their attention to language only when problems in communication arise.
The interviews, observation, and survey conducted reveal that 10 Filipino-
Malaysian couples think about the language that they use as the medium of communication at home while the rest of the participants did not really think of planning any language at all.
The data from the interviews show that Filipino-Malaysian couples consciously choose English as the language for communication at home. Below is a summary of the language choice of Filipino-Malay, Filipino-Malaysian Chinese, and Filipino-Malaysian
Indian couples.
Table 5.13 Language Choice of Filipino-Malaysian Couples
Filipino-Malay Filipino-Malaysian Filipino-Malaysian Couples Chinese Couples Indian Couples -English * -English * -English * -Bahasa Malaysia -Chinese (different dialects) -Bahasa Malaysia -Filipino -Bahasa Malaysia -Filipino -Filipino -Tamil * indicates a dominant language
147 Table 5.13 shows the language choice of Filipino-Malaysian couples. It reveals that
Filipino-Malay couples use three languages at home namely English, Bahasa Malaysia, and
Filipino. The three languages vary according to the frequency of use but English appears to be dominant than Bahasa Malaysia and Filipino (see Tables 5.1, 5.2 and 5.3). In most interactions, English serves as the matrix language with some switches in Bahasa Malaysia and Filipino.
Similarly, Filipino-Malaysian Chinese couples use English as the medium of communication at home with some switching in local Chinese dialects, Bahasa Malaysia, and Filipino. English is dominant at home while the Chinese dialects, Bahasa Malaysia, and Filipino are used only when necessary. For Filipino-Malaysian Indian couples English is also the preferred language as the medium of communication at home. Although English is frequently spoken at home but switching to Bahasa Malaysia and Filipino is common.
However, the ethnic language, Tamil is rarely used.
In interactions between Filipino and Malaysian couples, code switching from
English to Bahasa Malaysia, Chinese, Filipino, and Tamil is a common feature. However,
Tamil is rarely used because Indians have shifted away from Tamils (see Table 5.3); it is not understood by Filipino spouses. Tamil is used when older Indian in-laws and older family members who do know English are around.
Generally, Filipino-Malaysian couples choose English language at home with some switches in Bahasa Malaysia, Filipino, Chinese, and Tamil languages. Although Filipino and Malaysian spouses are non-native speakers of English they prefer English rather than their own language as the medium of communication at home. The choice of English in
148 interracial couples‟ interaction is understandable as the neutral language understood by both parties and it is perhaps influenced by the increasing use of English in Southeast Asian countries particularly in Singapore, The Philippines, Malaysia and Hongkong (see Asmah
Haji Omar, 1992). English in Malaysia plays a crucial role in different domains of communication and it has become a necessity. In fact, Bolton (2008) believes that English in Asia has become an identity marker and a means of gaining international competitive education and employment.
5.10 Conclusion
The preference of English over ethnic languages is prevalent among Filipino-Malaysian couples. Although they did not fully abandon their first language, the dominance of
English at home has started to displace their ethnic languages. In addition, the occurrence of code switching has also emerged to be the most preferred language variety apart from
English.
The couples‟ preference of English and code switching from English to Bahasa
Malaysia, Filipino, or Chinese has reflected the complexity of language choice in Filipino-
Malaysian couples‟ interactions. This complexity of language choice can be explained by examining the couples‟ reasons for choosing English and code switching from English to other languages which is discussed in the next chapter (Chapter Six).
149 CHAPTER SIX
REASONS FOR LANGUAGE CHOICE
6.1 Introduction
This chapter presents the reasons for language choice of Filipino-Malaysian couples. It examines and analyzes the views of the participants in the interviews to determine the couples‟ reasons for choosing one or more languages in their interactions in the home domain. The findings are analyzed to explore and describe the occurrence and reasons of language choice in interracial couples‟ interactions.
6.2 Reasons for Language Choice
The findings in Chapter 5 show that interracial couples choose English with some switching in Bahasa Malaysia, Chinese, and Filipino as the medium of communication in the home domain. Such use of English and code switching in interactions occurs for some reasons. The interviews conducted with Filipino-Malaysian couples reveal a number of reasons for choosing English and for switching from English to Bahasa Malaysia, Chinese and Filipino.
6.2.1 To Accommodate the Spouse and Other Family Members
Accommodation has become a common practice among Filipino-Malaysian couples in interactions. They tend to accommodate each other by choosing a language that they both understand. The interviews show that couples choose English as the medium of communication in order to accommodate their spouses. Some spouses said:-
150 “FCMA: English is understandable to both of us”
“FCCA: English is the only language that the two of us can understand”
“FCCB: We prefer English because my husband does not speak Filipino”
“FCIB: We prefer English because it is easy to understand and my husband does not understand Filipino”
“FCIB: I prefer English because my in-laws can understand it”
FCMA: Malay spouse; FCCA: Malaysian Chinese spouse; FCCB, FCIB: Filipino spouses (See Appendix A)
English is chosen as the medium of communication in the home domain because both husband and wife understand the language. English is easy to understand and it helps to provide a clear message. English which is not the first language of both spouses is used to accommodate others. English has become the choice because it is understood by both spouses and couples do not need to learn another language for them to communicate.
In addition, accommodation occurs when a spouse uses the language of his or her partner. Such accommodation is evident when Filipino spouses said “We prefer English because my husband does not speak Filipino” and “We prefer English because it is easy to understand and my husband does not understand Filipino.” Such responses show that
Filipino spouses accommodated their Malaysian spouses through the use of English as the medium of communication at home. Another Filipino spouse said “We prefer English because it is easy to understand and my husband does not understand Filipino.” It shows that using English for interracial couples is a form of accommodation.
151 Other couples are influenced by the language spoken by their in-laws. Couples who are staying with the in-laws tend to accommodate their in-laws. One spouse said “I prefer
English because my in-laws can understand it.” In-laws could be influential to their son-in- law or daughter-in-law‟s language choice.
In the interviews conducted, the participants said:-
“FCIB: Because my mother-in-law does not speak English so we sometimes use Chinese”
“FCMB: I talk to my in-laws in Bahasa Malaysia but most of the time I speak English”
“FCIB: Right now, my mother- in-law is with us. So most of the time when she is around, we speak English”
“FCMB: I was motivated to learn and speak Bahasa Malaysia because of my in- laws”
FCIB, FCMB: Filipino spouses (See Appendix A)
Filipino-Malaysian couples switch from English to Bahasa Malaysia, Filipino, and Chinese to accommodate each other. Filipino spouses may use Bahasa Malaysia or Chinese because their in-laws do not speak English. As a result, couples end up using different languages.
A Filipino spouse who married a Malaysian Chinese said “Because my mother-in-law does not speak English so we sometimes use Chinese.”
Another Filipino spouse married to a Malay had a similar reason and said, “I was motivated to learn and speak Bahasa Malaysia because of my in-laws.” This shows that family including the in-laws is important and could have motivated Filipino spouses to learn their Malaysian spouses‟ languages with different interlocutors. Consequently, they
152 learn the language fast and eventually use it in their interactions with their Malaysian spouses. Some Filipino spouses said:-
“FCCB: I think my mother tongue becomes Hokkien (laugh)”
“FCMB: Yes, I can speak Malay fluently now”
“FCMB: I speak Malay and English. Pag di ko ma express in Malay, nag English ako. (If I can’t express in Malay, I use English)”
FCCB, FCMB: Filipino spouses (See Appendix A)
It can be said that one reason for Filipino-Malaysian couples‟ language choice is to accommodate their spouses and their in-laws.
6.2.2 To Maintain Language Loyalty
Speakers choose a language because they want to maintain their loyalty. The findings of the study show that English is the preferred language and dominates in interactions (see
Chapter 5.
The survey shows that spouses indicated that they sometimes use their first language when communicating in the home domain.
First language, 17
First language English Code switching Code switching, 73 English, 44
Figure 6.1 Language Choice of Couples
153 Figure 6.1 shows that 17 spouses choose their first language, 44 spouses choose English and 36 spouses choose to code switch between English and Bahasa Malaysia, 27 spouses prefer to code switch between English and Filipino and 10 spouses prefer to code switch between English and Chinese. The preference of the first language can perhaps be attributed to the spouses‟ loyalty to their mother tongue.
In the interviews conducted couples mentioned that aside from English they also use their first language at home. Below are some of the extracts taken from the interviews.
“FCMB: I choose the Filipino language because it is my mother tongue”
“FCIB: I prefer the Tagalog because I’m a Filipino and I feel more comfortable using it”
“FCMA: We prefer Bahasa Malaysia at home”
“FCMB: I and my husband speak Malay at home”
FCMA: Malay spouse; FCMB, FCIB: Filipino spouses (See Appendix A)
The interviews reveal that Filipino-Malaysian couples use other languages at home apart from English as medium of communication. Their preference of their first language when they switch is perhaps motivated by their language loyalty. Filipino spouses for example said “I choose the Filipino language because it is my mother tongue” and “I prefer
Tagalog because I’m a Filipino and I feel more comfortable using it.” The Filipino language is seen to be the most favored language by Filipino spouses. It is expected because the Filipino language serves as their identity marker. As a result, they develop loyalty towards the Filipino language.
154 In another interview conducted, language loyalty is expressed explicitly by a
Filipino wife:-
R- Researcher E (FCCB) - Filipino wife married to Malaysian Chinese
R: So proficient pa rin kayo sa Waray (So you are still proficient in Waray) E: Yes. R: Kahit na matagal na kayo dito? (Even if you have stayed here longer?) E: Yes, Waray is my past. Hindi pwede makalimutan yan. (It cannot be forgotten) R: Merong iba kasi pag nawala sila for a few years medyo (pause).(There are other people when they left their place for a few years, it seems). E: Yeah. Umalis ako ng Leyte mga 15 years. Mga 15 years nag spend ako ng Manila hanggang pumunta ako dito. (I left Leyte 15 years ago. I spent 15 years in Manila until I reached here) R: For fifteen years and how many years here? E: 16 years. R: So hindi nyo pa rin nakakalimutan? (So you haven’t forgotten your language) E: Hindi (no) R: Pero hindi na kau nagsasalita ng Waray dito?(But you don’t speak Waray here) E: Paminsan minsan sa pinsan ko at asawa. (Sometimes with my cousin and husband).
The interview extract provides a clearer illustration that language loyalty exists. For the
Filipino spouse in particular using her own language matters a lot. Although she has been away from her place she has not forgotten the language and she still uses it from time to time with her cousin and husband. Such use of the first language (Waray) indicates that the
Filipino spouse is loyal to her ethnic language.
In similar interviews conducted to Filipino-Malay couples they said:- “We prefer
Bahasa Malaysia at home” and “I and my husband speak Malay at home” which indicate the speakers‟ language loyalty to Bahasa Malaysia. Using Bahasa Malaysia as the medium of communication at home encourages the family members to use the same language. The
155 language loyalty of a speaker is evident when he or she puts priority on still uses his or her ethnic language.
6.2.3 To Show Emotions
Emotions may sometimes be revealed through words or actions. When emotion is expressed through words, the speaker‟s choice of word will manifest what he or she feels.
The interviews with Filipino-Malaysian couples show that Filipino spouses display their emotions through language choice. Some Filipino spouses said:-
“FCCB: If I’m mad I speak in Tagalog”
“FCMB: He will assume that if I speak in Tagalog I am already angry”
“FCIB: I use English to express my anger so my partner can understand”
“FCMB: We use English but if we argue to really express my feelings I use both English and Cebuano”
“FCCB: Pero pagnagalit ako nagmumura ako in Filipino pero naintindihan na ng asawa ko yun (But when I’m mad I curse in Filipino but my husband understands it)”
FCCB, FCIB, FCMB: Filipino spouses (See Appendix A)
The data show that some couples have different language preferences when expressing their emotions. Some prefer Tagalog to express their anger while others prefer English. In fact, in many instances a spouse starts switching from one language to another language during an argument and this signals his or her anger. This is evident with Filipino spouses as when they become angry they switch to Filipino to express their anger. A Filipino spouse
156 said, “If I’m mad I speak in Tagalog” and another spouse said “He will assume that if I speak in Tagalog I am already angry.”
6.2.4 To Speak Conveniently with the Spouse
One reason for language choice of Filipino-Malaysian couples is for convenience. Most multilingual speakers may choose the language they are proficient in because it would be more convenient for them to communicate.
In the interviews conducted, couples said that they prefer English as their medium of communication at home for convenience.
“FCCA: English is easy to communicate and easy to learn”
“FCCB: English is easy and it is tiring to learn new languages”
“FCIB: We choose English because it is the language that both of us speak”
“FCCB: We prefer English because at home that’s the language that we speak very often and my husband was educated in an English medium school”
FCCA: Malaysian Chinese spouse; FCCB, FCIB: Filipino spouses (See Appendix A)
The choice of English is highly preferred by Filipino-Malaysian couples because it is easy to communicate in a common language that they both know. Although English is not the first language of Filipino-Malaysian couples they chose English because it is the language that they both understand. English empowers the couples to express themselves freely. A spouse said “English is easy and it is tiring to learn new languages.” Couples may not be
157 eager to learn new languages and they would probably choose the language that they already know.
Another spouse said “English is easy to communicate and easy to learn.” From the perspective of second language speakers of English, learning English can be easy and simple. For instance, Filipino and Malaysian spouses are exposed to English language because English is included in their school curriculum. Using English becomes easy especially for those who were educated in an English medium school. A spouse mentioned that English has been their choice because her husband was educated in an English medium school. Another spouse also said “We prefer English because at home that’s the language that we speak very often and my husband was educated in an English medium school.”
6.2.5 To Expand the Speaker’s Social Network
Choosing a language can be of help in expanding a speaker‟s social network. Couples believe that their choice of a particular language as their medium of communication at home will help them later to expand their network. This is the reason why couples prefer
English because of its international status and use. When couples were asked their reasons for choosing English as their medium of communication at home, they said:-
“FCCA: We choose English because it is a universal language and there is no need for us to adjust each other.”
“FCMB: English is easy to use and it is the only language that we can use to speak with some of the locals”
“FCIB: English is an international language and it is used the language in business”
FCCA: Malaysian Chinese spouse; FCMB, FCIB Filipino spouses (See Appendix A)
158 This shows that couples choose English because of its international status. English is the language that is widely used and spoken in various parts of the world. The use of English might help the speakers to elevate their status in society. Since couples are familiar and proficient in English they have not encountered problems in communication. One participant said, “We choose English because it is a universal language and there is no need for us to adjust each other.”
The choice of English helps couples to develop their English language proficiency and eventually expand their social network locally and internationally. A spouse said
“English is easy to use and it is the only language that we can use to speak with some of the locals.” It can be said that couples‟ language choice is influenced by their intention to expand their social network. They choose the language not just for themselves to use but for them to interact with other people outside their homes particularly in the community they live in.
6.2.6 To Expose the Offspring to Various Languages
The preference for English, Bahasa Malaysia, Filipino and Chinese was also to expose their children to different languages. Although couples prefer English, they also use other languages like Bahasa Malaysia, Filipino, and Chinese. Such a choice was not just for themselves but for their children as well. In the interviews conducted, most couples said:-
159 “FCCB: We prefer English so that our children will learn English language”
“FCCA:We choose English but we also speak other languages because we encourage our children to speak in Tagalog”
“FCMA: I want my children to be fluent in English and also be able to communicate in Bahasa because these are as far as Malaysia is concerned these are the two languages that will bring them to where they should be.”
“FCCB: I’m trying to teach them (children and husband) with my mother tongue. My first language is Ilokano but I’ve never forgotten that and I’m proud of my mother tongue.”
FCCA: Malaysian Chinese spouse; FCMA: Malay spouse; FCCB: Filipino spouse (See Appendix A)
Couples choose a particular language to teach their children with the English language. For instance, the use of English at home serves as an avenue for children to learn English.
When spouses communicate in English their children imitate them. Another couple said
“We prefer English so that our children will learn English language.”
The choice is not only limited to English as couples switch from one language to another. Switching from one language to another is also motivated by the aim of exposing children to other languages. The use of the Filipino language encourages children to learn
Filipino. Other couples switch from English to Filipino for the purpose of showing to the children the importance of learning the Filipino language. A spouse mentioned “We choose English but we also speak other languages because we encourage our children to speak in Tagalog.”
160 6.3 Summary of Reasons for Language Choice
From the interviews and survey conducted, the reasons for language choice of Filipino-
Malaysian couples can be summarized as follows.
Table 6.1 Summary of Reasons for Filipino-Malaysian Couples’ Language Choice
1. To accommodate the spouse and other family members; 2. To maintain language loyalty; 3. To express emotions; 4. To speak conveniently with the spouse; 5. To expand the speakers‟ social network; 6. To expose the offspring to various languages.
Table 6.2 provides a summary of the reasons for Filipino-Malaysian couples‟ language choice. This shows that couples choose a language for various reasons.
6.4 Conclusion
The chapter provides a detailed discussion and analysis on the reasons for Filipino-
Malaysian couples‟ language choice. The findings reveal that couples‟ language preference is influenced by their communicative intent. Couples are motivated to choose a language that benefits them and their children. Generally, Filipino-Malaysian couples choose different languages to accommodate, to maintain language loyalty, to show emotions, to expand the speakers‟ social network and to expose their offspring in different languages.
Accommodating other speakers has been a common reason for couples‟ language choice. Couples may accommodate their spouses by employing certain strategies. These accommodation strategies are discussed in Chapter Seven.
161 CHAPTER SEVEN
ACCOMMODATION STRATEGIES AND LANGUAGE CHOICE
7.1 Introduction
This chapter discusses the accommodation strategies used by Filipino-Malaysian couples in their communication in the home domain. This specifically examines the couples‟ use of accommodation strategies in relation to ethnicity and gender. Various types of accommodation strategies such as approximation, interpretability, discourse management, and interpersonal control are given emphasis to explain how Filipino-Malaysian couples accommodate each other in verbal communication (see Chapter 2, Section 2.2.1). The analysis is based on the data obtained from the interviews, recorded conversations, and the survey conducted.
7.2 Approximation Accommodation Strategies in Interracial Couples’ Interaction
Approximation accommodation strategies in interracial couples‟ interactions occur when couples converge or diverge linguistically by using the partner‟s language, adjusting the speech rate or style, or recognizing and appreciating the spouse‟s cultural background
(Harwood, Soliz & Lin, 2006 p.24). Approximation strategy is derived from the strategy in which accommodation takes place when interlocutors adjust their speech to show convergence or divergence in communication (See Chapter 2, Section 2.2.1).
7.2.1 Survey Results of Approximation Strategy
To understand the use of accommodation strategy, a survey (see Appendix C) was conducted to find out the extent of use of approximation strategies by Filipino-Malay,
162 Filipino-Malaysian Chinese and Filipino-Malaysian Indian couples in their interactions in the home domain. The data is obtained from the viewpoint of the participants.
Table 7.1 Approximation Strategy of Filipino-Malay Couples
Never Usually Often not Occasion Often (5) Usually Always Mean (1) not (2) (3) ally (4) (6) (7) 1. I am eager to learn my spouse‟s 1 1 3 0 0 0 15 5.85 language. (5%) (5%) (15%) (75%) 2. I adjust my speech style when I 2 0 1 0 0 4 13 6.00 talk with my spouse. (10%) (5%) (20%) (65%) 3. I adjust my speech rate in 3 0 2 0 1 2 12 5.50 talking with my spouse. (15%) (10%) (5%) (10%) (60%) 4. I feel comfortable using my 8 0 2 0 0 0 10 4.20 spouse‟s language. (40%) (10%) (50%) 5. I use my spouse‟s language as 13 0 0 2 0 0 5 2.80 recognition and appreciation of (65%) (10%) (25%) my spouse‟s language and culture.
Table 7.1 shows that 75% of Filipino-Malay couples are always eager to learn their spouse‟s language, 65% always adjust their speech style, 60% always adjust their speech rate when communicating with their spouses. The survey is clear that couples accommodate each other by learning each other‟s language. However, the survey shows that 65% of the couples do not recognize or appreciate each other‟s culture.
As for Filipino-Malaysian Chinese, the survey shows a different result where they obtain a lower percentage of approximation strategy as compared to Filipino-Malay couples. The results are shown in Table 7.2.
163 Table 7.2 Approximation Strategy of Filipino-Malaysian Chinese Couples
Never Usually Often Occasionall Often (5) Usually Always Mean (1) not (2) not (3) y (4) (6) (7) 1. I am eager to learn my spouse‟s 5 0 0 0 5 0 10 5.00 language. (25%) (25%) (50%) 2. I adjust my speech style when I talk 7 2 1 0 1 0 9 4.10 with my spouse. (35%) (10%) (5%) (5%) (45%) 3. I adjust my speech rate in talking with 8 3 0 0 1 0 8 3.75 my spouse. (40%) (15%) (15%) (40%) 4. I feel comfortable using my spouse‟s 9 3 0 0 1 1 4 3.00 language. (45%) (15%) (5%) (5%) (20%) 5. I use my spouse‟s language as a form of 9 2 0 3 0 1 5 3.30 recognition and appreciation of his/her (45%) (10%) (15%) (5%) (25%) cultural and linguistic background.
Table 7.2 shows that 50% of Filipino-Malaysian Chinese couples are always eager to learn
their spouse‟s language, 45 % always adjust their speech style and 40 % always adjust their
speech rate. Again 45% of couples do not recognize and appreciate their spouses‟ cultural
and linguistic backgrounds.
In a similar survey conducted with Filipino-Malaysian Indian couples, an opposite
results are found where they obtained the lowest percentage of approximation strategy. The
results are presented in Table 7.3.
Table 7.3 Approximation Strategy of Filipino-Malaysian Indian Couples
Never Usually Often Occasio Often (5) Usually Always Mean (1) not (2) not (3) nally (4) (6) (7) 1. I am eager to learn my spouse‟s 8 1 7 0 0 0 4 2.95 language. (40%) (5%) (35%) (20%) 2. I adjust my speech style every time 8 6 1 0 1 2 2 2.70 I talk with my spouse. (40%) (30%) (5%) (5%) (10%) (10%) 3. I adjust my speech rate in talking 9 5 2 0 0 2 2 2.55 with my spouse. (45%) (25%) (10%) (10%) (10%) 4. I feel comfortable using my 6 6 1 2 0 1 4 3.15 spouse‟s language. (30%) (30%) (5%) (10%) (5%) (20%) 5. I use my spouse‟s language as a 7 6 1 1 0 1 4 3.00 form of recognition and appreciation (35%) (30%) (5%) (5%) (5%) (20%) of his/her cultural and linguistic background.
164 Table 7.3 shows that 40% of Filipino-Malaysian Indian couples are not eager to learn each others language, 40% of them do not adjust their speech style, 45% does not adjust the speech rate, 30% of them are not comfortable using their spouse‟s language and 35% do not recognize and appreciate each other‟s cultural and language background.
The findings show that Filipino-Malaysian Indian couples show a different accommodation pattern as compared to Filipino-Malay and Filipino-Malaysian Chinese couples where they do not use approximation accommodation much.
7.2.2 Mean Comparison of Approximation Strategy
To compare the patterns of approximation accommodation strategies, a table showing the mean results is presented in Table 7.4. The computation of mean is given below, and has been explained in Chapter 3.
Table 7.4 Mean Comparison of Couples’ Approximation Accommodation Strategy
Filipino- Filipino- Filipino- Malay Malaysian Malaysian Chinese Indian 1. I am eager to learn my spouse‟s language. 5.85 5.00 2.95 2. I adjust my speech style every time I talk with my 6.00 4.10 2.70 spouse. 3. I adjust my speech rate in talking with my 5.50 3.75 2.55 spouse. 4. I feel comfortable using my spouse‟s language. 4.20 3.00 3.15 5. I use my spouse‟s language to recognize and 2.80 3.30 3.00 appreciate of his/her cultural and linguistic background.
165 Table 7.4 shows the mean comparison of approximation strategy used by Filipino-
Malaysian couples in interactions in the home domain. The mean is computed to obtain the average points of each question (see Chapter 3). A high mean shows a more favorable perception to the questions asked.
Filipino-Malay couples obtain the highest mean, followed by Filipino-Malaysian
Chinese and Filipino-Malaysian Indian couples. It is clear that Filipino-Malay couples accommodate more as compared to the other couples.
The data show that Filipino-Malay couples obtain a high mean (6.00) for statement
2, “I adjust my speech style every time I talk with my spouse” and a low mean (2.80) for statement 5, “I use my spouse’s language to recognize and appreciate of his/her cultural and linguistic background.” This means that couples accommodate each other more by adjusting their speech style but they are less likely to recognize and appreciate their spouses‟ language and culture.
On the other hand, Filipino-Malaysian Chinese couples obtained a high mean (5.00) for statement 1, “I am eager to learn my spouse’s language” and a low mean (3.00) for statement 4, “I feel comfortable using my spouse’s language.” This means that they accommodate more by learning each other‟s language but they are less likely to feel comfortable in using their spouses‟ language.
On the contrary, Filipino-Malaysian Indian couples obtain a different result as compared to Filipino-Malay and Filipino-Malaysian Chinese couples. They obtain a high mean (3.15) for statement 4, “I feel comfortable using my spouse’s language” and a low
166 mean (2.55) for statement 3, “I adjust my speech rate in talking with my spouse.” It is clear that Filipino-Malaysian Indian couples do not employ much approximation accommodation strategies in their interactions in the home domain (see Chart 7.1).
Chart 7.1 Mean Comparison of Couples’ Approximation Strategy
Chart 7.1 illustrates the extent of use of approximation accommodation strategy. The chart reveals that Filipino-Malay and Filipino-Malaysian Chinese couples follow a similar pattern of accommodation where they obtain higher means for statement 1 followed by statements 2, 3 and 4. However, Filipino-Malaysian Indian couples obtained a different pattern for they had a high mean for statement 4 followed by statements 1, 5, 2 and 3. It is clear that Filipino-Malay couples use more approximation strategies as compared to
Filipino-Chinese and Filipino-Indian couples.
7.2.3 Gender Differences in Approximation Strategy
In interactions between Filipino wives and Malaysian husbands, gender differences are evident where the wives accommodate more than their Malaysian husbands and this is shown in Tables 7.5 and 7.6.
167 Table 7.5 Approximation Strategy of Malaysian Husbands
Never Usually Often not Occasion Often (5) Usually Always (1) not (2) (3) ally (4) (6) (7) 1. I am eager to learn my spouse‟s 6 2 9 0 2 0 10 language. (20%) (6.7%) (30%) (6.7%) (33.3%) 2. I adjust my speech style when I 16 3 1 0 0 3 7 talk with my spouse. (53.3%) (10%) (3.3%) (10%) (23.3%) 3. I adjust my speech rate in 16 2 2 0 1 3 7 talking with my spouse. (53.3%) (6.7%) (6.7%) (3.3%) (10%) (23.3%) 4. I feel comfortable using my 17 4 1 1 0 0 5 spouse‟s language. (56.7%) (13.3%) (3.3%) (3.3%) (16.7%) 5. I use my spouse‟s language as 23 3 0 1 0 0 3 recognition and appreciation of (76.7%) (13.3%) (3.3%) (10%) my spouse‟s language and culture.
Table 7.5 shows that 33.3% of Malaysian husbands are eager to learn their Filipino wives‟
language, 53.3% do not adjust their speech, 56.7% are not comfortable using their wives‟
language and 76.7% do not recognize and appreciate their wives‟ language and culture. The
results are clear that the Malaysian husbands have high percentage of not accommodating
their Filipino wives. This means that husbands are less cooperative when communicating
with their wives. In contrast, the Filipino wives have high percentage of accommodating
their Malaysian husbands (see Table 7.6).
Table 7.6 Approximation Strategy of Filipino Wives
Never Usually Often Occasion Often (5) Usually Always (1) not (2) not (3) ally (4) (6) (7) 1. I am eager to learn my spouse‟s 0 0 1 0 3 0 19 language. (3.3%) (10%) (63.3%) 2. I adjust my speech style when I 1 5 2 0 2 3 17 talk with my spouse. (3.3%) (16.7%) (6.7%) (6.7%) (10%) (56.7%) 3. I adjust my speech rate in 4 7 2 0 1 3 15 talking with my spouse. (13.3%) (23.3%) (6.7%) (3.3%) (10%) (50%) 4. I feel comfortable using my 6 5 2 1 1 3 13 spouse‟s language. (20%) (16.7%) (6.7%) (3.3%) (3.3%) (10%) (43.3%) 5. I use my spouse‟s language as 8 5 1 3 0 3 11 recognition and appreciation of (26.7%) (16.7%) (10%) (10%) (36.7%) my spouse‟s language and culture.
168 Sixty three point three percent (63.3%) of Filipino wives are eager to learn their husbands‟ language, 56.7% of them adjust their speech when communicating with their husbands,
43.3% are comfortable in using their husbands‟ language, and 36.7% recognize and appreciate their husbands‟ language and culture. The findings show that the Filipino wives are more collaborative than their Malaysian husbands who appear to be individualistic in their interactions in the home domain.
7.2.4 Wives’ Collaborative Behavior versus Husbands’ Individualistic Attitude
The findings of the study show that the Filipino wives accommodate their Malaysian husbands by being collaborative in interactions. In contrast, the Malaysian husbands appear to be individualistic (see Tables 7.5 and 7.6). The Filipino wives‟ collaborative and the
Malaysian husbands‟ individualistic behaviors are evident in their speech rate and language choice when communicating.
The speech rate in conversation is measured in terms of speaking rate in words per minute. However in this study, speech rate is identified based on participants‟ perception of how fast or slow their spouses speak in interactions in the home domain.
In the interviews conducted, Filipino wives commented:-
“FCIB: My husband talks fast every time we talk”
“FCCB: Sometimes I do not understand my husband because he does not talk slowly”
“FCMB: During the first few years I had difficulty in following the conversation because he talks fast”
FCIB, FCCB, FCMB: Filipino spouses (See Appendix A)
169 Filipino wives encountered difficulties in understanding their Malaysian husbands‟ speech due to speech rate differences. Faster rate of speech may result in communication breakdown. Filipino wives commented “Sometimes I do not understand my husband because he does not talk slowly” and “During the first few years I had difficulty in following the conversation because he talks fast.” This means that husbands do not mind whether their wives understand their message or not. Such an attitude depicts individualistic behavior. In contrast, the Filipino wives adjust their language and speech in order to accommodate their husbands. The Filipino wives said:-
“FCMB: I talk slowly to him so that he can clearly understand me.”
“FCCB: Actually, I don’t talk very fast because my husband might not be able to follow.”
“FCCB: I am always careful in using some words because I might not be understood. You know”
FCMB, FCCB: Filipino spouses (See Appendix A)
In addition, the wives do not only adjust their language and speech but they also learn their husband‟s language. It is clear that Filipino wives adjust their language and speech so that will be understood by their husbands. They said “I talk slowly to him so that he can clearly understand me,”“Actually, I don’t talk very fast because my husband might not be able to follow” and “I am always careful in using some words because I might not be understood.
You know.” This means that they showed a collaborative attitude when communicating with their husbands.
170 7.2.5 Learning the Malaysian Husbands’ Language
Learning other people‟s language is one way of accommodating others. In the case of
Filipino-Malaysian couples, they tend to accommodate each other by learning and speaking each others languages. However, the findings show that more Filipino wives accommodate by learning their Malaysian husbands‟ language.
The interviews conducted show that Filipinos are eager to learn Bahasa Malaysia and Chinese dialects and in fact learn these language without attending formal classes as shown in the following:-
“FCMB: I studied Malay by watching shows on TV and I follow the English subtitles”
“FCMB: I learn Bahasa Malaysia from my husband”
“FCMB: Actually, I learn Malay from my friends and by watching TV”
“FCMB: My neighbors have helped me to speak Malay because they teach me”
“FCCB: I learn Chinese by myself’
“FCCB: No one teaches me Chinese, I just listen to them then I learned”
FCMB, FCCB: Filipino spouses (See Appendix A)
Filipino wives learned Bahasa Malaysia and Chinese dialects by themselves. They learned without attending any language classes. Such eagerness to learn is perhaps motivated by their desire to interact with their spouses and in-laws.
Other Filipino wives learned their spouses‟ language because they have no other options. They said:-
171 “FCCB: I need to learn because all his sisters could not communicate in English. He is the only one who can speak English.”
“FCCB: I learn Chinese because my parents-in-law do not speak English”
FCCB: Filipino spouse (See Appendix A)
The Filipino wives‟ answer “I need to learn” implies that there is a necessity to learn the language because none of her in-laws could speak English. It appears that there was no other choice but to learn the husband‟s language which presupposes that if the in-laws could speak English then she would have not learned Bahasa Malaysia. Realistically, the wife who comes from the Philippines must adjust to her husband and in-laws; otherwise she could not interact with them and could not build a better relationship.
Filipino wives learn to imitate the way Malaysians speak the language so that they can interact with their in-laws and friends. It shows that married Filipino women do not only accommodate their Malaysian husbands but also the in-laws and other relatives. For
Filipinos learning other languages like Bahasa Malaysia and Chinese is advantageous because it helps them to communicate with the local people. In contrast, Malaysian husbands are not eager to learn the Filipino language (see Chapter 7). A Malaysian husband said that he was not interested to learn the Filipino language:-
“FCCA: Well, I would say, it’s not easy to say. I’m not interested (laugh) but sometimes it just comes. It’s not to say I don’t know. Actually, I can speak the language. It’s that I am not the person who practices it using all the time but I would definitely. I’m learning the language but I’m not using it as a medium of communication. But there are some times when I go to the Philippines where I need the language to communicate with people.”
FCCA: Malaysian Chinese spouse (See Appendix A)
172 The Malaysian husband‟s answer shows that he has no interest in learning the wife‟s language which is Filipino because it has limited use in Malaysia. He said “I’m not interested (laugh) sometimes it just comes” which signals his lack of interest in learning the
Filipino language. The refusal in learning the language signals that the Malaysian spouse is not interested to linguistically accommodate his Filipino wife.
Other Malaysian husbands had similar attitudes and commented:-
“FCCA: Ah for me ah I’m actually not good in language learning even in overseas I tried to pick up some Swedish, French whatever lah. I just learn half-way through or sometimes only in the beginning then for a few weeks I just give up you know. Because I know that I find difficulty and I just lost my interest.”
“FCIA: Well I would say, it’s not easy to say. I’m not interested (laugh).”
“FCMA: No, but maybe in the future.”
FCCA: Malaysian Chinese spouse; FCIA: Malaysian Indian spouse; FCMA: Malay spouse (See Appendix A)
It is evident that Malaysian husbands do not have much interest in learning the Filipino language. Although, the subject did not directly say that he had no interest in learning the language, he implied that he was not motivated to learn the Filipino language. However,
Malaysians husbands learn some Filipino words which allow them to code switch from
English to Filipino. In the interviews conducted Filipino-Malaysian couples said:-
173 “FCMA: I speak English and sometimes Tagalog with her”
“FCCA: Yeah, we communicate in Tagalog so that the rest could not understand us.”
“FCIB: My husband knows how to speak Tagalog and Bisaya.”
FCMA: Malay spouse; FCCA: Malaysian Chinese spouse; FCIB: Filipno spouse (See Appendix A)
From the participants‟ answers, some Malaysian husbands learn and use Tagalog words when communicating with their Filipino wives.
The interviews and observations conducted show that the approximation accommodation strategy used by Filipino wives and Malaysian husbands follow a fairly similar pattern where Filipino wives accommodate more than their Malaysian husbands
(see Chapter 8, Section 8.3.1). The gender and role relationships of interlocutors can be considered as determining factors to examine the accommodation strategies. The findings reveal that Filipino housewives are more accommodating than their husbands. Holmes
(2008) suggests that women are more cooperative and establish solidarity in communication. As a result, they become more accommodating to build solidarity in interactions. However, men are less cooperative in an interaction (Holmes, 2008) as a result less participation in interactions is expected.
In addition, Filipino wives accommodate their Malaysian husbands because they are not in their home country. Besides, the Malaysian husbands do not need to use Filipino in
Malaysia and so it does not have high utility in Malaysia.
174 7.2.6 Adjustment of Pronunciation to Accommodate Other Speakers
Adjusting the pronunciation to be understood by others is a form of accommodation. In the interviews conducted Filipino-Malaysian couples mentioned:-
“FCCB: My husband can’t understand me if I will not imitate his accent and his pronunciation”
“FCCB: Even if we communicate in English sometimes we do not understand each other because of different pronunciation but now we are used to it and we speak almost similar pronunciation (laugh)”
FCCB: Filipino spouse (See Appendix A)
Approximation strategies are common in Filipino-Malaysian couples‟ interaction. The statement, “My husband can’t understand me if I will not imitate his accent and his pronunciation” means that adjustment in the speech style particularly the accent and pronunciation play an important role towards better communication between couples.
Shifting to English does not guarantee a better understanding because of some differences in the lexical, phonological, and structural features of the many varieties of
English. This is revealed when the wife said “Even if we communicate in English sometimes we do not understand each other because of different pronunciation but now we are used to it and we speak almost similar (laugh).” It can be said that better communication can be achieved when speakers become more adjusted with each other‟s use of lexical items, structure, and pattern of communication.
In the interviews conducted, a Filipino wife said that during her stay in Malaysia she had changed her pronunciation in order to accommodate the spouse. She mentioned:-
175 “FCCB: I also change my pronunciation, instead of saying BAG I say BEG for GO BACK I say GO BEK. I have to adjust so he can understand”
FCCB: Filipino spouse (See Appendix A)
Filipino wives speak and adjust their speech style which includes the speech rate and pronunciation to accommodate their Malaysian husbands in order for them to be understood. In contrast, the data does not indicate that the Malaysian husbands linguistically accommodate their Filipino wives.
7.3 Interpretability Accommodation Strategy in Interracial Couple’s Interaction
Interpretability strategy is an accommodation strategy where a speaker accommodates the other interlocutor based on the latter‟s perceived interpretive abilities. A speaker adjusts his or her speech in order to attune to the interlocutor‟s level of understanding. In some cases speakers may have the tendency to over accommodate especially when one party perceives an interpretive deficit. One way of accommodating is to simplify the lexical item, syntactic structure and use the spouses‟ language (see Tables 7.5, 7.6 and 7.7).
7.3.1 Survey of interpretability accommodation strategy
A survey was conducted to find out how interpretability accommodation strategy is used in interactions between Filipino and Malaysian spouses. The results of the survey are shown in Tables 7.5, 7.6, 7.7 and 7.8.
176 Table 7.7 Interpretability Strategy of Filipino-Malay Couples
Never Usually Often Occasio Often Usually Always Mean (1) not (2) not (3) nally (4) (5) (6) (7) 1. I use simple vocabulary when talking 10 4 0 0 0 1 5 2.95 with my spouse. (50%) (20%) (5%) (20%) 2. I use simple sentences that are 3 5 1 0 0 1 10 4.60 understandable by my spouse. (15%) (25%) (5%) (5%) (50%) 3. I simplify my point if I am not 7 2 0 0 1 0 10 4.70 understood. (35%) (10%) (5%) (50%)
4. I imitate my spouse‟s manner of 7 6 1 0 0 1 5 3.25 speaking. (35%) (30%) (5%) (5%) (25%)
Table 7.7 shows that 50% of couples do not use simple words, however 50% of them use simple sentences. In addition, 50% of the couples simplify their points when not understood and 50 % of them change their manner of speaking when their partners are not in the right mood. Such findings show that Filipino-Malaysian couples accommodate each other by using simple sentences and simplifying their points when they are not understood. The findings further show that 35% of couples do not accommodate by talking in the same way as their spouses.
More specifically, Filipino-Malaysian Chinese couples obtain different results when compared to Filipino-Malay couples. The results of the survey are shown in Table 7.6.
Table 7.8 Interpretability Strategies of Filipino-Malaysian Chinese Couples
Never Usually Often Occasi Often (5) Usually Always (7) Mean (1) not (2) not (3) onally (6) (4) 1. I use simple vocabulary words 7 2 1 0 1 0 9 4.10 when communicating with my (35%) (10%) (5%) (5%) (45%) spouse. 2. I use simple sentence that is 8 1 1 0 1 1 8 4.00 understandable by my spouse. (40%) (5%) (5%) (5%) (5%) (40%) 3. I simplify my point if I am not 5 0 1 0 3 2 9 4.90 understood. (25%) (5%) (15%) (10%) (45%) 4. I imitate my spouse‟s manner of 15 4 0 0 0 0 1 1.50 speaking. (75%) (20%) (5%)
177 Differences between Filipino-Malay and Filipino-Malaysian Chinese couples in using interpretability strategy are evident as shown in Table 7.8. The survey shows that 45% of
Filipino-Malaysian Chinese couples use simple words when communicating with their spouses, 40% of the couples use simple sentences. Forty five percent (45%) of couples simplify their points when not understood and 70% of them change their manner of speaking when their spouses are not in the right mood. It further shows that 75% of couples do not imitate the way their spouses talk.
A similar survey was conducted with Filipino-Malaysian Indian couples and the results are different when compared to Filipino-Malay and Filipino-Malaysian Chinese couples as they obtained the lowest interpretability accommodation strategy. The results of the survey are presented in Table 7.9.
Table 7.9 Interpretability Strategy of Filipino-Malaysian Indian Couples
Never Usually Often Occasio Often Usually Always Mean (1) not (2) not (3) nally (4) (5) (6) (7) 1. I use simple vocabulary words when 9 5 1 1 0 2 2 2.60 communicating with my spouse. (45%) (25%) (5%) (5%) (10%) (10%) 2. I use simple sentence that is 8 6 0 0 1 1 4 2.95 understandable by my spouse. (40%) (30%) (5%) (5%) (20%) 3. I simplify my point if I am not 10 8 0 1 0 0 1 1.85 understood. (50%) (40%) (5%) (5%) 4. I imitate my spouse‟s manner of 9 5 2 1 0 1 2 2.45 speaking. (45%) (25%) (10%) (5%) (5%) (10%)
Table 7.9 shows that 45% of Filipino-Malaysian Indian couples do not use simple words,
40% do not use simple sentences, 50% do not simplify their points when not understood and 45% do not imitate their spouses‟ manner of speaking. Such results reveal that interpretability strategy is not common among Filipino-Malaysian Indian couples.
178 7.3.2 Mean Comparison of Interpretability Strategy
To compare the interpretability accommodation strategy used by Filipino-Malay, Filipino-
Malaysian Chinese and Filipino-Malaysian Indian couples, a comparison of the mean results are shown in Table 7.10.
Table 7.10 Comparison of Couples’ Interpretability Accommodation Strategies
Filipino- Filipino- Filipino- Malay Malaysian Malaysian Chinese Indian 1. I use simple vocabulary words when talking with 2.95 4.10 2.60 my spouse. 2. I use simple sentences that are understandable by 4.60 4.00 2.95 my spouse. 3. I simplify my point if I am not understood. 4.70 4.90 1.85 4. I imitate my spouse‟s manner of speaking. 3.25 1.50 2.45 .
Table 7.10 shows the differences of interpretability strategy used by Filipino-Malaysian couples. The data show that Filipino-Malay couples obtain a mean of 4.70 for statement 3,
“I simplify my point if I am not understood” and a low mean of 2.95 for statement 1, “I use simple words when talking with my spouse.” Such results reveal that Filipino-Malay couples simplify their topic when they are not understood. However, they do not simplify the lexical items they used.
The Filipino-Malaysian Chinese couples obtain a high mean of 4.90 for statement 3,
“I simplify my point if I am not understood” and a low mean of 1.50 for statement 4, “I imitate my spouse’s manner of speaking.” In contrast, Filipino-Malaysian Indian couples show a different result where a high mean of 2.95 is obtained for statement 2, “I use simple sentences that are understandable by my spouse” and a low mean of 1.85 for statement 3,
179 “I simplify my point if I am not understood.” The results show a different pattern of accommodation as compared to Filipino-Malay and Filipino-Malaysian Chinese couples.
The lowest mean (1.85) obtained in Filipino-Malaysian Indian couples are the highest mean
(4.70) obtained by Filipino-Malay and Filipino-Malaysian Chinese couples. Such differences are shown in Chart 7.2.
Chart 7.2 Mean Comparison of Couples’ Interpretability Strategy
Chart 7.2 shows that Filipino-Malaysian couples vary in employing the interpretability strategy in their interactions in the home domain. Filipino-Malay and Filipino-Malaysian
Chinese couples accommodate more using the interpretability strategy as compared to
Filipino-Malaysian Indian couples. Filipino-Malay and Filipino-Malaysian Chinese couples show a pattern having a high mean in statement 3 followed by statements 2, 4 and 1
(see Table 7.10). In contrast, the Filipino-Malaysian Indian couples show a different pattern where they obtain a high mean for statement 2 and this is followed by statements 1,
4 and 3.
180 The interviews conducted with Filipino-Malaysian couples show that they accommodate each other by simplifying their vocabulary, syntax, and topic (sections 7.4.1,
7.4.2 and 7.4.3).
7.3.3 Lexical and Syntactic Accommodation
Filipino-Malaysian couples accommodate each other when they think that they are not clearly understood by their partners. Filipino wives accommodate their Malaysian husbands by using simple lexical items, simple sentences, and simplifying their topic (see Tables 7.5,
7.6 and 7.7). They also use simple sentences and simplify their message when they are not understood. Most often, Filipino wives imitate the way their partners speak like using similar vocabulary, sentence structure, using the particle “lah”, and switching from English to Bahasa Malaysia or Filipino. Below are some extracts from the recorded conversations which show how the lexical and syntactic accommodations occur in interactions.
“Yeah lah, cannot get it, only between us (laugh.)”
“In Taman Putra ada.” (There is in Taman Putra)
“Yeah lah then kembali (come back) after Christmas.”
“Sa labas (outside) you can see.”
(See Appendix B)
Filipino wives accommodate their Malaysian husbands by using the particle “lah.” The sentence structure “cannot get it” shows that the subject is missing or not explicitly uttered.
This structure is common in Malaysian English (Pillai, 2006) but not in Philippine English.
However, Filipino wives use such sentence structure.
181 Using Bahasa Malaysia and Filipino are also evident in these statements “Sa labas
(outside) you can see.” and “Yeah lah then kembali (come back) after Christmas.” This means that the use of couples‟ first language occurs through code switching in English dominated interactions.
7.3.4 Language Simplification in Husband and Wife Interactions
Couples encounter problems in communication when the message conveyed is not clear. To avoid the communication breakdown, they simplify their language by providing an explanation of the unfamiliar lexical item or by simplifying the message using simple lexis.
In the interviews conducted some couples said:-
“FCCB: If my husband does not understand me I simplify my English so he will understand or I will give an example.”
“FCMB: I know the basic English only but sometimes my husband does not understand, I will just explain it.”
“FCCB: Yeah, he understands Filipino (laugh) Filipino pronunciation (laugh).”
FCCB, FCMB: Filipino spouse (See Appendix A)
The interviews reveal that Filipino wives accommodate their Malaysian husbands by simplifying their language when they are not understood. When the Filipinos said “If my husband does not understand me I simplify my English so he will understand or I will give an example,” it shows that Filipino wives can be sensitive to the needs of their Malaysian husbands. As a result, adjusting their language becomes automatic if their Malaysian husbands do not understand the message. When a Filipino wife said “I know the basic
182 English only but sometimes my husband does not understand, I will just explain it,” it shows that the Filipino wife attempted to show that her husband was more proficient in the
English.
One way of simplifying the language in interactions is by using the spouses‟ language when the message is not clearly understood. In the interviews conducted, Filipino wives mentioned:-
“FCCB: When he doesn’t know in English I will speak in Malay lah, because I’m not Chinese and he knows how to speak in Malay, then I will speak in Malay.”
“FCIB: Yeah, we simplify our language so that we can understand each other.”
FCCB, FCIB: Filipino spouses (See Appendix A)
It is evident that Filipino and Malaysian spouses adjust their speech by simplifying their message through code switching from one language to the other just to be understood. In general, interpretability strategy makes the conversation clearer and more understandable.
7.4 Discourse Management Strategy in Interracial Couples’ Interaction
Discourse management strategy occurs when a speaker focuses on the other person‟s conversational needs and is frequently discussed in terms of topic selection and face management (Harwood, Soliz, and Lin, 2006). This happens when a partner chooses a particular topic for discussion so as to avoid misunderstanding and conflict. In interracial couples‟ interaction when discussing traditions and practices, language is carefully observed so as to avoid misinterpretation.
183 7.4.1 Survey on Discourse Management Accommodation Strategy
A survey was conducted to find out how discourse management accommodation strategies are used in the interactions of Filipino-Malaysian couples in the home domain.
Table 7.11 Discourse Management Strategy of Filipino-Malay Couples
Never Usually Often Occasio Often Usually Always Mean (1) not (2) not (3) nally (4) (5) (6) (7) 1. I discuss my traditions with my 0 0 2 0 0 3 15 6.65 spouse. (10%) (15%) (75%) 2. I share my language and culture with 1 0 4 0 0 2 13 6.20 my spouse. (5%) (20%) (10%) (65%) 3. I avoid topics that suggest disrespect 3 0 0 0 0 2 15 6.00 to my spouse‟s language and culture. (15%) (10%) (75%) 4. I am careful when choosing topics 3 0 0 0 1 4 12 5.80 for discussion so as to avoid conflict. (15%) (5%) (20%) (60%) 5. I do not discuss controversial topics 3 0 0 0 2 5 10 5.65 that will hurt my spouse. (15%) (10 (25%) (50%) %) 6. I am careful in choosing words in 2 0 0 0 1 5 12 6.05 order not to be misinterpreted by my (10%) (5%) (25%) (60%) spouse.
Table 7.11 shows that 79% of Filipino-Malay couples discuss their traditions, 65 % share their language and culture, 75% avoid topics that show disrespect to their spouses, 60% of them carefully choose some topics to avoid conflict, 50% do not discuss controversial topics and 60% carefully choose their words in order not to be misinterpreted by their spouses. The results of the survey reveal that Filipino-Malay couples use discourse management strategies when communicating with their spouse.
A similar result is obtained with Filipino-Malaysian Chinese couples. The results are shown in Table 7.12.
184 Table 7.12 Discourse Management Strategy of Filipino-Malaysian Chinese Couples
Never Usually Often Occasio Often Usually Always Mean (1) not (2) not (3) nally (4) (5) (6) (7) 1. I discuss my traditions with my 0 0 2 0 4 0 14 6.20 spouse. (10%) (20%) (70%) 2. I share my language and culture 0 0 0 0 0 2 18 6.90 with my spouse. (10%) (90%) 3. I avoid topics that suggest 0 0 2 0 2 0 16 6.40 disrespect to my spouse‟s language (10%) (10%) (80%) and culture. 4. I am careful when choosing topics 1 0 0 1 1 3 14 6.30 for discussion so as to avoid conflict. (5%) (5%) (5%) (15%) (70%) 5. I do not discuss controversial topics 0 2 0 0 1 2 15 6.30 that will hurt my spouse. (10%) (5%) (10%) (75%) 6. I am careful in choosing words in 0 1 0 0 2 2 15 6.45 order not to be misinterpreted by my (5%) (10%) (10%) (75%) spouse.
A similar pattern of accommodation is observed between Filipino-Malay and Filipino-
Malaysian Chinese couples. However, Filipino-Malaysian Chinese couples have high percentage for statements 1 to 5 (see Table 7.12). The data show that Filipino and
Malaysian Chinese couples use more discourse management accommodation strategies as compared to Filipino-Malay couples.
A similar survey was conducted with Filipino-Malaysian Indian couples.
Table 7.13 Discourse Management Strategy of Filipino-Malaysian Indian Couples
Never (1) Usually Often Occasio Often Usually Always Mean not (2) not (3) nally (4) (5) (6) (7) 1. I discuss my traditions with my 4 0 1 0 1 6 8 5.20 spouse. (20%) (5%) (5%) (30%) (40%) 2. I share my language and culture 2 0 0 1 0 6 11 5.95 with my spouse. (10%) (5%) (30%) (55%) 3. I avoid topics that suggest 1 1 0 0 1 5 12 6.10 disrespect to my spouse‟s language (5%) (5%) (5%) (25%) (60%) and culture. 4. I am careful when choosing 8 2 0 0 0 4 6 3.90 topics for discussion so as to avoid (40%0 (10%) (20%) (30%) conflict. 5. I do not discuss controversial 10 1 0 0 0 6 3 3.45 topics that will hurt my spouse. (50%) (5%) (30%) (15%) 6. I am careful in choosing words 7 2 0 0 0 6 5 4.10 in order not to be misinterpreted by (35%) (10%) (30%) (25%) my spouse.
185 Table 7.13 shows that 40% of couples discuss their traditions, 55% of them share their language and culture, and 60% avoid topics that show disrespect. Furthermore, the findings reveal that 40% of couples (30% Malaysian Indians) are not careful in choosing topics to avoid conflicts, 50% of them (40% Malaysian Indians) do not avoid controversial issues and 35% of the Malaysian Indian husbands do not choose their words carefully. The results show that the Malaysian Indian husbands are not sensitive of their Filipino spouses‟ culture, tradition and language.
7.4.2 Mean Comparison of Couples’ Discourse Management Strategy
To compare the results of the survey, a mean comparison of couples‟ discourse management strategy is shown in Table 7.12.
Table 7.14 Comparison of Couples’ Discourse Management Accommodation Strategy
Filipino Filipino- Filipino- -Malay Malaysian Malaysia Chinese n Indian 1. I discuss my traditions with my spouse. 6.65 6.20 5.20 2. I share my language and culture with my 6.20 6.90 5.95 spouse. 3. I avoid topics that suggest disrespect to my 6.00 6.40 6.10 spouse‟s language and culture. 4. I am careful when choosing topics for 5.80 6.30 3.90 discussion so as to avoid conflict. 5. I do not discuss controversial topics that will 5.65 6.30 3.45 hurt my spouse. 6. I am careful in choosing words in order not to 6.05 6.35 4.10 be misinterpreted by my spouse.
Table 7.14 shows a high mean of 6.65 obtained by Filipino-Malay couples for statement 1,
“I discuss my traditions with my spouse” and a low mean of 5.65 for statement 5, “I do not
186 start discussing controversial topics that will hurt my spouse.” The results are clear that
Filipino-Malay couples accommodate each other by discussing their traditions but they discuss issues that will hurt their spouses.
For Filipino-Malaysian Chinese couples, high means are obtained for statements 1 to 6 as compared to Filipino-Malay couples. A high mean of 6.90 is obtained for statement
2, “I share my language and culture with my spouse” and a low mean of 6.20 for statement
1, “I discuss my traditions with my spouse.” This contrasts with the mean of the Filipino-
Malay couples where statement 1 shows the highest mean. This means that Filipino-
Malaysian Chinese couples differ in accommodating their spouses as compared to the
Filipino-Malay couples.
The Filipino-Malaysian Indian couples obtain a high mean of 6.10 for statement 3,
“I avoid topics that show disrespect to my spouse’s language and culture” and a low mean of 3.45 for statement 5, “I do not start discussing controversial topics that will hurt my spouse.” The Filipino-Malaysian Chinese and Filipino-Malay couples obtained similar means which are lower as compared to the Filipino-Malaysian Indian couples.
The comparison of mean is provided in Chart 7.3.
187 Chart 7.3 Mean Comparison of Couples’ Discourse Management Strategy
Chart 7.3 shows that Filipino-Malaysian Chinese couples obtain a high mean in statements
1 to 6, followed by Filipino-Malay couples and Filipino-Malaysian Indian couples receive the lowest mean in comparison to the other couples.
Filipino-Malaysian couples discuss their traditions, share the language and culture, and are careful in choosing their words in order not to hurt each other. However, in choosing some topics that are controversial, Malaysian spouses are not mindful of sensitive issues. However Filipino spouses are careful in uttering some statements that might upset their Malaysian spouses. They are careful when discussing anything related to religious activities because such topics are considered sensitive. Filipino spouses married to Malays are also careful when discussing topics that are considered taboo to Malaysians for instance non-halal food and other practices contrary to Islamic beliefs.
7.4.3 Wives Sensitivity to Others
Sensitivity to other speakers is important in interactions to create solidarity in interactions.
In the interviews conducted, the findings show that Filipino wives are sensitive to their
188 Malaysian husbands‟ feelings so as to avoid hurting them. In the interviews conducted,
Filipino wives commented:-
“FCMB: My husband sometimes gives negative comments against the Filipino women in Malaysia but it hurts me because I am also a Filipino”
“FCMB: I do not speak anything against the religion (Islam) because it is very sensitive”
”FCMB: Malaysian men don’t care. They are really different, they don’t care.”
”FCMB: I did everything just to make me a perfect housewife but nothing happens. I was really hurt for what he did but that is their culture”
“FCCB: I don’t like when he shares the Chinese culture because he always criticizes the Philippine culture. Sometimes, I’m disappointed”
“FCCB: Yes, I share often but when he shares there is always a comparison between. Chinese and Filipinos. He says a lot of things against Filipino women”
“FCCB: He sometimes say that a lot of Filipino women are prostitutes and loud. It hurts, you know” “He directly tells me that there are Filipino prostitutes. My husband is very direct”
“FCIB: Alam mo (You know) he tells me that he does not like sometimes our culture. Di ko alam (I don’t know) perhaps because of other Filipino women”
“FCIB: Yes, we both share our cultural practices. We have no problems but he is disappointed of the Philippine politics”
FCMB, FCCB, FCIB: Filipino spouses (See Appendix A)
Filipino-Malaysian couples use discourse management strategy by discussing topics of historical interests as well as traditions to show appreciation and recognition of their partner‟s heritage (see also Harwood, Soliz and Lin, 2006).
The comments made by Filipino wives prove that they are careful in discussing topics that they believe to be sensitive which might create conflict or hurt their Malaysian
189 husbands. In contrast, their Malaysian husbands are not as sensitive when discussing issues that may offend their Filipino wives.
Twenty (20) Filipino wives are aware on what they say and how they phrase their messages so as not to create conflicts with others. They know when to say and when not to say things. On the contrary, only ten (10) Malaysian husbands reported that they accommodate their Malaysian Filipino wives.
Some couples commented:-
“FCMA: We discuss things or anything and I don’t think that there is a need to select anything I want to share. There is no filtering of information.” (Malaysian husband)
“FCMB: He is very direct and blunt when saying something. He even told me to look for another man.” (Filipino wife)
FCMA: Malay spouse; FCMB: Filipino spouse (See Appendix A)
The message is clear that there husbands are direct whether the topic is sensitive or not.
This might be uncomfortable for couples who are sensitive to cultural issues. In the interviews, Filipino wives expressed the following.
“FCMB: I am also affected when my husband talks about negative things about the Philippines. Of course, I’m a Filipino and it feels bad sometimes.”
“FCCB: I think so but it hurts me when he says something that is not supposed to be spoken. You know what I mean”
“FCIB: He criticizes the Philippines many times. I feel bad.”
FCMB, FCCB, FCIB: Filipino spouses (See Appendix A)
190 Filipino wives are sensitive as far as negative issues in the Philippines or Filipinos are concerned. This shows that Filipino wives are careful in discussing topics that they think sensitive to their Malaysian Chinese partners. The findings also show that women are more careful in their linguistic choices than men. Women project an image of being sensitive to others. Such findings may prove that gender could be a factor that may influence the speaker‟s language choice. This claim is also supported with the findings presented in
Sections 7.2.3, 7.2.4 and 7.2.5 and with previous studies of Coulmas (2005) and Holmes
(2008).
7.4.4 Respect for the Spouse
As a sign of respect, Filipino spouses discuss their traditions, language and culture; avoid topics that are sensitive or controversial; and are careful in choosing words that might be misinterpreted by others.
“FCCB: I respect my husband. We (friends) say “excuse us” and we speak in Filipino but of course if he is involved we speak English”
“FCMB: Yes, I shared to my husband the Filipino culture and traditions so that he will learn to understand me”
“FCCB: Although it’s very hard to express sometimes your thoughts but I need to speak his language, I might hurt his feelings.”
“FCMB: Yes, we do but I share the Filipino practices most of the time. However, I am careful that he might not like it or misinterpret it.”
FCCB, FCMB: Filipino spouses (See Appendix A)
Filipino wives accommodate their Malaysian husbands basically to show respect. As commented by a Filipino wife, “I respect my husband. We (friends) say “excuse us” and
191 we speak in Filipino but of course if he is involved we speak English” shows the accommodative behavior of Filipino spouses.
7.5 Interpersonal Control Accommodation Strategies in Interracial Couples’
Interactions
Interpersonal control strategies occur when speakers interrupt the conversation or show a direct power claim. This kind of strategy commonly happens when one speaker tries to control the other. In a husband and wife interaction, the use of interpersonal accommodation strategy frequently occurs if one of the spouses tries to show upward power moves.
7.5.1 Survey of Interpersonal Control Strategy
The findings of the survey conducted among Filipino-Malay couples on interpersonal control strategy are shown in Table 7.13.
Table 7.15 Interpersonal Control Strategy of Filipino-Malay Couples
Never Usually Often Occasio Often Usually Alway Mean (1) not (2) not (3) nally (4) (5) (6) s (6) 1. I am firm with my ideas when 2 0 0 0 0 3 15 6.65 talking with my spouse. (10%) (15%) (75%) 2. I feel that a wife needs to 0 0 0 0 2 3 15 6.65 submit to my spouse at all times to (10%) (15%) (75%) maintain good relationship. 3. My spouse always shows 15 1 0 2 0 1 1 1.90 authority in every communication (75%) (5%) (10%) (5%) (5%) event. 4. I interrupt my spouse if I want 10 5 0 1 1 2 1 2.40 to say something. (50%) (25%) (5%) (5%) (10%) (5%) 5. I signal my spouse, either in 5 6 0 6 0 2 1 3.00 words or non-verbal actions when (25%) (30%) (30%) (10%) (5%) to start and stop talking.
192 Table 7.15 shows that 75% of Filipino-Malay couples are firm with their ideas when communicating, 75% of them believe that the wife must submit to the husband, 75% of spouses do not show authority, 50% do not interrupt their spouses and 30% occasionally signal their spouse when to start or stop the conversation. The results suggest that Filipino-
Malay couples use interpersonal accommodation strategy when communicating with their spouses.
A similar survey was conducted with Filipino-Malaysian Chinese couples and the findings are shown Table 7.16.
Table 7.16 Interpersonal Control Strategy of Filipino-Malaysian Chinese Couples
Never (1) Usually Often Occasio Often Usually Always Mean not (2) not (3) nally (4) (5) (6) (6) 1. I am firm with my ideas when talking 0 0 1 0 5 2 12 6.20 with my spouse. (5%) (25%) (10%) (60%) 2. I feel that I need to submit to my 0 7 1 0 0 1 11 5.00 spouse at all times to maintain good (35%) (5%) (5%) (55%) relationship. 3. My spouse always shows authority in 14 6 0 0 0 0 0 1.30 every communication event. (70%) (30%) 4. I interrupt my spouse if I want to say 16 2 0 2 0 0 0 1.40 something. (80%) (10%) (10%) 5. I signal my spouse, either in words or 2 4 0 0 2 0 12 5.00 non-verbal actions when to start and stop (10%) (20%) (10%) (60%) talking.
Table 7.16 shows the occurrence of interpersonal control strategy used by Filipino-
Malaysian Chinese couples. The results show a similar pattern of accommodation as
Filipino-Malay couples for statements 1 to 4. However, statement 5 shows a difference where Filipino-Malaysian Chinese couples obtain 60% that couples signal their spouses either verbally or non-verbally when to start and stop the conversation. From the survey, it
193 can be said that Filipino-Malaysian Chinese couples (mostly Malaysian husbands) have the tendency to control their spouses particularly the Filipino spouses.
A similar survey was conducted to find out further the use of interpersonal control strategies among Filipino-Malaysian Indian couples.
Table 7.17 Interpersonal Control Strategy of Filipino-Malaysian Indian Couples
Never Usually Often Occasio Often (5) Usually Always Mean (1) not (2) not (3) nally (4) (6) (6) 1. I am firm with my ideas when 2 0 1 0 1 6 10 5.80 talking with my spouse. (10%) (5%) (5%) (30%) (50%) 2. I feel that I need to submit to my 4 0 1 0 0 5 10 5.35 spouse at all times to maintain good (20%) (5%) (255) (50%) relationship. 3. My spouse always shows authority 7 8 1 0 2 0 2 2.50 in every communication event. (35%) (40%) (5%) (10%) (10%) 4. I interrupt my spouse if I want to 9 6 2 0 1 0 2 2.30 say something. (45%) (30%) (10%) (5%) (10%) 5. I signal my spouse, either in words 7 5 3 2 0 0 3 2.75 or non-verbal actions when to start and (35%) (25%) (15%) (10%) (15%) stop talking.
Table 7.17 shows that 50% of couples are firm about their ideas, 50% agree that the wife must submit to the husband, 40% do not show any authority, and 35% do not signal their spouses when to start or stop the conversation. Such findings show that Filipino-Malaysian
Indian couples (mostly Malaysian Indians) are firm about their ideas when communicating with their spouses and believe that wives must be submissive to their husbands.
7.5.2 Mean Comparison of Couples Interpersonal Control Strategy
To compare the results obtained through the survey, the mean results are presented in Table
7.18.
194 Table 7.18 Comparison of Interpersonal Accommodation Strategy
Filipino- Filipino- Filipino- Malay Malaysian Malaysian Chinese Indian 1. I am firm with my ideas when talking with 6.65 6.20 5.80 my spouse. 2. I feel that I need to submit to my spouse at 6.65 5.00 5.35 all times to maintain good relationship. 3. My spouse always shows authority in every 1.90 1.30 2.50 communication event. 4. I interrupt my spouse if I want to say 2.40 1.40 2.30 something. 5. I signal my spouse, either in words or non- 3.00 5.00 2.75 verbal actions when to start and stop talking. 6. I believe that a wife must submit to her 6.50 6.30 3.60 husband.
Table 7.18 shows the mean comparison of interpersonal control accommodation strategy of
Filipino-Malaysian couples. The data reveal that Filipino-Malay couples obtain the highest mean of 6.65 in statement 1, “I am firm with my ideas when talking with my spouse” while
Filipino-Malaysian Chinese and Filipino-Malaysian Indian couples obtain a mean of only
6.20 and 5.80 respectively. The results show that Filipino-Malay and Filipino-Malaysian
Indian couples (Malay and Indian husbands) are firm with their ideas when communicating with their spouses.
The lowest mean of 1.30 is obtained by Filipino-Malaysian Chinese couples in statement 3, “My spouse always shows authority in every communication event” (mean of
1.90 for Filipino-Malay). Such findings reveal that Filipino-Malay and Filipino-Malaysian
Chinese couples are not authoritative when communicating with their spouses as compared to Filipino-Malaysian Indian couples who obtained a mean of 2.50.
Chart 7.4 illustrates the mean comparison of couples‟ interpersonal control strategy.
195
Chart 7.4 Mean Comparison of Couples’ Interpersonal Strategy
Chart 7.4 shows that Filipino-Malaysian couples (mostly husbands) have high means for statements 1, 2 and 3 which means that they are firm and they believe that wives must submit to their husbands and a lower mean in statements 3, 4 and 5. Such pattern of accommodation shows a slight difference in accommodating their spouses.
Power control is common in patriarchal cultures where males are considered more superior than women (Price, 2006). The authority is associated with males while females are considered subordinate. In Filipino and Malaysian cultures the role of men and women differ. Filipinos may have weaker view that women are subordinate because they enjoy equal rights and authority with men. Such equality is evident in the political situation of the
Philippines where women hold high positions in the government like the president. On the other hand, in Malaysia women can be viewed as subordinate as compared to the men (Ng,
2004). As a result control and authority over their wives is evident among Malaysian men.
196 7.6 Conclusion
The findings of the study reveal that Filipino-Malaysian couples use different types of accommodation strategies such as approximation, interpretability, discourse management and interpersonal control. In interactions between Filipino and Malaysian couples the four types of accommodation strategies are used simultaneously in one communicative event.
Such strategies are used differently by couples of different ethnic backgrounds such as
Filipino-Malay, Filipino-Malaysian Chinese and Filipino-Malaysian Indian couples.
However, a trend shows that all Malaysian spouses use the interpersonal control accommodation strategy where they show control and authority when communicating with their Filipino spouses.
Gender issue also emerged as an essential factor that influence the accommodation strategies used by husband and wife in their interactions in the home domain. Filipino wives regardless of whether they were married to Malay, Chinese or Indian tend to be more accommodating than their husbands. Such accommodation proves that women try to establish solidarity in interactions while men tend to be less cooperative and more individualistic.
The occurrence of accommodation strategies in couples‟ interactions in the home domain shows that code switching is used to accommodate other speakers. Such emerging accommodation strategy is discussed in Chapter Eight. The discussion specifically focuses as to how code switching occurs in interactions between Filipino and Malaysian spouses.
197 CHAPTER EIGHT
CODE SWITCHING: AN EMERGING ACCOMMODATION STRATEGY
8.1 Introduction
This chapter discusses the occurrence of code switching in interracial couples‟ communication in the home domain. The analysis further explains the findings discussed in chapter 6 that Filipino-Malaysian couples chose English with some switching in Bahasa
Malaysia, Chinese, and Filipino. The analysis is based on the data collected in interviews and actual recorded conversations of Filipino-Malaysian couples. The analysis and discussion of code switching is divided into three sections. The first section examines the occurrence of code switching as convergence, the second section examines the occurrence of code switching as divergence and the third section discusses the functions of code switching.
The functions of code switching are identified by examining the occurrence of code switching in conversation and analyzing the sequential order of code switching in conversation.
8.2 Code Switching Across Ethnicity
The occurrence of code switching is prevalent in all Filipino-Malaysian couples regardless of the spouses‟ ethnic affiliation. All couples; Filipino-Malay, Filipino-Chinese and
Filipino- Indian switch to Bahasa Malaysia, Chinese, and Filipino in English dominated discourse.
198 From the interviews conducted, it is clear that Filipino-Malaysian couples speak at least two languages. As a result, they mix two or more languages. However English remains dominant.
In the interviews and recordings conducted of home based conversations (see
Appendix B), the multilingualism of Filipino-Malaysian couples helps them to code switch.
The findings of the study show that code switching emerges as the new language variety used by Filipino-Malaysian couples.
Responses from the interviews:-
“FCMB: at home we mix English and Bahasa Malaysia”
“FCMB: It’s mixed; we speak Bahasa Malaysia, English, Chinese sometimes Arabic and Filipino”
“FCMB: I speak Malay and English at home. If I cannot express in Malay I speak in English”
“FCMB: Most of the time we mix different languages like English, Bahasa Malaysia and Filipino”
“FCMB: We speak English and Bisaya at home”
FCMB: Filipino spouses (See Appendix A)
In the case of Filipino-Malay couples, it is evident that English and Bahasa Malaysia are prevalent. In the interviews conducted, couples said “at home we mix English and Bahasa
Malaysia” and “Most of the time we mix different languages like English, Bahasa Malaysia and Filipino.” It shows that code mixing has become a common feature in interracial couples‟ interaction.
199 Although Filipino-Malay couples have developed a certain level of proficiency in
Bahasa Malaysia, English remains dominant. This is because the national language policy was implemented much later in East Malaysia. (See Chapter 1, Section 1.4.2)
Besides Bahasa Malaysia and English, couples sometimes switch to Tagalog.
Filipino spouses taught their Malay partners to speak Filipino because it helped them to converse with other Filipinos when they visited the Philippines or when other Filipinos visited them in Malaysia. However, in the interviews conducted, five of the ten husbands are not willing to learn the Filipino language. The other five Malay husbands do not have any resistance because for them learning the language gives them the chance and opportunity to interact with their in-laws in the Philippines and Filipino friends in
Malaysia.
The occurrence of code switching is evident in the recorded conversation of
Filipino-Malaysian couples. Below is an example of a conversation:-
Conversation 8.1
A conversation between a Filipino wife (W), a Malay husband (H) and a member of the household (A).
1. W: Say terima kasih (thank you). Nangutana pa gyud ko terima kasih? (Then I asked, thank you?) 2. A: Did you experience dreaming that you‟re running and then you try to run fast but you cannot run fast it‟s like someone is running after you. 3. H: Oh yeah 4. A: You want to run faster but you cannot do anything. 5. H: Yeah, I was sitting in a taxi, bus or LRT then one guy who looked like a theif lah looking for money or anything. I wanted to punch him you know but my hand was so slow (ahhh..) (( )) you know (cell phone ringing) very gigil (giggling) lah because you want to punch him.
200 6. W: My experience when I was young with Aries and Archel (laugh). 7. A: Sleep walk ya (brother) (.). I even tried to put my blanket inside the refrigerator 8. H: Gago. (Crazy) 9. W: He went to Aries, then mama said “Arlyn ah (.) wake up ah.” wake your brother up because he is sleeping in the living room. I woke him up, I said, Aries balhin na daw ingon mama (Aries you transfer, mama said) so he's like that (uh uh) with the blanket and the pillow because he always sleeps in the living room with the blanket and pillow. He‟s still young that time.
(See Appendix B)
Conversation 8.1 shows how code switching occurs in verbal communication between
Filipino and Malay spouses in the home domain. English is the dominant language but other languages like Bahasa Malaysia and Filipino function as embedded languages.
Similarly, code switching also occurs in interactions between Filipino and
Malaysian Chinese couples. They also code switch from English to Chinese, Bahasa
Malaysia, and Filipino. Although Malaysian Chinese speak local Chinese dialects like
Hokkien, Cantonese, etc. and Filipinos speak Filipino, couples still prefer English as the medium of communication. Those Filipino spouses who can converse in Chinese become more confident and eventually also use Chinese as the medium of communication with in- laws.
In the interviews conducted some Filipino-Malaysian Chinese couples said;-
“FCCB: We speak three languages (laugh) we normally communicate when we first married we used English after a few months like two or three months then we speak Hokkien and now because of our children we have to mix up with Hokkien and English”
201 “FCCB: I have to mix it Bahasa, Hokkien and English so that he can understand”
“FCCB: We speak English but mixed with Chinese and Filipino”
“FCCA: At home we commonly speak in English and sometimes in Chinese”
“FCCA: Predominantly, we speak in English with some Bahasa Malaysia”
FCCA: Malaysian Chinese spouse; FCCB: Filipino spouse (See Appendix A)
Switching from English to Chinese, Bahasa Malaysia, and Filipino results better communication between Filipino and Malaysian couples. Code switching helps them to transmit a message clearly. This is evident when participants mentioned that mixing Bahasa
Malaysia, Hokkien and English facilitates better understanding.
Filipino spouses who were married to Malaysian Chinese can converse in different
Chinese dialects like Hokkien and Cantonese etc. In contrast, Malaysian Chinese spouses
(husbands) are not proficient in Filipino. When Malaysian Chinese spouses were asked if they wanted to learn Filipino, they said.
“FCCA: Well I would say, it’s not easy to say. I’m not interested to learn Filipino (laugh) but sometimes it just comes. It’s not easy to say, I don’t know.”
“FCCA: I’m not interested to learn the language”
FCCA: Malaysian Chinese spouse (See Appendix A)
The responses reveal that Malaysian-Chinese spouses do not find the Filipino language useful because of its limited function. Direct answers like “I’m not interested to learn
202 Filipino (laugh) and I’m not interested to learn the language” can be interpreted as strongly worded statements which mean that the Filipino language is not essential.
Malaysian spouses could have not seen the usefulness of Filipino language. However, despite their lack of interest in learning the Filipino language, Filipino wives continue to teach their Malaysian husbands and children Filipino phrases because they believe that if their Malaysian spouses can speak Filipino they can communicate better with their family, relatives, and friends in the Philippines.
The occurrence of code switching is also prevalent among Filipino-Malaysian
Indian couples. Of the three groups of couples, Filipino-Malaysian Indians use English the most as their medium of communication at home as compared to Filipino-Malay and
Filipino-Malaysian Chinese couples. However, despite this code switching at home has become a common feature in most interactions because of the couples‟ proficiency in
English and Bahasa Malaysia. Although they are not proficient in Filipino they can understand some Filipino words like “mahal kita (I love you), saan (where), bakit (why), etc.
The use of Tamil is very limited at home because Filipino spouses have difficulty in learning the language. In the interviews conducted with Filipino-Malaysian Indian couples, they said:-
“FCIB: English jud minsan Malay depende sa sitwasyun” (It’s really English sometimes Malay it depends on the situation)
“FCIB: Hindi, pero yung husband ko nagtatagalog ng konti pero pagnaguusap kami most of the time English” (No but my husband speaks also a bit of Filipino but when we communicate we speak English most of the time)
203 “FCIB: Yes, he knows how to speak Tagalog. He can communicate because we frequently go back to the Philippines”
FCIB: Filipino spouse (See Appendix A)
From the interviews conducted it is clear that English is the preferred language of Filipino-
Malaysian Indian couples and their first language is no longer used as the matrix language in their interactions at home. The first language of both spouses particularly Filipino is used only when the need for such language arises. The possibility of losing the couple‟s ethnic language of couples is of higher risk because there is a tendency of not passing their ethnic languages to the next generations. Code alternation can perhaps be considered as a form of accommodation and this is now discussed.
8.3 Code Switching as Accommodation Strategy
Code switching is sometimes used to accommodate another speaker, establish solidarity or to create social distance (Holmes, 2008). Solidarity is built and maintained when speakers converge in interactions while social distance occurs when speakers diverge by showing difference to other speakers. Therefore in every interaction speakers can be expected either to converge or diverge in interactions.
8.3.1 Convergence in Code Switching
Convergence can be evident when speakers show likeness or similarities with other speakers which can be through similar language, speech style or speech rate. However, it is explicit that convergence occurs when a speaker uses the language that other speakers are using. Such patterns of interactions sometimes results in code switching where speakers alter their code choice to accommodate others.
204 Form the data collected, it shows that when couples interact with each other they converge by switching from English to Malay, Chinese, or Filipino. The occurrence of convergence is evident in the conversations of couples.
Conversation 8.2 Interaction between a Filipino wife (W) and a Chinese husband (H)
1.W- Mei Mei is the champion. 2. H- What type? 3. W- She was dancing. Makulit din (also naughty) 4. H- [What?] 5. W- Makulit din parang Kingkoy. Tapos nag join kami for one game. Nag join kami ng contest. It‟s game contest. (Naughty also like Kingkoy. Then we joined for one game. We joined the contest) 6. H- With whom? With Mei Mei? 7. W- Yeah, sya nga nag invite at sa akin, join lang. (She was the one who invited me, join only) 8. H- [uhm] 9. W- Si Mei Mei gusto nya sports. (Mei Mei likes sports) 10. H- Karamihan mga bata? (Majority are children) 11. W- Yeah, kaya nga group nila(their group can do it). Sila yung smallest group sila pa ang nag first (they are the smallest group yet they rank first). Three lang yung team nila (they have only three teams) Yellow, Red, Blue 12. H- Mei Mei knows the game lah. 13. W- Oo, alam nya yung game. Alam nya(she knows the game. She knows) 14. H- [First siya] (she is the first) 15. W-Hindi yung group nila (No, their group). 16. H- Do you think she can follow? 17. W- Oo, syimpre (yes, of course) she can follow the game 18. H- They win
(See Appendix B)
Conversation 8.3 Interaction between a Filipino wife and a Malay husband
A Filipino wife (W) and a Malay husband (H) talking about the wife‟s trip to the Philippines.
1. W: I‟m planning to visit my family in the Philippines in December. What do you think? Ada suggestion? (do you have a suggestion?) 2. H: Ta ada suggestion (I don‟t have any suggestion), my question is ada budget ah? (is there a budget?) 3. W: Saya punya tabungan tapi tidak terlalu besar (I have some savings but not really big)
205 4. H: Yah, itu bergantung kepada anda jika anda pikir itu cukup untuk anda, maka anda boleh memutuskan. (Well, it’s up to you if you think it’s enough for you then you may decide). 5. W: That‟s why I‟m telling to you. 6. H: Apa? (what?) Sometimes you make decision by yourself. I know you. 7. W: I don‟t, Aku hanya ingin kau tahu (I just want you to know). 8. H: Then, if you go, berapa hari kau akan di sana (how many days will you be there?) 9. W: Maybe lima belas hari (fifteen days).
Conversation 8.4 Conversation between a Filipino wife (W) and a Malay husband (H)
1. H: One time we were in Armada Hotel ,I think that was almost 3 o'clock in the morning I was really listening to the song for a practice the next day. He woke up, I thought he woke up and then I asked him it's only 3 o'clock in the morning lah where are you going I said. He just kept quite, he was really serious you know, with the hair long but he didn't let go his hair you must have target you must have target, (laugh) buang siya (he is crazy). (( )) 2. W: - Si boyeng gyud, ris (laugh) kami ni Love Love chismis pa kaayo mi ato ba permanenti man ko matulog ato sa ilahang balay pasa pasa diri ris (Boyeng ris (laugh) we had a chat with Love Love, I always sleep in their house…pass here and there) 3. H: What is that pasa? (pass) 4. W: Pugak, pina ana pa gyud (Pugak was really like this), he has a best friend three of them Mar Mar, Aries, Boyeng. Three of them had the same dream, (( )) sa kakapoy siguro na ris kataw-anan man mo uy. (…) (Out of tiredness maybe ris, you were really funny) 5. H: He walks sleep. 6. W: Ang dilikado diha,(The danger there) is that if he walks outside the door. 7. H: I don't know with Alang huh, I forgot maybe he walked into the window. (…)
(See Appendix B)
Conversation 8.5 Interactions between Filipino wife and a Malaysian Indian husband
Filipino wife (W) and Indian husband (H) talking while cleaning the car
1. H- So we buy the house or not? 2. W- What you think? 3. H- I think we should buy, I think me and my mother would [buy]. 4. W- [yeah], yeah 5. H- Bukas (tomorrow) we possibly see. 6. W- Totoo (true) So, how‟s the room? 7. H – Later we can fix lah. 8. W- You don‟t want to look for another house. 9. H- Not necessarily. 10. W- You said already. Final decision lah. Hmmm. What are you doing? Don‟t make me wet lah. What are you doing?
(See Appendix B)
206 In conversations 8.2, 8.3, 8.4, and 8.5, couples across ethnic groups accommodate their spouses through code switching. Accommodation in interactions is evident in four different conversations. Couples alter their code choices when the previous speakers shift from
English to other languages. Such a pattern of language choice suggests that couples converge when they switch from English to Bahasa Malaysia and Filipino. When a spouse speaks in Malay or Filipino, the other partner may respond in the same language. For instance in conversation 8.2, when the Filipino spouse code switch in Filipino “Si Mei Mei gusto nya sports (Mei Mei likes sports)” the Malaysian husband also replied in Filipino
“Karamihan mga bata? (Majority are children).” Such alternation of code from English to Filipino shows that the husband may have accommodated the wife by switching from
English to Filipino.
Similarly, in the second conversation (conversation 8.3), spouses converge by switching from English to Bahasa Malaysia in an English dominated interaction. When the wife said “I’m planning to visit my family in the Philippines in December. What do you think? Ada suggestion? (Do you have a suggestion?)” the Malay spouse responds by saying “Ta ada suggestion (I don‟t have any suggestion), my question is ada budget ah?
(Is there a budget?)” which is uttered in Malay. Then the Filipino spouse continues in
Malay by saying; “Saya punya tabungan tapi tidak terlalu besar (I have some savings but not really big).” The utterance imitates and follows the code choice of the husband‟s utterance. Such a pattern of code switching shows a convergent form of accommodation.
In conversation 7.5, the occurrence of code switching in the couple‟s interaction also occurs. For example when the Indian husband said “Bukas (tomorrow) we possibly see”, the use of Filipino is evident in the first part of the utterance. Consequently, the wife
207 responds in English and Filipino and says “Totoo (true) so, how’s the room?” The wife responds in both English and Filipino as the husband had used both languages in the previous utterance. Such occurrence of code switching shows language convergence among the couples.
8.3.2 Divergence in Code Switching
Divergence in communication occurs when speakers try to accentuate their verbal and non- verbal differences so as to differentiate themselves from other speakers. In interactions between Filipino and Malaysian spouses‟ divergence in communication is also seen.
Conversation 8.6 A conversation between a Filipino wife (W) and Malaysian Chinese husband (H).
1. W- It will also enlighten and help your data collection 2. H [better] result. (( )). What‟s the paper? 3. R- It‟s about language choice of interracial marriages. 4. H- Maybe you can include cross cultural communication. 5. W- [There] you go. 6. H- I‟ve encountered several cross cultural communication. 7. W- The expert is Francis (( )) 8. H-We deal more on foreign relations and some international students. 9. W- sige na, sige na(ok, ok) 10. H- Yeah, they conduct also research. 11. R- My research is a bit related to cross cultural communication 12. W- Yeah, cultural understanding is necessary 13. R- I first thought of inter-ethnic marriages in Sarawak but I don‟t know the various ethnic languages. 14. H and W- [Sabah and Sarawak] 15. R- It‟s quite difficult because I don‟t know the language. 16. W- Oh yeah. Kaon sa saging Dong.(eat the banana Dong) 17. H- You‟re going to Taman Connaught? 18. R- No, I‟m going to my friend‟s house in Taman Putra. 19. H- I see. (See Appendix B)
208 Conversation 8.7 A conversation between a Filipino wife (W) and a Malaysian Indian husband (H).
1. W- What did mother say about the rumah (house). 2. H- [It‟s nice]. Put the cover there. 3. W- Di mana (where)? 4. H- There? 5. W- No. hmm. The house. hmm, the area, how? Sa labas(outside) you can see. 6. H- [Not everything when you go up] 7. W- Ano? (what) 8. H- [How many] times there you go up. Yeah, if you are staying the house more. I think it‟s peaceful and not tight like that. All the the house are very far far, ok? It looks like ahhh. 9. W- Yeah, sige (ok) . 10. H- [Then] security also. 11. W- So lah, tawagan ko si Philip (I will call Philip). 12. H – Call him now lah 13. W- You call him now? 14. H- [I‟m doing] the car wash
(See Appendix B)
In conversations 8.6 and 8.7, it is evident that Malaysian spouses diverge in interactions. In both conversations Filipino spouses frequently switch from English to Filipino or Malay however the Malaysian spouses continue to speak in English. In such interactions, it can be said that Malaysian spouses may have diverged by not switching to the language used by the spouse in the previous utterance.
Conversation 8.6 shows that the Malaysian spouse speaks in English with no switching to either Chinese, or Bahasa Malaysia. In contrast, the Filipino spouse keeps on switching from English to Cebuano, one of the languages in the Southern part of the
Philippines. Although the husband could only understand a bit of Cebuano the wife continues the switching. In this context, the wife perhaps presumes that even if she switches in Cebuano her husband could still follow and understand her message. The husband did not show any sign that he misunderstood the message because he responded in the
209 conversation correctly. The non-cooperative behavior of the husband by not switching from
English to Filipino can be interpreted as divergence in interactions.
Similarly, in conversation 8.7, the Filipino wife made at least six attempts to switch from English to Filipino and Bahasa Malaysia but the Malaysian spouse did not make an attempt to switch from English to Filipino or Bahasa Malaysia.
In conversations 8.6 and 8.7, divergence occurs when a speaker maintains his or her own language despite the attempts made by the other interlocutor who switches from one language to the other. Divergent behavior can perhaps be attributed to the speaker‟s intention. In some cases when a speaker would like to construct his or her identity differently from other speakers, it is possible for him or her to diverge in communication.
8.4 Functions of Code Switching
In analyzing the functions of code switching in interactions, conversation analysis (CA) approach was used. The CA approach can be effective if the focus of the analysis is on conversational code switching.
Interactions between Filipino and Malaysian spouses reveal that code switching occurs for different reasons. The findings of the study reveal that Filipino-Malaysian couples code switch from English to Bahasa Malaysia and Filipino to show politeness, solidarity, social distance and confirmation.
210 8.4.1 Code Switching as Politeness Strategy
Politeness is a social variable that determines the choice of a register or style (Coulmas,
2005). Speakers are sometimes careful in using the lexicon of another language in order to minimize a face-threatening act (Holmes, 2008). In cultures that consider directness as impolite motivates speakers to carefully choose appropriate lexical items so as not to be perceived as impolite. It is evident in the conversations between Filipino-Malaysian couples, politeness manifests through code switching.
Conversation 8.8 Conversation of a Filipino wife (W) and a Malay husband (H) during a meal
1 W: This one is nice 2 H: No lah, the curry (…) 3 W: You want water? (…) wala na ba? (nothing?) 4 H: A little bit only (…) 5 W: Wala pa wala pa ta naka booking hon, sa hospital ba wala pa ang booking. (No, no, we haven’t booked honey; the booking is not in the hospital yet) 6 H: If not today tomorrow morning I will get.
(See Appendix B)
Conversation 8.8 shows the interaction between a Filipino wife (W) and a Malaysian husband (H). The conversation took place at home during lunch. While having their meal, the husband pointed at something which suggested that the wife had to get something for him. The wife got the fish and said “This one is nice.” The wife‟s utterance in turn 1 can be considered as invitation or suggestion to try the fish. In turn 2 the husband refused the offer and softened it by using the Malaysian particle “lah” in the sentence “No lah, the curry”. The wife in turn 3 offered water to compensate the mistake she made for giving the fish instead of curry. In turn 4 the husband accepted the wife‟s offer by saying “A little bit only”. In turn 5 the wife suddenly changed the topic by asking the husband “Wala pa wala
211 pa ta naka booking hon, sa hospital ba wala pa ang booking (no, no, we haven’t booked honey, the booking for the hospital).” The husband replied that “If not today tomorrow morning I will get.”
The switching from English to Filipino in line 3 was initiated by the wife. It is evident that the husband did not alter his code choice despite the wife‟s continuous switching from English to Filipino. In turn 3 switching from English to Filipino is an utterance with the intention to compensate and soften the previous utterance because the husband may not have been satisfied with the offer (see Chapter 2, Section 2.5). The intention to compensate and to soften the previous utterance can be interpreted as politeness strategy to minimize the impact of the other speakers‟ dissatisfaction.
In the conversation, the occurrence of “with-in turn” code switching between
Filipino and Malaysian spouses is evident (see Chapter 2, Section 2.4). Such occurrence of code switching can be analyzed in terms of language negotiation and the preferred conversational organization of speakers.
The occurrence of politeness in conversation 8.8 is not explicitly uttered by the wife
(W). In the Philippine context, doing something to compensate any mistake is interpreted as polite behavior (Dumanig, Manueli, 2009). The use of appropriate language and discourse organization in conversation has played an important role in maintaining a polite manner of making a request. In fact, the wife‟s request in turn 5 occurs only after four turns in conversation. In turn 3, the wife had a long pause then she started switching from English to Filipino so as to make the interaction informal thus making a request less intimidating
(Bautista, 2004). The wife‟s initiative of offering something to drink is a form of
212 compensation, which can be interpreted as polite way of accommodating the spouse. It is also evident when the offer was made the wife switched from English to Filipino to mitigate a face threatening act. The switching in turn 3 may signal a transition that the wife would utter her request soon. In turn 5, the wife switches to Filipino instead of English to make the request more polite.
Schematically, the relationship between conversational structure and code choice follows a sequential order:-
1 A: offer (English) 2 H: refusal (English) 3 A: offer (English) – confirmation (Filipino) 4 H: acceptance (English) 5 A: request (Filipino) 6 H: approval (English)
The sequential order in conversation has helped to organize the interaction so as to achieve approval on the request in turn 5. In turn 1, the wife used English in giving an offer which was accommodated by the husband (H) in turn 2 by using a similar language. When the wife attempted another offer in turn 3, code switching in Filipino occurred to show confirmation. The confirmation in Filipino may signal the wife‟s intention to make a request in the next turn. In turn 5, the request was made by switching from English to
Filipino thus making a request polite.
Conversation 8.9
Interaction between a Filipino wife (W) and a Malaysian husband (H).
1. H: His place belakang (behind) Giant? 2. W: Yeah, Alam mo ba yan? (Do you know it?)
213 3. H: Alam ko (I know) before reaching the place ada (there is) McDonalds, right? 4. W: Yeah lah. Pwede? you drive him later. (can) 5. H: No problem. 6. W: Remember, we passed by several times in that area.
(See Appendix B)
Conversation 8.9 occurs in the home domain. In turn 1, the husband asked his wife “His place belakang (behind) Giant?” where he switches from English to Bahasa Malaysia. The wife responded in turn 2 in Filipino “Yeah, alam mo ba yun? (Do you know it?). The husband accommodated the wife by answering in Filipino in turn 3 as “Alam ko (I know)”.
In turn 4 the wife agreed with her husband but it was accompanied by a request “Yeah lah.
Pwede? (can) you drive him later?.” In turn 5, the husband agreed to drive the visitor home.
The conversation can be analyzed by examining the discourse pattern and the code choice of the speaker in the interaction. Code switching with-in turns from English to
Filipino in turns 1 to 6 is prevalent in the conversation. It is also evident that politeness is uttered by the wife in turn 4 by using a polite word “pwede” (can). The request which is the main focus of the conversation did not occur in turn 1 but it was uttered in Filipino in turn
4. Such a pattern of discourse and code choice is similar in example 8.8 where switching from English to Filipino in making a request is seen as a polite act. Making a request in the latter part of the conversation can be considered as indirect request and such indirectness is deemed to be polite in some cultures (David, 2008).
The sequential order of conversation in relation to the speaker‟s code choices is represented as follows:-
214 1. H: Question (English and Bahasa Malaysia) 2. W: Confirmation (Filipino) 3. H: Answer (Filipino, English and Bahasa Malaysia) 4. W: Agreement (Filipino) 5. H: Comment (English). 6. W: Reminder (English)
The sequential order in conversation shows the occurrence of code switching from turn 1.to turn 6. In turn 1, the husband asked a question in English and Bahasa Malaysia where the switching signals that the husband would like to establish solidarity in conversation. In turn
2 the wife answered the question in Filipino. The use of Filipino in turn 2 is a marked choice (see Chapter 2, Section 2.4) because such use of code is unexpected. The wife‟s marked choice can also be interpreted as a signal for a favor that she would ask in the next turns. In turn 3, the husband answered and accommodated the wife by using Filipino but later switched to English and Bahasa Malaysia. The switching in Filipino by the husband signals his accommodative behavior thus creating solidarity in interaction. Consequently, the wife made a request in turn 4 in Filipino. Using the Filipino language in turn 4 can be interpreted as a face saving strategy to show politeness in making a request.
Conversation 8.10 A conversation between a Malaysian husband (H) and a Filipino wife
(W) after dinner.
1. H: Then, if you go, berapa hari kau akan di sana?(How many days will you be there?) 2. W: Maybe lima blas hari (fifteen days). 3. H: Huh, lima blas hari (fifteen days)? Quite long ah. 4. W: I seldom see them. 5. H: Yeah, I know but what about our child? 6. W: I will bring him.
Note: The Malay husband can understand Filipino. (See Appendix B)
215 Conversation 8.10 shows the interaction between a Filipino wife and a Malay husband. In turn 1 the husband asked his wife “Then, if you go, berapa hari kau akan di sana (how many days will you be there?).” The husband switched from English to Bahasa Malaysia when asking the question. In turn 2, W responded by switching code (English and Bahasa
Malaysia) “Maybe lima blas hari (fifteen days).” H answered in turn 3 in Bahasa
Malaysia then switched to English “Huh, lima blas hari (fifteen days)? Quite long ah”. The conversation continues in turns 4, 5, and 6 where English was used.
Conversation 8.10 reveals the switching from English to Bahasa Malaysia in an interaction between a Filipino wife and a Malaysian husband in the home domain. When H asked his wife the number of days that W would stay in the Philippines, he switched from
English to Bahasa Malaysia. The switching can be interpreted as a strategy to initiate a casual conversation so as to mitigate a face-threatening if he would refuse the wife‟s request. In turn 2, the wife responded in English then switched to Bahasa Malaysia to convince her husband to agree with her plan to stay in the Philippines for fifteen days.
Switching to Bahasa Malaysia is considered an unmarked choice because H is a Malay and using Bahasa Malaysia would make the utterance more convincing. In turn 3, H responded in Bahasa Malaysia then switched to English to show his indirect disapproval of the request. There is a sign of disapproval in turn 3 because the utterance in English appeared to be a complaint “Quite long ah.”
In the conversation, it is evident that the use of Bahasa Malaysia has helped to establish solidarity in the interaction and maintain politeness even when showing disapproval (see turns 1-3). On the other hand, English is used to create social distance and to reinforce the disapproval.
216 In conversation 8.10, the relationship between conversational structure and code choice follows a sequential order:-
1. H: Question (English and Malay) 2. W: Answer (English and Malay) 3. H: Objection (Malay and English) 4. W: Reason (English) 5. H: Question (English) 6. W: Answer (English)
The sequential order in conversation shows that code switching occurs with-in turns which is evident in turns 1 to 3. This question-answer sequence in conversation provides an idea that the conversational structure and the code choice of the speaker are interrelated. This is evident in turns 1 to 3 and turns 4 to 6. The choice of a mixed code for instance occurs because one speaker who initiated it in turn 1. Then the following turns in the conversation used a similar pattern of code choice (see Chapter 2, Sec. 2.5). Similarly, the use of English from turns 4 to 6 occurs because it is initiated by W in turn 3 and in the next turns English was used.
The sequential order in conversation has influenced the speaker‟s language choice and the flow of the entire discourse. For instance, the choice of two languages (English and
Filipino) can be used to show politeness in interactions (see Conversations 8.8, 8.9 and
8.10). In addition, politeness is not only shown in the language used by the speaker but it can be evident in the order of conversation how both interlocutors take turns. For example in a situation where the speaker controls the conversation and does not allow other interlocutor to speak signals impoliteness.
217 8.4.2 Code Switching to Show Solidarity
Code switching may function to show solidarity. The languages selected consciously or unconsciously establish closer relationship among the speakers.
Conversation 8.11 shows an interaction between Filipino wives and Malaysian husbands.
Conversation 8.11
A conversation between a Filipino wife (W) and a Malay husband (H).
1 W: Let‟s go to the hospital hon, check up lang ba (just for a check up). 2 H: Is that Bandar Baru or Taman Putra? 3 W: Pa scan daw ta hon (hon can we go for scanning). 4 H: Can, can 5 W: In Taman Putra ada (There is in Taman Putra) 6 H: Wala (none)
(See Appendix B)
In turn 1, the wife (W) told the husband (H) to have a check up. However, in turn 2 instead of answering the request, H asked the location of the hospital “Is that Bandar Baru or
Taman Putra?” In turn 3, W made a request “Pa scan daw ta hon. (hon can we go for scanning).” H responded in turn 4 by agreeing to W‟s request. In turn 5, W suggested “In
Taman Putra ada (There is in Taman Putra)” but in turn 6, H rejected the suggestion by saying “wala” (none).
In turn 1, the wife‟s request was uttered in English and Filipino. The switching from English to Filipino can help the requestee to get what she wanted because it builds solidarity between the speakers. In the conversation, code switching is used to obtain a
218 positive response from the other speaker. W repeated the request and switched again to
Filipino to pursue her goal to get H‟s approval. The switch from English to Filipino in the second and third turns signals a collaborative interaction to establish solidarity between two interlocutors. The use of the ethnic language appears to have helped in establishing solidarity between speakers. In turn 4, H‟s reply was in basilectal Malaysian English which can be interpreted as a positive response. Code switching between Filipino and Malaysian
English in turns 3 and 4 signals solidarity. As a result, W got H‟s approval.
Solidarity was built through code switching from English to Bahasa Malaysia. Such switching can also be interpreted as way of showing gratitude for the approval of W‟s request. Turn 6 shows H‟s answer in Filipino to show solidarity. Eventhough he replied negatively, he softened it by using the wife‟s language and thus minimized a face- threatening act (FTA). It can be said that the use of the partner‟s language neutralizes a negative response.
The conversation follows a sequential order:-
1 A: request (English and Filipino) 2 H: clarification (English) 3 A: request (Filipino) 4 H: approval (English) 5 A: clarification (Malay) 6 H: answer (Filipino)
The request-approval sequence reveals that establishing solidarity in conversation can be used as a strategy in mitigating a face-threatening act.
219 Conversation 8.12 Conversation between a Filipino wife (W) and a Malaysian Chinese husband (H).
1. W: He wants to buy. 2. H: Underwear? 3. W: Oo, at saka (yes, and also) stocking, black. Later you bring them. 4. H: Office one. 5. W: Oo, at saka (Yes, and) 6. H: yung maganda (the good ones) 7. W: Uhm yung magandang quality at saka yung underwear yung magandang quality, adiddas (the one with good quality and the underwear must be of good quality, addidas) 8. H: [Addidas?] 9. W: Ano bang magandang quality doon? (What’s the good quality there?) 10. H: Lee Cooper 11. W: Ayun, Lee Cooper. Large lang yata sya. Kapag malaki big size. Nakita mo na sya. Baka medium ok na kaysa large. (That’s it, Lee Cooper. It’s only large. You saw him. Maybe medium is ok for him) 12. H: Magandang quality. (Good quality)
(See Appendix B)
Conversation 8.12 shows how a Filipino and Malay couple establishes solidarity in interactions through code switching. In turns 1 and 2, English is used by both speakers.
However, in turn 3 the wife (W) switched to Filipino and English. In turns 5 to 12, it is evident that Filipino has become prevalent. This shows that both husband and wife show cooperation in switching from English to Filipino.
The conversation follows the following order of languages used:-
1. W: request (English) 2. H: clarification (English) 3. W: request (Filipino and English) 4. H: suggestion (English) 5. W: acceptance (Filipino) 6. H: suggestion (Filipino) 7. W: confirmation and suggestion (Filipino) 8. H: confirmation 9. W: question (Filipino) 10. H: reply 11. W: suggestion (Filipino) 12. H: confirmation (Filipino)
220 The switching from English to Filipino shows that both spouses cooperate with each other and when one spouse speaks in Filipino the other spouse uses the same language. A similar pattern occurred when English was used. Such convergence in conversation through code switching and code shifting indicate solidarity.
8.4.3 Code Switching to Show Confirmation
Code switching can be used to grant a request or to show confirmation. In Filipino-
Malaysian couples‟ interactions request is granted and indicated by a switch from one language to another as shown in Conversation 8.13.
Conversation 8.13 A conversation between a Filipino wife and Malaysian Indian husband
D (Filipino wife) and J (Malaysian Indian husband)
1 D: My husband also speaks Filipino. 2 J: Yeah, kumain ka na, halika na. (Have you eaten? Come). 3 D: You sometimes talk to me in Tagalog, di ba? (Don’t you?) 4 J: Yeah, because we often use it, it‟s like getting married daily with the Filipino language (( )).
(See Appendix B)
In the conversation, the Filipino spouse uttered a statement in turn 1 to motivate the
Malaysian Indian spouse to speak in Filipino by saying “My husband also speaks
Filipino.“ The utterance in turn 1 can be interpreted as a request to prove that the
Malaysian spouse can speak Filipino. In turn 2, the husband replied by saying “Yeah, kumain ka na? halika na” (Have you eaten? come) which proves that he can speak
Filipino. The utterance in turn 2 is a switch from English to Filipino and shows that the request made by the Filipino spouse has been granted. In turn 3, the Filipino spouse said,
“You sometimes talk to me in Tagalog, di ba (Don’t you?)” which is a request for him to
221 confirm. It is evident that the tag phrase “di ba? (Don’t you?)” is used to show confirmation.
Code switching in the conversation is evident in turns 2 and 3. The switching in turn
2 is an answer to the wife‟s utterance in turn 1 which initiates the Malaysian spouse to speak in Filipino (see Chapter 2, Section 2.5). The switching can be interpreted as a grant to the wife‟s request. Conversation 8.6 reveals that code switching in turns 2 and 3 occur in between turns and within turns. Turns 1 it shows the switching between turns and in turn 2 and turn 3 code switching occur within turns like saying the statement in English with a
Filipino tag phrase (You sometimes talk to me in Tagalog, di ba?) (Don’t you?) indicates confirmation.
The conversation follows a sequential order.
1 D: request (English) 2 J: grant (English; Filipino) 3 D: request for confirmation (English; Filipino) 4 J: confirmation (English)
The request-confirmation sequence shows that switching from English to Filipino has helped in granting a request (see Conversation 8.13). The switching of codes with-in turns are evident in turns 2 and 3 where J granted the request and requested a confirmation.
The next example in Conversation 8.14 is a conversation between a Filipino wife
and a Malaysian husband. The conversation took place in the couples‟ house while having
a coffee with the researcher in the presence of their two young children aged 9 and 4. The
222 conversation was centered on the researchers‟ research which encouraged the couples to
discuss and shares the names of possible participants the researcher could interview.
Below is the excerpt of the conversation where only the couples exchange their
messages.
Conversation 8.14
L (Filipino wife) and F (Malaysian Chinese husband)
1 L: Si koan hon yung Eurasian. (The Eurasian hon). 2 F: I think, Jeffrey. 3 L: yeah 4 F: Mixed ma. (“ma” particle) 5 L: Filipino iyang wife (His wife is a Filipino) 6 F: Yeah, Jo 7 L: Yeah lah (“lah” particle) 8 F: What is the title of his paper? 9 L: Interracial communication. 10 F: Oh, is it about interethnic communication. 11L: Yeah, there you go (( )).
(See Appendix B)
Conversation 8.14 reveals that code switching occurs from English to Filipino. In turn 1, the wife (L) made an inquiry by saying in Filipino, “Si koan hon yung Eurasian. (The
Eurasian hon.” which impliedly asked the name of the Eurasian who married the Filipino.
The inquiry in Filipino was answered in turn 2 by the Malaysian husband (F) in English “I think, Jeffrey “ and is confirmed by L in turn 3. The utterance in turn 3 is a confirmation which is an agreement of F‟s answer. H made an assertion in turn 4 that the couple is mixed “Mixed ma. (“ma” particle).” The particle “ma” is common among Malaysians which appears to be frequent in Malaysian English. The assertion made in turn 4 is agreed
223 by L by giving more information about the couple. In turn 5 L uttered in Filipino “Filipino iyang wife (His wife is a Filipino)” which is an agreement to H. In turn 7 L said “yeah lah” to show an agreement.
In the conversation it is clear that in turn 5, L confirmed F‟s request in turn 4. Such confirmation was made by switching from English to Filipino. Such occurrence of confirmation is similar to Conversation 8.13. However, it is noticeable in the conversation that most switching in Filipino is done by the Filipino wife. However, it is appears that the
Malaysian husband comprehends the Filipino language because he answered all the queries.
The conversation shows that the husband did not attempt to speak any word of Filipino even when the wife asked the questions in Filipino. Instead the husband used the
Malaysian English variety.
The conversation between the Filipino spouse and the Malaysian Chinese spouse can be arranged in the following sequential order.
1 L: inquiry (Filipino) 2 F: answer (English) 3 L: agreement (English) 4 F: assertion (Malaysian English) 5 L: confirmation (Filipino) 6 F: agreement (English) 7 L: agreement (Malaysian English)
The sequential order reveals that code switching in conversation occurs between turns from English to Filipino. However, the occurrence of confirmation in turn 5 is uttered in
Filipino.
224 8.5 Conclusion
The occurrence of code switching in interracial couples‟ interaction has become an emerging language variety. It reveals that such communication provides speakers the chance and opportunity to interact with others effectively. When couples converge, solidarity in interactions is evident.
In addition code switching from one language to another is used to compensate and soften the previous utterance, minimize a face threatening act, signal a change of topic, establish an impact to get what the speaker wants, create a positive response from the other speaker, create social distance and disapproval, signal a collaborative interaction (establish solidarity), accommodate other speaker, grant a request and show confirmation. These reasons are seen in actual conversations of couples in different turns. Moreover, the occurrence of code switching appears between turns and with-in turns which signal the intention of an interlocutor for switching from one language to the other.
Code switching is inevitable for multilingual speakers (see Chapter 2, Section 2.4).
In such case, English is used as the matrix language while Bahasa Malaysia, Chinese, and
Filipino function as embedded language.
225 CHAPTER NINE
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
9.1 Introduction
This final chapter provides an overview of the study. The chapter is divided into three sections such as research background, summary of findings, and recommendations.
Towards the end of the chapter, suggestions or recommendations for future research are discussed.
9.2 Summary of the Study
9.2.1 Background
This study examines and analyzes the occurrence of language choice, accommodation strategies, and code switching of interracial couples‟ verbal communication in the home domain.
This study aimed to:
1. Examine Filipino-Malaysian couples‟ language choice in the home domain.
2. Examine language choice in relation to ethnicity, religion, first language and
gender.
3. Investigate the accommodation strategies used by Filipino-Malaysian couples‟ in
verbal communication.
4. Examine the occurrence of code switching in interactions in the home domain.
5. Explore the reasons for the codes selected.
226 The study also sought to answer the following questions:
1. What is the preferred language of Filipino-Malaysian couples in the home domain?
2. How do ethnicity, religion, first language and gender influence language choice?
3. What accommodation strategies are used by couples in verbal communication in the
home domain?
Giles and Powesland‟s (1979) Communication Accommodation Theory (CAT) was used as the theoretical framework of the study. The concept of CAT has been extended to family communication where different accommodation strategies such as approximation, interpretability, discourse management, and interpersonal control strategies are emphasized.
Consequently, a conceptual framework of this research was conceptualized to help explain the occurrence of language choice, accommodation strategies, and code switching in interracial couples‟ communication (see Figure 2.1).
Studies on language choice, accommodation strategies, and code switching were reviewed to provide background knowledge of the area being studied. In addition, the literature review provides a wider knowledge of language choice in interracial communication (see Chapter 2).
9.2.2 Methodology
Chapter 3 outlined the research design and methodology of the study. Both qualitative and quantitative approaches were employed to capture a comprehensive data gathering and analysis. To carry out the study, 30 interviews, 6 (60 minutes) recorded conversations and
60 survey questionnaires were used to collect data. There were 60 spouses who took part in the study. In analyzing the data both quantitative and qualitative approaches were used.
227 Qualitative approach was used to analyze the interviews and recorded conversation and quantitative approach was used to analyze the survey data.
9.2.3 Findings
The findings of the study show that English dominates. Both Filipino and Malaysian spouses consider English as their second language or a foreign language. Although English is not their first language, they choose to use it in the home domain because of the personal and social benefits it brings. As a result, the couples‟ first language has been displaced by
English. Since English has become the medium of communication between husband and wife, there is a possibility that English will become the first language of their children.
Eventually, the mother tongue of Filipino and Malaysian spouses might be abandoned by the young generations (with the exemption of Bahasa Malaysia because of its wider social function compared to other languages).
Selecting a code in conversation is a challenging task for interracial couples.
Language choice occurs because of the spouses‟ intention to accommodate their partners.
The findings show that Filipino wives accommodate their Malaysian husbands because they are in Malaysia. It is also found that power claims in couples‟ interactions are evident where husbands tend to show more power and authority than the wife through language.
Therefore, husbands seem to be in control in the homes studied.
Strategies to accommodate spouses were examined and included such as approximation, interpretability, discourse management, and interpersonal control. Such accommodation strategies were used even in a single communicative event.
228 Moreover, in examining the language choice of interracial couples it is found that language alternation or code switching has become a common feature. The wider linguistic repertoire of bilingual couples resulted in code switching from English to Bahasa Malaysia,
Filipino and Chinese in various interactions in the home domain. The patterns of code switching were analyzed using the conversation analysis approach. The findings reveal that the lexical choices between turns and within turn create an impact to the speaker. Code switching occurs in various interactions at home because they function to compensate and soften the previous utterance, minimize a face threatening act, establish solidarity, signal a collaborative interaction (establish solidarity), accommodate other speakers, and to show agreement.
Code switching with English as the dominant language has emerged to be the preferred language variety of Filipino-Malaysian couples and appears to be natural in every interaction at home. Code switching has become a common language variety for Filipino-
Malaysian couples.
9.3 Contributions of the Study
The findings of the study provide some theoretical, empirical, and methodological contributions in sociolinguistic research particularly in interracial couples‟ language choice in verbal communication.
9.3.1 Theoretical Contribution
This research contributes to the theoretical development of interracial couples‟ interactions in the home domain. Such contribution is labeled as the Circular Model of Interracial
Couples‟ Communication as shown in Figure 9.1.
229
Husband
Code Communic switching ative intent
Language Accommo choice dation strategies Race, First language,
Age Accommo dation Language strategies choice
Code Communic switching ative intent wife
Figure 9.1 Circular Model of Interracial Couples’ Communication
This Circular Model of Interracial Couples‟ Communication serves as the theoretical contribution of this study in communication research. The model has been conceptualized based on the findings presented in Chapters 4,5,6,7 & 8. The model shows that the spouse‟s (husband or wife) communicative intent influences his or her language choice, accommodation strategies and patterns of code switching which leads to convergence or divergence in communication. A spouse may choose a language or mixed languages depending on his or her intention. In the process of communication, both husband and wife may possibly use certain strategies such as approximation, interpretability, discourse
230 management, and interpersonal control to accommodate each other. Consequently, both spouses may converge or diverge when communicating (see Chapters 7 and 8). It can be expected that multilingual husband or wife selects an appropriate language which might be influenced by his or her communicative intent and the accommodation strategies that he or she prefers to use (see Chapters 5 and 6). However, it is inevitable that the communicative intent, language choice, accommodation strategies, and code switching in husband and wife interaction can be influenced by the social factors such as race, first language and age (see
Chapters 5,6,7 and 8). These factors could not be separated in interracial couples‟ communication because they are embedded with the speaker‟s language and culture (see
Chapters 4 and 5).
The process of communication between husband and wife follows a similar pattern as both speakers continue to communicate. This circular pattern of communication shows that interactions continuously follow a circular movement. With such concept, the model is labeled as circular model because the process of communication continues as the two interlocutors communicate.
In addition, this study may provide some contributions in the theoretical development of Communication Accommodation Theory (CAT) most particularly in interracial couples‟ language choice and accommodation strategies. CAT was used to examine and analyze the language choice and accommodation strategies used by interracial couples in verbal communication.
231 9.3.2 Empirical contribution
This study has documented and described how Filipino-Malaysian couples choose English and code switch from English to Bahasa Malaysia, Filipino, or Chinese when communicating with their spouses. The empirical data as presented in various Tables and
Figures in Chapters 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8 provide new ideas to the readers and researchers on the patterns of language choice, accommodation strategies, and code switching in Filipino-
Malaysian couples‟ interactions in the home domain.
9.3.3 Methodological contribution
This research adds knowledge to the methodological framework in conducting a study on interracial couples‟ communication. Investigating how husband and wife communicate requires a good methodology in the data gathering that will capture a wider range of information so as to explain the complexity of couples‟ language choice, accommodation strategies, and code switching. The use of mixed method can be a good research design to effectively assure a valid and reliable data gathering and analysis of interracial couples‟ communication because these two research approaches include the qualitative and quantitative (see Chapter 3).
9.4 Recommendations
The study concludes that Filipino-Malaysian couples prefer English as the medium of communication in the home domain. They also have shifted to a new variety of language which is code switching. However, the dominance of English is evident when husband and wife code switch. The switching patterns reveal that English serves as the matrix language and Bahasa Malaysia, Chinese, and Filipino function as embedded languages.
232 Future research on languages used by Filipinos married to spouses of other nationalities like Thai, Indonesians, and Vietnamese is suggested. Replicating the methodology of this study can further substantiate its theoretical contribution to the circular model of interracial couples‟ communication and it may add new insights in
Communication Accommodation Theory (CAT).
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245 Appendix A: Interview Transcripts
FILIPINO-MALAYSIAN CHINESE COUPLES
TRANSCRIPT FILE 1 R= (Researcher) W= FCCB (Filipino wife) H= FCCA (Malaysian Chinese husband)
1 R: How do you communicate with each other as husband and wife? 2 W: We communicate in a very friendly manner. We speak English most of the time because it‟s the language that we understand better. But in my case I do speak of course Tagalog, Ilokano, English, Bahasa, and Bedayuh and now I‟m learning Iban. 3 R: You speak 6 languages. Of these 6 languages, what is your first language? 4 W: The first one is Ilokano and the second language is Tagalog then English 5 R: How about you, (husband) do you speak similar languages with your wife? 6 H: No, I speak 3 languages very fluently, two Chinese dialects and Tagalog. Obviously my choice is English 7 R: Are you fluent in Chinese? 8 H: No, I guess in Bahasa because Chinese is just used in conversing with friends. 9 R: In your place, what language is widely spoken? 10 H: I would say Malay, Bahasa but most of the time we speak Bahasa here with people around. 11 R: What language do you think that you feel more comfortable to use? 12 H: I think English, I prefer English. 13 R: Why English? 14 H: I think English is very common. I was brought up in an English language school and that is the so called lah. The medium of instruction used in school at that time was English. I was brought up in English and I am comfortable in English. Even with my children I speak English; of course once in a while I speak Bahasa. I would say 70% will be English, 25% will be Bidayuh and 5 % Bahasa Malaysia. 15 R: How about in your case (facing the wife) which of the 6 languages you feel more comfortable to use? 16 W: Well, it‟s English. I will choose English too because I believe it‟s an advantage because it is useful in the business. It is useful when you mix with other people. My husband told me also that we should speak English to the children. 17 R: At home what language is used when only both of you are talking? 18 W: English 19 H: (joins the conversation) I communicate English with my wife. 20 R: So only English is used at home. 21 H: No, sometimes other languages come out naturally like Chinese and others but obviously English is more convenient. It comes out naturally. Even though she can speak the local languages (referring to the wife) I mean of course not that fluent I would say we prefer to speak English with one another. I also encourage my children to speak English. 22 R: Do you mean English and other local languages are mixed? 23 W: yes
246 24 R: What languages that you speak aside from English? 25 H: A bit of Chinese and Bahasa. 26 R: How about Tagalog? 27 H: Well, I think only in the Philippines (laughs) 28 W: Yes and they learn very fast. 29 H: It depends with the environment. When we go to the Philippines, I think the children will automatically talk in Tagalog but they speak English most of the time. 30 R: When you are talking with the children what language do you speak? 31 H: I would say, as I said just now still will be English and then mixed with Chinese and other local languages. 32 R: How about when you go out at home? For example in the market, do you still use English? 33 H: English 34 W: English 35 R: So English is the major language that you speak at home. How about in your case (facing the husband) did you strive to learn her language which is Filipino? 36 H: Well I would say, it‟s not easy to say. I‟m not interested (laugh) but sometimes it just comes. It‟s not to say that I don‟t know. Actually, I can speak the language. It‟s that I am not the person that practices it, using it all the time but I would definitely. I‟m learning the language but I‟m not using it as a medium of communication. But there are times when I go to the Philippines it would become useful at least I‟m able to communicate with the people. 37 R: So you could interact with the people in the Philippines. 38 W: Yeah. 39 R: How about in your case (facing the wife) did you strive to learn Chinese and Bidayuh? 40 W: Yes I do. 41 R: So why did you strive to learn Chinese and Bidayuh? 42 W: Because his sisters could not communicate in English. He‟s the only one who can speak English. 43 R: Is it the only way for you to interact with them? 44 W: Yeah because they can‟t speak English. So I need to learn otherwise it‟s hard to talk to them because even in Bahasa Malaysia they are not fluent. 45 R: You have been married for 17 years throughout your married life were you able to discover among yourselves a “private language” that only the two of you can understand? 46 H: Yes, there are words that we used for each other. 47 R: It‟s just like that you play with words, something like that? 48 H: Not exactly but we called names like “kolo pangit” (laugh) in Tagalog means ugly but it‟s not the word “ugly” but I used that word. You know the connotation of honest or love. It‟s not really the word people would say why called the wife “pangit” you know what I mean. 49 W: That‟s true everybody was shocked. 50 H: But for me that is not. We don‟t normally bother consciously having a special word, not really. 51 R: By the way, what is your idea about husband and wife relationship? 52 H: I believe that both of us have the same, you know what I mean husband and wife have equal responsibility in the house, upbringing of children, taking care of the house and equal responsibility, you know. If one is not free to do it then the
247 other one should be able to do it, I see. I think it‟s a joint shall we say responsibility lah. That‟s what I do at home, if she‟s not at home I keep the house clean (laugh) because I like to see the house clean and tidy. To me it‟s a responsibility of both husband and wife to bring up the family that is in a manner that, you know, harmonious and happy family. 53 R: (facing to the wife) Yeah, that‟s right. What do you think about husband and wife relationship? 54 W: Yeah, similar with my husband and another thing is that. I prefer that there is always communication between me and him. A clear communication because marriage is always affected because of lack of communication between husband and wife. Therefore, like what he said sharing the responsibility is there. It‟s just like for me and him I think there‟s no problem about that. We are still learning and growing but there‟s no problem about it. 55 R: How about as husband and wife are you interdependent with one another? 56 H: Well, I think in that sense, maybe but if we look at it individually we are independent persons. She does her own and I do my own. At the end of the day we do something beneficial to both of us, understanding each other‟s strength and weaknesses, you know. To say interdependent, I won‟t say that I can‟t do anything without her. I don‟t believe in that. Each of us has our own strength and weaknesses. I don‟t expect her to depend too much on me in order to do such things. She has her own strength for example back to the Philippines for example for a holiday or to visit the family, don‟t expect me that I don‟t know what to do (laugh). We have our strength and weaknesses. In that sense as husband and wife we are of course totally together. 57 W: Yeah, I agree with him 58 R: I know that in a husband and wife relationship, I would say that there is no such marriage like a bed of roses and there are always conflicts between husband and wife and it‟s a natural phenomenon between husband and wife. Do you avoid conflict? 59 H: Well, we try to. The conflict is always there. We try to see it, resolve it in a peaceful manner. There is any conflict but obviously we can‟t avoid conflict. Conflict is always there but it‟s how we handle it and if we want to destroy conflict the family it will destroy. I think using our own experience and then also as we as a family that is quite cohesive in one religious views, our Christian views. I think the conflict is something that you must embrace but you must handle it properly but don‟t allow it to destroy you whatever we have. That‟s how we look at it. We don‟t try to avoid it and we are going to hide the conflict. If there‟s any conflict, we try to hang on or you know and take care in a manner that is to resolve in a peaceful manner. 60 R: I think one good thing is that both of you, the center of your marriage is God so that makes the relationship going and that makes the relationship better. What about your interest, do you have the same interest as husband and wife? 61 H: No, I don‟t think so. 62 W: No 63 H: We are quite different (laugh). 64 R: (facing to the husband) How about in your case? 65 H: We don‟t have. We have different but it doesn‟t mean that we can‟t be together. We have different interest that it can also be that can help us to go together. Of course my interest I like reading, you know.
248 66 R: Are you more of a bookworm? 67 H: Yeah, I read a lot. I also like traveling to different places. I don‟t think she would like to read a lot but definitely she would also love traveling. Of course she likes music. I also listen to music but I don‟t play with music. There are some interests that we converge together. 68 R: Despite your difference, are you saying that you have something in common? 69 H: Yes, we have something in common. It‟s not that we are totally different. We have our own personal taste, you know. 70 R: What about your friend. Do you have the same or different group of friends? 71 H: In my own working environment, I have my own set of friends. Those are my colleagues and those are people who are working of the same industry but as a family we have common friends, a family friend. These are mostly Christian friends that we have. We are very close to them. Aside from them we have different group of friends. 72 W: I have also some group of friends. Like what he said the family or Christian friends especially the Filipinos, we are very close to them. These are five couples. 73 R: Are there instances that both of you did not understand one another because of language differences? 78 H: I don‟t think so. 79 R: So it‟s not a problem. 80 H: Because when I first met her we communicate in English. 81 R: So the first language that you use when you first met is English. Is it the reason why you choose English as the medium of communication because that‟s the language you use when you first met? 82 H: No, I think it‟s not because of that but because as I said earlier, just now that when I grew up I already in the school in those days the medium of instruction was in English so Bahasa was only late in 1970‟s, you know, was introduced in school so but earlier than that was in English. I grew up in an English language environment and it just comes very natural. Sometimes in my own “Kampung” when I meet my brother and sister sometimes I speak in English. Some of them speak in English also but not very good la then only after that I switch to Bidayuh. But to my brother in law who was in the same school with me then I speak English with him. 83 R: If your wife speaks in Tagalog, do you response in Tagalog? 84 H: No (laugh) I respond in English. 85 R: Did it happen when you speak in Tagalog? 86 W: Yes, I talk to him in Tagalog. 87 R: What about in your case did it happen that you ask her in Chinese or Bidayuh? 88 H: Yeah, she responds also in English (laugh) 89 W: Sometimes (laugh) I reply in Chinese and Bidayuh. I think he can pick up Tagalog but it‟s not easy for him to, you know, say it out. 90 R: Where there instances were both of you really struggle to speak with each others language just to make the conversation going? 91 W: Yeah it happened. Yes, I think so 92 H: Myself, I can‟t recall.I am more comfortable in English. Yes I‟m very much comfortable. 93 R: How do you handle (facing to the wife) when you are lost with words?
249 94 W: The first time, ah last time-yes. I had struggles, in fact it‟s only the grace of God that had given me the sign that I can speak much better. Sometimes I forgot “what‟s that again?”. It happened to me many times and I was lost. 95 R: How do you handle that situation? 96 W: I think it‟s because I only speak with my husband and I learned from him. 97 R: But if it‟s a Tagalog term, how do you manage? 98 H: Because she will explain what it means. 99 R: Yeah, sometimes with action. 100 W: He is always there to help me. He slows down so I can understand and follow him. 101 R: So sometimes he is the tutor. 102 W: Yeah (laugh) 103 R: Do you compare your languages? 104 W: No 105 R: Are you proud of your mother tongue but the problem you grow up in an English speaking environment. 106 H: Definitely because even though I don‟t speak my language, that‟s my first language but I am more comfortable in English. It doesn‟t mean that I‟m not proud of my mother tongue. In fact, I‟m trying to learn more about my mother tongue. I do record the old words that are really missing. Actually, I keep all these words. Hopefully, one day when I‟m free I can just compile like a dictionary. I‟ve been keeping all these words in my book. One day I hope at least write it down and probably not really published but probably just do something like hard cover. Whatever and pass it to my children so they won‟t lost it. I‟m proud of my mother tongue but I‟m just comfortable in English (laugh) 107 R: One thing I doubt, because of the invasion of English throughout the world and English is becoming very dominant 108 H & W: [yes, yes] 109 R: Do you still pass on to your children the Filipino language? 110 W: Oh yes, I‟m trying to teach them actually but it is also like my mother tongue. My first language is Ilokano but I‟ve never forgotten that and I‟m proud of my mother tongue. 111 R: Are you teaching your children the Ilokano language. 112 W: Yes, Ilokano but because they are so used with Tagalog, I just say, they learn Tagalog first but when they go back to my home town they learn Ilokano very fast. 113 R: So how many languages do you speak at home? 114 H: First language is English, Chinese, Bidayuh, Bahasa only when my friends are around and Tagalog. 115 R: What made you choose English as the medium of communication at home? Why not your first language? 116 H: I think it all boils down to me. As I said earlier I‟m so much comfortable in English. 117 R: So it‟s for comfort. 118 H: Not really for my comfort. I believe that they are in Bahasa Malaysia medium school and they will learn Bahasa in school and then the thing is that it‟s not to say that Bahasa is not important because it‟s our language but the thing now is that the government is coming back to English and if you look at it they are better than some of the graduates (laugh). That‟s why the graduates could not get a job because…. So I want my children to be fluent in English and also be able to
250 communicate in Bahasa because these are as far as Malaysia is concerned these are the two languages that will bring them to where they should be. 119 R: Definitely 120 H: I think, the government now is considering English as an important language. Just a few days ago the Prime Minister said it‟s not to put aside Bahasa, you know, it is still very important but English is important to be established and they are encouraging international schools, you know, to come and establish here and the medium of instruction is in English. So that‟s the whole thing la. In my house it boils to practicality. Well, I‟m comfortable in English but I‟m also particular that is the same I want them to be able to communicate very well because you know I always, I also try to help them improve their vocabulary as well as their past tense or present tense. 121 R: Yeah, the tenses of verbs. That‟s very important. 122 H: I‟m just trying to teach them proper English. 123 R: In the proper way of using the language. 124 W: Yes 125 R: I think that‟s good that you serve as a trainer for your children to speak the language. 126 W: We are not teaching also our children not to embrace our mother tongue, we also let them know. 127 H: We encourage them to speak our mother tongue and that‟s why they can actually speak my language. I don‟t actually teach them but when they are talking with my brother, sister and my cousins they first love naturally the language, so they speak. 128 W: The same thing with Tagalog they just come naturally. I believe children nowadays. 129 R: In short your children learn a lot of languages at a very young age. 130 W: Yes 131 R: How many languages that they speak? 132 H: I would say, my youngest can speak five English, Bahasa, some Iban, Tagalog and Mandarin 133 R: (laugh) Quite a lot, very impressive. So they can speak different languages. So generally I could say that husband and wife the language that you always use is English but you switch to Chinese, Bidayuh , Malay and Filipino. You use Filipino especially when you are with a group of Filipinos. 134 H: Well, I think, so much easier for us to understand one another, I mean a common language. We have a common language like she knows how to speak English and I speak English as well. The way we communicate, the understanding is much better rather than if both of us can‟t understand English the marriage will not be successful. I‟m not saying other languages are not successful but then we have a common language, we have a better understanding. 135 R: I‟m just curious, have you not thought of having Bahasa as the medium of communication because that‟s the national language in Malaysia? 136 H: It never came across my mind (laugh) as the medium of communication especially at home. 137 R: I think, I got the information I needed. Thank you very much to both of you for your time. END
251 TRANSCRIPT FILE 2 R= (Researcher) E= FCCB (Filipino wife) H= FCCA (Malaysian Chinese husband)
1 F: Yung tanong ko ihahalo mag code switch ako ng English at Tagalog. Itanong ko lang paano kayo magusap ng asawa mo? (In my questions I will mix English and Filipino, I would just want to ask how do you communicate with your husband?) 2 E: Pag nausap kami yung natural lang pero English ang gamit namin kasi dyan kami nasanay at ako rin I speak (We communicate naturally but we use English because we are used to it and I speak) English, Tagalog, Bisaya, Malay, Chinese and Iban. Hokkien, I understand a bit. 3 R: Ano ang first language nyo? (What is your first language?) 4 E: Waray. 5 R: Waray. Tapos yung 2nd language nyo ay Tagalog, (Then your second language is Tagalog) next is English, then Iban and Bahasa. Yung proficiency nyo, alin kayo mas proficient? Sa waray very proficient kayo?, (Which language are you proficient? In Waray are you proficient?) 6 E: Of course, yes. 7 R: Proficient pa rin ba kayo hanggang ngayon? (Are you still proficient until now?) 8 E: Cebuano, yeah.Waray and Cebuano. I can speak both. 9 R: So proficient pa rin kayo sa Waray (So you are still proficient in Waray) 10 E: Yes. 11 R: Kahit na matagal na kayo dito? (Even if you have stayed here longer?) 12 E: Yes, Waray is my past. Hindi pwede makalimutan yan. (It cannot be forgotten) 13 R: Merong iba kasi pag nawala sila for a few years medyo (pause).(There are other people when they left their place for a few years, it seems). 14 E: Yeah. Umalis ako ng Leyte mga 15 years. Mga 15 years nag spend ako ng Manila hanggang pumunta ako dito. (I left Leyte 15 years ago. I spent 15 years in Manila until I reached here) 15 R: For fifteen years and how many years here? 16 E: 16 years. 17 R: So hindi nyo pa rin nakakalimutan? (So you haven’t forgotten your language) 18 E: Hindi (no) 19 R: Pero hindi na kau nagsasalita ng Waray dito?(But you don’t speak Waray here) 20 E: Paminsan minsan sa pinsan ko. (Sometimes with my cousin). 21 R: So yung second language nyo? (What is your second language?) 22 E: Tagalog. 23 R: Tagalog not English. What about in Cebuano, are you proficient? 24 E: yes. 25 R: Saan ka natuto ng Cebuano? (Where did you learn Cebuano?) 26 E: My colleagues when I was in Manila. 27 R: You speak Cebuano, Waray, Tagalog, English , Chinese, Iban, Bahasa Malaysia. All in all, seven languages.
252 28 R: Yeah, pero yung Malay talagang proficient na kayo ng Malay. (Yes, but you are proficient in Malay) 29 E: Not that well verse but I can communicate. 30 R: You mean, conversational Malay? 31 E: oo. (yes).Kasi yung mga bata (Because the children) I taught the children. 32 R: What language that is widely spoken in this place? 33 E: Majority of the people here speak Chinese. 34 R: Yung mga kapitbahay nyo? (What about your neighbor?) 35 E: English. 36 R: So the community language here is Chinese but sometimes people speak English. 37 E: Yes 38 R: How about Malay? 39 E: So far they are all Chinese, it‟s a Chinese community. 40 R: If you were to choose out of the 7 languages that you knowe which language will you prefer. 41 E: I think English. 42 R: Why? 43 E: Because using English we can communicate to all, I mean anywhere, so as for me, I prefer English. It‟s useful and convenient. 44 R: Here in Kuching what language would you prefer? 45 E: I prefer English. 46 R: At home? 47 E: Sa bahay (at home), yes, English. 48 R: Is it because you want your children to learn English? 49 E: Yes, pero (but) they want to learn Tagalog (laugh). 50 R: For how long have you been using ng Waray? 51 E: Waray, I‟ve been using it since birth lah. 52 R: Pero yung Tagalog? (How about Tagalog?). 53 E: Tagalog, only when I studied in Secondary. In School lah because we had it in School. 55 R: What about English? 56 E: English, in school. Yeah. 57 R: The Malay? 58 E: Only when I started (pause). I think when I came here. 59 R: How about Chinese? 60 E: Chinese, you know, I just follow the children. 61 R: Do you encourage your spouse to speak your own language? 62 E: Yes, he can sing Tagalog. 63 R: What about when you communicate with your husband, do you speak in Tagalog? 64 E: Yes, he can understand, he can communicate simple Tagalog. 65 R: Do you speak Waray with your husband? 66 E: No, because he doesn‟t speak Waray. 67 R: Is it because most of your friends speak Tagalog? Is it one of the reasons why he wants to learn? 68 E: Yeah, he joins the Filipino community. 69 R: How about your children? 70 E: We speak English.
253 71 R: So you speak English, was there a chance that you talk to them in Filipino? 72 E: Yes, especially nowadays a lot of Filipino programs and they love it.They understand some Filipino words. 73 R: What language do you speak with your in-laws? 74 E: We communicate in English even to my nephews and nieces. Only to my mother-in-law I speak Chinese, Iban and Malay. 75 R: Why? 76 E: Because she doesn‟t speak English. 77 R: So that‟s the only way for you to communicate with them. 78 E: Yeah. 79 R: If only you and your husband are talking, what language do you speak? 80 E: English. 81 R: Was there an instance that you spoke in Chinese, Iban, Malay or Filipino? 82 E: Very seldom. 83 R: Does it mean to say that you mix English, Chinese, Malay, Iban and Filipino? 84 E: Very seldom. 85 R: Was there an instance that you wanted to keep something for yourself that‟s why you had to speak in Filipino so that your partner would not know? 86 E: Very seldom because I‟m very vocal. 87 R: When you are mad, what language do you use? 88 E: I talk to him honestly in English. 89 R: In English not in Tagalog. 90 E: No, I want him to know (laugh). 91 R: By the way, for how many years have you been married? 92 E: Going to 16 years. 93 R: For 16 years have you discovered or have you created a private language of your own just for the two of you? 94 E: No. 95 R: You haven‟t invented anything just like some other couples. 96 E: Never. 97 R: What is your idea about husband and wife relationship? 98 E: Husband and wife (laugh). It‟s a helpmate. 99 R: Why did you say a helpmate? 100 E: Because the two of you can help each other. I mean in marriage there must be God because you cannot tell that marriage doesn‟t have disappointments, misunderstanding, all these things especially us we are of different races. Even with your own country people, we still but if God is in between whatever it is. Yeah, you know God is the center.of our marriage, the fall back in every disappointment. You know working people like us sometimes we are stress then we have so many things to do and sometimes we come to a point that we have arguments. 101 R: Yeah, that‟s right. 102 E: I mean, it‟s a part of relationship, you cannot avoid. Yeah, I‟m very open, you know, you cannot hide that marriage is like a bed of roses. No, it‟s not true. 103 R: How about your relationship as husband and wife? Are you interdependent? 104 E: Like us, we have everything lah. 105 R: Yeah, it‟s just like one could not stand without the other. 106 E: Sometimes too close. Sometimes if someone is missing it‟s difficult for the other to walk. 107 R: Yeah, it‟s just like our legs.
254 108 E: Limping. 109 R: Husband and wife are just like our legs. 110 E: Yeah lah. 111 R: Unless he has to jump but everytime he jumps he would feel the pain. If the two are working, he can walk anywhere he wants to go. 112 E: Yeah that‟s right, it must be balance. 113 R: Like what you said, it‟s impossible for a husband and wife not to have problems or not to have conflict. Do you avoid conflict? 114 E: Yes of course, if we can avoid, we have to avoid (laugh) because it is not also good lah. Yeah, sometimes there are times that we can avoid it. Not really there‟s something in understanding different point of view, you think like that and the other partner think like that sometimes when you come to the end you disagree or agree (laugh). 115 R: So what do you do? 116 E: You have to talk. 117 R: In your case, do you talk often to your husband? 118 E: I have to talk, I have to find out why. I just want to have an answer in everything I have questioned. I want to have an answer. It‟s me. 119 R: After the conflict do you discuss with your spouse? 110 E: Yes. 111 R: What about when you discuss, do you still use English? 112 E: Yes. 113 R: Are you really able to express what you feel when you speak in English? 114 E: I have to but yes, yes. 115 R: It‟s not that because sometimes when you say it in Filipino. 116 E: Yeah. Sometimes I think there are times that the words that you say are misunderstood. 117 R: Yeah. 118 E: Yeah, in fact you think not like that, the way you portray, the way you deliver the word, the way you say it sometimes the other side. 119 R: They don‟t understand. 120 E: Unlike in Tagalog, Gruhhh…. 121 R: As a wife, do you prefer to be more independent? 122 E: Yes because for me I used to be independent since I was in Manila. 123 R: Do you prefer to be more independent with your husband? 124 E: Hmm. Not really, it depends on the situation. 125 R: It depends on the situation. 126 E: But. 127 R: Generally you want to be independent. 128 E: Yes, but you cannot because in my point of view you are still husband and wife. Whatever things you plan you should consult. You have to inform the partner lah. Then there are times that you still want, I mean for me, in my point of view you are a husband and wife and what ever things you plan, you should consult or inform the partner lah. However, there are times that you still want, I mean for me, in my point of view. No, I still have and I can use it because I am free and I have my own identity. As husband and wife we are one and whatever I want to do I have to tell my husband. Whether I like it or not I have to tell him. 129 R: Do you have the same interest with your spouse?
255 130 E: Yes, some, like us the whole family is in the music ministry. He likes to cook and I am not really good at it but I am encouraged to do that. 131 R: Are there some interests that he likes that you don‟t like or vice versa? 132 E: Yeah. 133 R: So how do you deal with that? 134 E: We have to talk.Whether you like it or not you have to be very open because for me as a couple you cannot hide, I mean I respect his identity but he cannot hide everything from me. I also have my identity but I have to respect him as a husband. I have to tell everything whatever I want to do I have to tell him about my activities. 135 R: So you are very open to him. Is he very open also to you? 136 E: I think (pause). 137 R: Not very open as you are. I think it‟s normal for guys to be secretive (laugh). For the Filipinos I think it‟s different. 138 E: I think for us Filipinos, we are very malambing (caring). 139 R: So what about your friends. Do you have the same group of friends? 140 E: I have, I can say friends‟ friend. I have a lot of friends but different level of friendship. 141 R: So what about your friends. Are your friends also you husband‟s friends? 142 E: No, my husband‟s friends, I don‟t really go with them. Yes, there are a few of them that are really friends especially the church friends but aside from church I have only one my cousin‟s husband, his childhood friend. 143 R: Yeah. 144 E: I don‟t have many friends. 145 R: But a few are your common friends. 146 E: His friends are my friends. 147 R: Are your friends are also his friends. 148 E: Yeah, all the activities. He knows all my friends. 149 R: Do you know also all his friends? 150 E: Yeah. 151 R: Were there some instances that both of you did not understand each other because of language differences? 152 E: No lah because we communicate. 153 R: Was there a chance that you don‟t understand each other? 154 E: The diction. 155 R: Yeah, their diction and what about their pronunciation. 156 E: very seldom. Nagyayari yun katulad ng (it happened like saying “GO BACK” (laugh), “MY BAG” (laugh). But now he is used to it lah and I also change my pronunciation instead of saying (BAG) I say (BEG) fro (GO BACK), I say (GO BECK) (laugh). I have to adjust so that he can understand. 157 R: How about your spouse, does he adjust also like saying (BAG)? 158 E: Sometimes. In my case sometimes just a slip of the tongue. Sometimes I am not aware. 159 R: That you have spoken that. 160 E: Yeah, anyway he understands Filipino (laugh) Filipino pronunciation (laugh). 161 R: Pag ikaw nagsalita ng Filipino anong language ang isasagot nya? (If you speak in Filipino, what language does he speak?) 162 E: Minsan Filipino minsan English. (Sometimes in Filipino, sometimes in English) It depends. 163 R: Kung inumpisahan mo ng Filipino? (What about if you start in Filipino?)
256 164 E: Yeah, if there are simple words, yes he speaks or answers in Filipino. 165 R: NagFilipino din ba sya? (Does he also speak in Filipino?) 166 E: Yes (laugh). He says “bakit?” (why)(laugh). Simple Tagalog. 166 R: Nakakaintindi ba sya ng Chinese?(Does he understand Chinese?) 167 R: Nangyari din ba sa kanya na nagsasalita ka ng English tapos biglang sumagot ng ibang language.(Did it happen that you spoke in English then he answered in other language?) 168 E: Oo, parang biro lang. (Yes, just for fun.) 169 R: Which of the many languages that you are really proud of? 170 E: English because most of my friends use English. Most of them are Chinese, Malay, Iban, and Bidayuh. 171 R: Paglumabas kayong magasawa kagaya sa Shopping malls, movie house or other places anong language ginagamit nyo?(If you go like in the shopping mall, movie house and other places, what language do you use?) 172 E: It depends, if we shop and I notice an expensive thing I speak in Filipino. One time we went to the Philippines if the ting is expensive I don‟t speak in English but I speak a different language because they might raise the price. I speak Malay so they would just think that I‟m from the other region. That‟s our trick (laugh). We have a code when we go out. 173 R: Are you proud of being a Filipino that you have your own language? 174 E: Yes, I‟m very proud. 175 R: Do you sometimes compare the Filipino language to other languages here? 176 E: Oo. (yes) 177 R: Was there a point that you compare the Filipino language with the Malaysian? 178 E: No. 179 R: When you meet other Filipinos what language do you use? 180 E: Filipino. 181 R: What about when your husband is around? 182 E: No, we respect my husband. We say “excuse us” and we speak in Filipino but of course if he is involved then we speak in English. 183 R: Yeah, to accommodate him. 184 E: Yeah. 185 R: Pero sila?(What about them?) 186 E: Sila minsan nagsalita ng Chinese. (They sometimes speak Chinese) 187 R: Minsan nag ma Malay.(Sometimes they speak Malay) 188 E: Malay and English. 189 R: Do you share your traditions and cultures with your husband? 190 E: Yes, I share to my husband the Filipino culture and traditions so that he will learn to undersand me better. 191 R: So in general, I can say that the language that you prepfer as husband and wife is English. Then sometimes you code switch to Chinese, Malay , Iban and Filipino. However, when you talk to your children you speak English and when you speak with your neighbors it depends whom you are speaking with. 192 R: Thanks a lot for your time. I guess, we have covered everything.
END
257 TRANSCRIPT FILE 3 Informant: E-wife and P-husband Interviewer- R R= (Researcher) W= FCCB (Filipino wife) H= FCCA (Malaysian Chinese husband)
1 R: I would like to know the language that you use at home. 2 H: yeah 3 R: I would ask you first. How many languages do you speak? 4 W: Six, such as Filipino, Tagalog, Spanish a bit, Japanese, Cantonese, English, Hokkien and Bahasa Malaysia. 7 R: What is your mother tongue? 9 W: Tagalog 10 R: Ok, and that‟s your first language, what is your second language? 11 W: English 12 R: Of many languages, which language do you prefer if you were given the chance to choose? 13 W: If I given a chance to choose ah...probably my first choice is English and the second choice is Hokkien (laugh) very simple. 14 R: Why English? 15 W: English is an international language and it‟s for people to communicate. My second choice is Hokkien because I‟m married to a Chinese. His mother tongue is Hokkien and my mother in-law doesn‟t know how to speak on English so I have to learn their language to communicate with her. 16 R: You mean you are now proficient in Hokkien? 17 W: Yes, you cannot sell me (laugh). Actually if you have interest in learning a language you learn it very fast, like Hokkien which I learned it for less than three months. Everytime I hear a new language, a phrase or a new sentence I would ask him then he will translate it for me from Hokkien to English and I write it down. For me huh I‟m married to him and my mother in-law doesn‟t know how to speak in English. You know lah in Philippines you must have a good relationship with your in-laws, sisters- in-law and brothers in-law. My mother in-law doesn‟t know even you know a little bit of English 18 R: Is it difficult for you to deal with your mother-in-law? 19 W: It is difficult to communicate actually. So I have to learn fast. I‟m not ashamed to try or say even if it‟s wrong or correct or whatever I‟m not ashamed of people I just try and then they will correct me so I learn so fast. Everytime I speak with my husband in Chinese, other people will identify me as a Chinese because I can speak fluently and I think I look like a bit of Chinese (laugh). 20 R: Did you learn Chinese by yourself? 21 W: Yes, particularly by listening. 22 R: By the way, how about you (referring to the husband) how many languages do you speak? 23 H: Unfortunately I don‟t know much (laugh). Of course I know English, I know Mandarin, I know my own dialect which is Hokkien. Unfortunately I cannot speak Tagalog (laugh), I cannot speak Spanish, I cannot speak Bahasa, I cannot speak Bahasa. As a Malaysian I don‟t know I just cannot speak Bahasa because I‟m not good in language anyway.
258 24 W: He spent more years in the UK so he is more to English (F- yeah), so when he came back here it‟s back to Bahasa. 25 H: yeah 26 R: But you can understand Bahasa Malaysia? 27 H: Ah I would say I have difficulty in understanding although I understand a little bit but when people communicate for longer I get lost I just get lost, you know. 28 R: If you were given the chance to choose a language which language do you prefer? 29 H: I will choose English because it‟s easy to communicate with people especially when people around you are from different races. Most people understand English.I If I speak Hokkien I‟ll be out. 30 R: What about Bahasa Malaysia or Filipino? 31 H: Not Bahasa, and not Filipino. 32 R: What language do you use when you are talking to each other? 33 W: Three languages actually, (laugh). We normally in English but after a few months two or three months after marriage, huh, we speak Hokkien and then continuously after 15 years we speak in Hokkien. Now because of our children we have to mix it up with Hokkien and English. 34 R: So you speak English so that your children will also learn how to speak English. 35 W: yeah and sometimes I do teach my children with Filipino but very little sometimes I mix Filipino and English. 36 R: When you communicate do you mix English and Hokkien? 37 W: Something like that lah..Iit‟s a normal conversation but the funniest thing is that my children know how to speak Mandarin (laugh) that‟s the magic thing nobody teaches them maybe its just in the blood lah. Maybe because they are Chinese and they go to school and they mix with the Chinese, Orang Ulo, Orang Asli and then they pick here and there. Ones they mix with the Filipino groups they pick up something there and they learn to it and they know the meaning of something like that but they were good in Mandarin, English, and Hokkien. 38 R: Why do you mix different languages? 39 W: I happens naturally because I need to. I have to mix Bahasa Malaysia, Hokkien and English particularly to my husband so that he can understand because if I just use one language, he might not understand. Most of the time we mix Hokkien and English. I think he for me huh my idea is I think he prefers me to speak in Hokkien than to speak in English because now huh I do know more Hokkien than English (laugh). I keep speaking in Hokkien than him it‟s even easy to scold him in Hokkien than English. Although it‟s very hard to express sometimes your thoughts but I need to speak his langauge I might hurt his feelings but when you do it in Hokkien it‟s very easy (laugh). 40 R: So it‟s more convenient for you to speak English and Hokkien? 41 W: yeah normally yes 42 R: How about in your case? (referring to the husband) 43 H: In my case, I mix a bit of English and Hokkien. 44 R: why? 45 H: Sometimes when I am angry I prefer English to voice out my anger 46 R: But your first language is Hokkien, am I right? 47 H: yeah 48 R: Is it easier for you to express your feelings in English?
259 49 H: Sometimes ah I feel that I want to say it English, I want to stress or emphasize my stand or my point. Although I mix. But sometimes I have misunderstanding and quarrel with her I tend to use some English to send my message across. I also want to make sure that she knows. (laugh) 50 W: Actually it‟s mixed up he prefers English and I prefer Chinese because for me huh it‟s very easy to express myself in Hokkien. Sometimes I don‟t know who am I. Am I a Filipino, Chinese, Orang Ulo, Orang Asli? (laugh) 51 R: It‟s interesting. 52 W: It‟s quite interesting 53 R: How about you (referring to the husband)? Did you try to learn Filipino language? 54 H: Ah for me ah I‟m actually not good in language learning, language even in overseas I try to pick up ah Swedish, French whatever lah I just I just fail half-way thru or sometime in the beginning of a few weeks. I just gave up you know because I know that I find difficulty and I just lost my interest. 55 R: I think it‟s normal to some people. 56 H: Even in Chinese we have many dialects huh. In other dialects I also have difficulty you know just try to say or whatever lah, it‟s not easy for me also even though I understand. 57 R: For 15 years that you have been married, have you invented some words that it‟s only the two of you understand? 58 W: yeah, what is it that we‟ve seen in Tagalog movies? (laugh). We didn‟t really invent but we just follow, (laugh) I think you know that movie. 59 R: yeah 60 W: My children normally ask when we watch that movie that ah actually that day they call mom, so the father said darling, honey, sweetheart, its vey common right? Why you don‟t call mommy too? The children talk to the father, so when they come to me they tell me the same thing, so I told them that there‟s no need I can call your daddy “saying” or whatever. We used to call ourselves but not quite know darling ok? Otherwise means if we really quarrel its really hard (laugh) 61 H: And we don‟t call honey each other (laugh). 62 W: It‟s silent mode. 63 R: That‟s how to say the power of silence (laugh) 64 W: Yes, yes but we normally call each other even after we got married is by names and if just the two of us we have fun lah we call darling lah or whatever but not in front of the children. Actually in front of the children sometimes we call each other by name but sometimes I call him daddy lah or whatever lah, just for fun. 65 R: Yeah that‟s right, but do you have a specific language of endearment something? 66 W: Others call the wife mommy and the mommy calls the husband daddy.We feel funny about it, you see because you don‟t know which side you stand, it makes our children confuse. If they call me mommy and then my husband calls me mommy. It‟s confusing for children. It‟s better to address ourselves by names 67 R: As husband and wife what is your idea about husband and wife relationship? 68 W: Ah ok, for me huh I do believe in God, and the Lord says that you have to follow whatever your husband says, or you have to obey whatever your husband says. Our relationship huh so far okay lah. 69 R: What is your idea about husband and wife relationship? (referring to the husband)
260 70 H: Of course you must love your wife lah you know your married to your wife. It means you have to be like in the bible which says that you must love your wife and you cannot get a second wife or third wife. Actually for me I try to be good husband lah and love my wife even though sometimes things might may not be ok all the time. We still have problems, ahh sometimes we have to do things , in the end you still think that she is your wife you have to love her. 71 R: maybe one good thing is that if God is the center of your marriage it really builds better relationship for the husband and wife. 72 H: Sometimes I feel God in everything that I do. I feel God that He switches me back to do the right things huh. 73 W: Actually huh, his belief huh, we were both Catholics before and I‟m the first one who became born again. After a few months it was him. As a devoted Roman Catholic becoming a born again Christian is very hard. After a while maybe the lord is proving us or really showing us the way to become good Christians or whatever. 74 R: God has become the center of your life and your marriage. 75 W: It‟s just that sometime you will have ups and downs with the Lord lah. It‟s not perfect anyway as human being, no one is perfect, alright? So in your Christian battle we have to struggle. As holiness huh and then as a human being when it comes to relationship with your family and with husband. 76 R: That‟s why we have the cross, right? 77 W: Yes, so its like that lah. When you really believe in Him just put all your trust to Him. However, as a Christian you still struggle, correct or not? It‟s between you and the Lord, so I believe that whatever relationship that we have right now is from the Lord and it‟s a blessing lah. 78 R: Yeah that‟s right if your center of relationship is God. By the way, as husband and wife do you avoid conflict? 79 H: Uhmm….conflicts sometimes (laugh..) I would say, we avoid sometimes. We just or I just walk away, I don‟t want to say anything because when we argue I become a bit violent. Sometimes, I just walk away to cool myself down, you know. Sometimes she‟s more getting mad because I just go away (laugh..) 80 W: It‟s not that really. I just express myself, huh. That‟s why I cry lah (laugh). 81 H: This woman likes to cry (wife laugh). 82 R: I guess, that‟s how you express your anger. 83 W: You know ah, as a wife it‟s so stressful. He has a stressful time and he doesn‟t know That I am also stressed because we seldom be together for the whole day. We‟re only together at night time. When he brings the children back home he doesn‟t know that I‟m so tired looking after the children for the whole day something like this lah. So sometimes as a woman maybe the hormones or whatever lah sometime theirs a time that you nananana… and my husband become so angrye. He can‟t take it. And then he will voice out his anger and we end up fighting lah but not physical only verbal. For fifteen years of marriage huh we don‟t hurt each other praise the Lord lah it never happened. 84 H: Sometimes at the end of the day, we think it‟s easier to go back lah you know. 85 W: Actually in our relationship uhh we never say sorry, never, correct? Normally huh, I say sorry whether its your fault or not lah just for the sake of our relationship. I found that men in Malaysia have a hard time to say sorry especially the Chinese. They never say sorry but the action speaks louder than the words 86 R: yeah, right.
261 87 H: It doesn‟t mean that we don‟t say sorry or sorry. We just can‟t express ourselves because being a Chinese uhh in our culture we have difficulty to express our feelings particularly to say sorry, you know. For me I don‟t know actually. I guess, my action shows. 88 W: But for this guy huh, he will express lah. It‟s just the word sorry that he can‟t express. 89 H: Even to show love to our parents I have not expressed it verbally. Affection for us especially for guys we don‟t show, it‟s not natural (laugh) 90 R: As husband and wife, do you have same interests? 91 W: I think so, we do like food (laugh). We are very adventurous in food. We like Cooking. 92 R: Perhaps, that‟s one of the reasons that you stick together because you have the same interest. 93 H: Yes we like eating (laugh) socializing, watching movies, watching TV and most of all we love God. 94 R: That‟s good, you have something in common. 95 W: We do have a lot of things in common. 96 R: Do you have the sane group of friends? 97 W: Uhm, for me uhh ok let me say this. He doesn‟t want me to mix around with the activities he knows. However, we go for happy hours. 98 R: As a Filipino, are you still proud of your language? 99 W: Oh yes I do (laugh). 100 R: How do you express your pride of the Filipino language? 101 W: I think, my mother tongue becomes a Hokkien (laugh) that‟s why they call me “baruk”.When they ask some questions with a Filipino group of friends they been talking Tagalog so sometime they speak to you in Tagalog but at at home we rarely hear the Tagalog language. But I‟m still proud that I‟m a Filipino and I‟m still proud of my mother tongue. It‟s just that because I am not using it at home for many years. 102 R: Do you feel more comfortable when speaking in Tagalog or you feel more comfortable now using Hokkien, English or Bahasa Malaysia? 103 W: I prefer English, Hokkien and Bahasa (laugh) unless I am with the Filipinos I still can communicate in Tagalog. 104 How about your mother tongue (Hokkien), are you still proud of it? 105 H: Yes. 106 R: How do you express your pride? 107 H: I‟m very proud to be a Hokkien and a of course when I speak to my mother, brothers and sisters we all speak in Hokkien except sometimes you know a little bit of English you know but everyday mostly Hokkien. With my other friends whom I‟m not really familiar with we speak in Malay but it‟s better to speak English, you know. Sometimes I speak Chinese and English but it depends lah. With Chinese mostly will be Chinese lah it‟s a mix with some Filipino, whatever but we speak English so that others can understand. 108 W: But for me eventhough I mix with Filipinos but I feel comfortable using English than Tagalog. 109 R: I would like to sum up the interview. I would say that the preferred language is English with some mixing with Chinese (Hokkien) and Bahasa Malaysia. Thanks a lot for your time and your help.
262 TRANSCRIPT FILE 4 Informant: W-wife and H-husband Interviewer- R R= (Researcher) W= FCCB (Filipino wife) H= FCCA (Malaysian Chinese husband) (refused to be interviewed with the recorder. The interview was conducted with no recorder)
1 R: How many years have you been here in Malaysia? 2 W: Almost fourteen years. 3 R: Are you now familiar with the Malaysian culture? 4 W: Yes of course, in fact I can speak Bahasa Malaysia. 5 R: If I‟m not mistaken, you can speak other languages as well. 6 W: Yeah, I speak English, Japanese, Chinese, Tagalog, and Bahasa Malaysia. I speak five languages. 7 R: Do you speak other Philippine languages? 8 W: No, Tagalog only. Tagalog is my first language but I also learn English when I started studying in the primary. I feel more comfortable in Tagalog. 9 R: In your community, how do you communicate with them? 10 W: Here, people talk mostly in English. I speak English with my neighbors. However I sometimes speak in Chinese because some of them do not speak English, maybe more or less 40 % of our community speaks Chinese. 11 R: What Chinese dialect do you speak? 12 W: I speak Hokkien. I started speaking in Chinese for a few years and I speak Bahasa Malaysia for almost 10 years. 13 R: When you are at home, how do you communicate with your husband? 14 W: We communicate using English but I encourage my children to speak in Tagalog. I teach them but not my husband. 15 R: Are your in-laws staying with you at home? 16 W: No, but they often come to visit us. They are Chinese and when they come they don‟t speak any English. That‟s why I speak Chinese with them because they don't know English and they don't speak good Bahasa Malaysia as well. 17 R: Did you learn Chinese by yourself? 18 W: Yes, I did not go to any formal schooling. I really struggle to learn Chinese because everytime they talk they speak in Chinese and I look stupid and I can't interact with them. 19 R: When your in-laws are not around, does your husband talk to you in Chinese? 20 W: No, he speaks English but sometimes we use Filipino and Chinese. My husband can understand a bit of Tagalog like cursing (laugh). My friends speak with him in Tagalog. 21 R:When you‟re angry what language do you speak? 22 W: If I'm mad I speak in Tagalog and the worst thing is that I started to curse in Chinese. You know, my husband perceives it differently (laugh). Maybe because it‟s his own language. The funny thing is that we speak many languages at home like English, Chinese, Tagalog and Malay. 23 R: Do you mix different languages at home? 24 W: Yeah, we do even with my children, husband and friends. 25 R: What about if you are in the market, do you speak in Englis?
263 26 W: I speak Bahasa or Chinese but not in English. Some of them they don't speak English. If Malay, I speak Bahasa Malaysia and if Chinese I speak in Chinese. 27 R: What about your husband, how many languages does he speak? 28 W: He speaks Chinese, Bahasa, and Chinese. He speaks a lot of Chinese dialects like Hokkien, Mandarin and Cantonese but Hokkien is frequently used. 29 R: Did your husband try to learn Filipino? 30 W: He did but he is not really good in learning other languages. Perhaps I'm a poor teacher. 31 R: What about with your mother-in-law how do you communicate with her? 32 W: I talk to her in Chinese, Hokkien because she does not speak English much. She speaks to me in Chinese. 33 R: At home when you mother-in-law is around, you speak in Chinese? 34 W: Yes, but most of the time we speak in English. Actaully, at home even my mother-in-law is around we speak English with our children but sometimes I speak with them in chinese. I guess, all of us at home prefer English because it is easy to use. It is the only language that we can communicate with other locals.. 35 R: As a Filipino, is ther any language barrier between you and your husband? 36 W: No, I think if I speak in Tagalog it is not a problem for her. You know, he knows already that when I speak in Tagalog he will assume that I'm already angry. 37 R: Perhaps, he has already observed it. By the way, how many years have you been married? 38 W: 13 years. 39 R: Was there any language problem during your first year of marraige? 40 W: No it was ok. 41 R: As a married woman, what do you think is an ideal marriage for you? 42 W: I think an ideal marriage must have a husband who is a good provider and the wife must be a good wife too. true or not? The husband must function as the head of the family. That‟s why at home, it's my husband always makes the final decision but we discuss everything before the decsion is made. House related decision it would be mine 43 R: If conflict occurs, do you avoid it? 44 W: If I can avoid it, I will but sometime I can't. My husband knows me so well and he knows easily if I'm mad because I just keep quiet and he knows it already. I don't really argue with my husband, we talk if there are problems. 45 R: Do you have similar group of friends? 46 W: No, he doesn't normally join with my Filipino friends particularly outside. He has his own group of friends because he has different interests. 47 R: Do you have the similar interests? 48 W: No, we have different interests. 49 R: By the way, you‟ve been here in Malaysia that long. Do you still take pride of your own language which is Filipino? 50 W: Yes of course. I am a Filippino and I must be proud of my own language. 51 F: Do you discuss your belief and tradition? 52 W: Yes, we do but I share the Filipino practices most of the time. However, I am careful that he might not like it or misinterpret it. 53 F: What about your husband? 54 W: I don‟t like when he shares the Chinese culture because he always criticizes the Philippine culture. Sometimes I am disappointed. 55 F: I see, thanks a lot for your time.
264 TRANSCRIPT FILE 5 Informant: W-wife and H-husband Interviewer- R R= (Researcher) W= FCCB (Filipino wife) H= FCCA (Malaysian Chinese husband)
1 R: How do you find your stay here in Malaysia? 2 W: It‟s great because my family is here and I am now comfortable with the Malaysian culture. I am comfortable now because I can interact with the locals. But the problem my Malay is not really good yet. I‟m still learning more. 3 R: Does it mean to say that you can speak Malay? 4. W: Yes a bit. 5 R: Since you can speak a bit of Malay now, how many languages do you speak? 6 W: I speak (Bisaya) Cebuano, English,and Tagalog 7 R: How about Chinese 8 W: I speak a little bit of Chinese and a bit of Bahasa Malaysia as well. However, at home we use English. We prefer English at home because that is the language that my husband and I can really understand. 9 R: what about Bahasa Malaysia and Chinese? 10 W: Sometimes lah, you know but not all the time. English is commonly used. 11 R:What languages do you speak (referring to the husband)? 12 H: I speak English, Malay, Mandarin and other Chinese dialects.Hakka is my first language and English is my second language. I also speak Hokkien and Bahasa Malaysia fluently. 13 R: You speak many languages but do you use those languages at home? 14 H: At home I speak most of the time in English, but sometimes I speak in Mandarin with her or sometimes a bit of Bisaya (Cebuano). My wife can understand a bit of Chinese and I also understand a bit of Bisaya. 15 R: How fluent are you in Chinese (referring to the wife)? 16 W: Not really that fluent, just a bit I have just started to learn. 17 R: Can you interact with your wife in Chinese? 18 H: Yeah, I always do that but I mix with different languages at home when I talk to my wife. It's more fun to use different languages. It's really fun. We mix with local languages also for fun but English is always used. 19 R; How about with your in-laws how do you interact with them? 20 H: (laugh) She speaks in Malay, broken Malay. 21 W: I speak Malay and Mandarin with my in-laws but I speak in English with my child. 22 R; Do you encourage your son to speak different languages? 23 H: I prefer to teach him English and Manadarin because English is an important language. 24 R: I am just curious, when you first met what language did you use? 25 H: We used English.I think, English was chosen because that's what we both understand and up to now English is still used. 26 R: Did both you learn from each other's language? 27 W & H: We both learn from each other's language. My husband learns Bisaya and I learn Chinese. I also learn Bahasa Malaysia from my husband. 28 R: As husband and wife, what do you think is an ideal couple?
265 29 H: A wife must be a friend (laugh) my baby. I think we have similar views on this. 30 W. I agree with my husband. 31 R: As husband and wife are you interdependent with each other? 32 H: Yeah, of course we are. 33 W: We share a lot. In decision making and some other tasks at home. As a wife I do the household chores and my husband does his own. 34 R: If you encounter conflict, do you avoid it? 35 H: No, we don't avoid, we face it. 36 W: I think it‟s better to face the conflict rather than keeping it. It helps us realize something, you know. 37 R: In that case, how do you settle it? 38 H: We just keep quiet (laugh). 39 W: We talk but when both of us are really mad, we just keep quiet for a while then we talk. But most often we keep quiet. 40 R: Are you showing the power of silence? 41 W: No 42 R: By the way, do you have similar interest? 43 H: Yes, we do have but there are some interests that it‟s just my wife who likes it 44 R: What about your friends. Do you have something in common? 45 W: Yes we have, my firends are his friends and his friends are also my freinds. 46 H: Yeah, right. 47 R: Did you encounter any problem because of language differences? 48 H: So far, we have not encountered. 49 W: I think because we always speak in English. 50 R: If your wife talks to you in Bisaya, how do you respond (referring to the husband)? 51 H: I respond in English. 52 W: But when my husband will talk to me Chinese I respond in Chinese. 53 R; Did you struggle to understand each other‟s language differences? 54 W: Yeah, but it was a few times only. 55 H: So far for me, it is rare. 56 R: As a Filipino (referring to the wife) are you still proud of your own language even if you are now in Malaysia? 57 W: Yes, I am proud because I am still a Filipino and I love my country and my language. 58 R: Do you share each others cultural practices? 59 H: Yes we do (laugh) 60 W: Yes, I share often but when he shares, there is always a comparison between Chinese and Filipinos. He saya a lot of things against Filipino women. 61 R: Like what? 62 W: He sometimes says that a lot of Filipino women are prostitutes and loud. It hurts, you know. 63 R: Perhaps that‟s how others perceive it. 64 W: I think so but it hurts me when he says something that is not supposed to be spoken. You know what I mean. 65 R: To some up , I can say that you speak different languages at home and English is chosen as the medium of communication with some mixing in Chinese, Malay and Filipino. Thanks a lot for your time.
266 TRANSCRIPT FILE 6 Informant: A-wife and P-husband Interviewer- R R= (Researcher) W= FCCB (Filipino wife) H= FCCA (Malaysian Chinese husband)
1 R: How many years have you been married? 2 W: Almost 10 years 3 R: How do you find your marriage in 10 years? 4 W: It is fine. Our relationship has deepened. I guess, I learn to understand my husband more. I learn a lot of things from him and he learns a lot of things from me as well. We become more adjusted from each other. 5 R: As a Filipino wife with a Malaysian husband, how do you communicate? 6 W: We communicate in many languages but we use English most of the time with some mixing of Tagalog and Chinese. My husband speaks Tagalog because he used to work in the Philippines. Chinese language is used particularly when our children are around because my two daughters can speak Chinese. 7 R: Do you talk to your husband in Chinese? 8 W: No, I don‟t speak Chinese. I speak only Tagalog, Ilokano, English and a bit of Spanish. My children can speak Chinese. 9 R: Which is your first language? Tagalog or Ilokano? 10 W: Tagalog is my first language then Ilokano, English and Spanish. 11 R: Since you are now in Malaysia, do you learn Bahasa Malaysia? 12 W: A bit and I guess slowly I will. 13 R: If only you and your husband are at home, how do communicate? 20 W: We just talk naturally. I speak in English and Tagalog it‟s mixed already like Taglish. I think at home we can mix English and Filipino because my husband will sometimes talk to me in Filipino because he can speak Filipino. He has some Filipino friends and when they talk they mix English and Filipino (laugh). 21 R: At first when he was still learning Tagalog, what language did you use? 22 W: We used English because I didn‟t know any Chinese. 23 R: Did he teach you how to speak Chinese? 24 W: He taught me, we had a lot of dictionary. 25 R: Any word of Chinese that you know? 26 W: I learned a few words. I normally use it to crack some jokes. 27 R: To make some jokes you use Chinese words 28 W: Yes, sometimes a bit when my power is on (laugh). I mean, if I feel like making some jokes I use some Chinese words. But most often I speak Taglish. 30 R: Why do you speak Taglish? 31 W: Because sometimes he understands in Ennglish then in Tagalog sometimes we join together but If he doesn‟t understand in Tagalog I translate in English. Sometimes there are some words in Filipino that he does not understand. As a result, we use English most of the time. 32 R: Why English? 33 W: Because he knows English and it is convenient for the two of us. Sometimes he will attempt to speak in Chinese but I can‟t really speak and understand the language. 34 R: Did your husband encourage you to speak Chinese?
267 35 W: Yes, he wanted me to learn Chinese that‟s why he is teaching our kids. 36 R: What about with your Chinese in-laws, how do you communicate with them? 37 W: They don‟t speak English. They speak only Chinese. I don‟t talk to them because they can‟t understand me. If they talk to me, they will ask my husband to translate in English and Chinese. Even to some of my husband‟s brothers they don‟t know English. Actually, my in-laws are old because my husband is the youngest. 38 R: What can you say about husband and wife relationship? 39 W: There must be an open communication so that you can talk about everything or every problem and there is no hesitation. 40 R: Are you interdependent with one another? 41 W: Yeah, we consult with each other particularly when it involves decision making. When he decides he talks to me first and when I decide some other things I also talk to him. But if it‟s only a small thing we decide alone. 42 R: So if it‟s a big problem, the two of you will decide. 43 W: Yes 44 R: When conflict arises, as a husband and wife do you avoid it? 45 W: Yes, we avoid conflict but if it is really unavoidable then we face the reality and discuss whatever conflicts that we have. 46 R: Do you have similar interests? 47 W: Sometimes no, sometimes yes you know. There are things that he likes that I don‟t like and there are also things that I like but he does not like. In genral, I would say that we do not have few interests that are similar. Besides, we have an age gap. He is 40 and I‟m 34. It‟s a big gap.Sometimes I want to go out and he wants to stay home. But if there‟s a family function then he will go. 48 R: What about friends, do you have the same group of friends? 49 W: We have some common friends but he has some friends that are not my friend and I have some friends who are not his friends. 50 R: Do you share your beliefs and cultural practices with your spouse? 51 W: Yes, we share. 52 R: Like what? 53 W: Like fiesta, Christmas and other celebrations in the Philippines. 54 R: What about your husband? 55 W: We seldom share but he criticizes a lot (laugh). 56 R: All in all, you prefer English as the medium of communication at home but more mixing of languages happened. You mix English with Filipino and Chinese. Thanks a lot. 57 W: Thanks too.
END
TRANSCRIPT FILE 7 Informant: W-wife and H-husband Interviewer- R R= (Researcher) W= FCCB (Filipino wife) H= FCCA (Malaysian Chinese husband)
268 1 R: For how long have you been here? 2 W: I„ve been here for 9 years but I frequently go back to the Philippines every year during Christmas. 3 R: How do you find your stay here? 4 W: It‟s ok sometimes it‟s not. But so far this time it‟s ok. Before it was really a stuggle because everytime they gathered together they speak in Chinese and I don‟t know any Chinese. Even in front of me they speak in Chinese. It was hard. I realize that I need to learn Chinese so I can talk with my in-laws. 5 R:How do you cope up with that situation? 6 W: I started to learn Mandarin by myself and it took me a year to learn to speak Chinese. When they knew that I could already speak Chinese they were very careful in talking in front of me and I started talking with them in Chinese. 7 R: So Chinese is frequently used at home? 8 W: No. if only the two of us with my husband we speak English, sometimes Chinese and Bahasa Malaysia. 9 R: So when do you speak Chinese? 10 W: We use Chinese when my mother-in-law and his sisters are around. They don‟t speak English. 11 R: Since you can speak Chinese now, how many languages do you speak? 12 W: I speak English, Tagalog, Ilokano, Hokkien, Chinese (Mandarin) and a bit of Malay. 13 R: So (6) five languages 14 R:Which of those languages is your first languages. 15 W;Tagalog 16 R: Then when your second language is English 17 W:No Ilocano, then English, then Chinese 18 R;Ok, but you know a bit of Malay 19 W: Yeah, a bit only few. 20 R: Can you speak straight Malay? 21 W: No but I mix it only you know. Actually, I learn Malay through my Malay friends and by watching TV. 22 R: What about your husband, what languages does he speak? 23 W: He speaks English, Chinese and Bahasa Malaysia. His Malay is not really good but he is fluent in English and Chinese. So, when he talks to me it‟s always in English and sometimes he uses Chinese because can understand now. 24 R: What about before you learn Chinese, did he mix some Chinese when he talked to you? 25 W: At that time he talked to me in English but when his family members were around they talked in Chinese. Then I started to feel indifferent. I was thinking that they might be talking about me but I don‟t understand their language. That‟s why I really wanted to learn Chinese. 26 R: By the way, in this place what language that most people use? 27 W: Here it‟s is Chinese. Most of our neighbors are Chinese and they speak Chinese with each other. 28 R: Do they speak Mandarin? 29 W: No, almost all of them speak Hokkien. I also learned from my neighbors because they talk to me in Chinese. 30 R: What about at home?
269 31 W: Right now, my my mother in-law is with us. So most of the time when she is around we speak Chinese but when she is in her room I and my husband we speak in English, Chinese and a bit of Filipino. 32 R: As a married woman, how do you describe a husband and wife relationship? 33 W: I think the ideal relationship is that husband and wife must understand each other and must communicate very often. My relationship with my husband right now is not really good. We quarrel a lot, you know. I really don‟t know. He is different now. I think he has another girl. I caught him once (silence and the wife cried). He even told me to find another one after I caught him (cried again). 34 R: So what‟s your plan now? 35 W: I don‟t know. 36 R: I‟m sorry to ask you that question. 37 W:It‟s ok. I‟m just very emotional. I‟m very problematic this time. We seldom talk and he goes out very often. (Followed by the wife‟s confession about their relationship) 38 R: Does he share something to you? 39 W: No, he is very direct and blunt when saying something. He even told me to look for another man (cry). 40 R:Perhaps you haven‟t shared to him the Filipino culture. 41 W: I do but I think he does not listen to me. 42 R: Thanks a lot for sharing your experiences and I perhaps we can help you even in our own little way. 43 W: No, it‟s ok…I‟m just emotional this time.
END
TRANSCRIPT FILE 8 Informant: W-wife (Filipino) and H-husband (Chinese) Interviewer- R R= (Researcher) W= FCCB (Filipino wife) H= FCCA (Malaysian Chinese husband)
1 R: How long have you been married? 2 W: 11 years 3 R: How did you meet? 4 W: We met here in Malaysia? 5 R: When you first met him, at that time could you understand Malay or Chinese? 6. W: (laugh) we used sign language. 7 R: Sign language? 8 W: English of course (laugh). Both of us speak English. I myself can speak different languages like English, Tagalog, a bit of Maranaw, Cebuano, Malay, and Russian. 9 R: Of so many languages, what is your first language? 10 W: Cebuano is my first language and English is my second language then other languages follow. 11 R: What abut your husband how many languages does he speak? 14 W:He speaks Manadarin, English, Hainanese, Cantonese, a bit of Russian and
270 Bahasa Malaysia 15 R: He speaks many Chinese dialects. What is his first language? 16 W: Hainanese is his first language and English can be considered his second language. 19 R: Both of you speak many languages. At home how do you communicate? 20 W: We communicate in English. Actually, English is predominantly used and with some Malay. 21 R: So when you got married you were already fluent in Malay. 22 W: Conversational Malay. My neighbors have helped me to speak Malay because they teach me . 25 R: What about Chinese or any Chinese dialects? 26 W: No, not a single word. 27 R: So you didn‟t learn any Chinese. 28 W: No, i didn‟t learn even a bit of Manadariin. 29 R: What about your husband, did he try to learn Cebuano or any Philippine language? 30 W: Yeah, he can understand a little bit but could not really speak the language. 31 R: Since you have two children, how do you communicate at home? 34 W: Yes, we made it a point that first language should be in English so that it will be easy for both of us and for the children to communicate. However, we are also aware that our children need to learn other languages. 35 R: Did you have any agreement that both of you should use English at home? 36 W: I think it‟s natural because we are in an international community, you know. 37 R: yeah 38 W: So English could help us for communication even until now. Although, we use English most of the time but if given the chance to really choose a language I guess I would prefer Cebuano because it‟s my mother tongue. 39 R: I see. 40 W: I think, you know sometimes it‟s difficult for me to translate to different languages. So it‟s better to use my mother tongue because I can express my feelings freely. 41 R: What about in dealing with your in – laws, how do you communicate with them? 42 W: I talk to them in Bahasa Malaysia and English. But most of the time I speak in Bahasa Malaysia. 43 R: Is it the reason why you learn Bahasa Malaysia. 44 W: No, because I knew Bahasa Malaysia before I met my husband. But like what I said we speak different languages at home. English remains to be dominant, you know but we mix with Malay and Cebuano depending on the situation. 45 R: So you mix English, Malay and Cebuano. 46 W: yes 47 R: what about Chinese? 48 W: No, we don‟t use it because I can‟t speak. But my children can speak Chinese. 49 R: As a wife and has been married for long, what do you think is the ideal husband and wife relationship? 50 W: That‟s quite interesting. I think an ideal husband and wife is a couple who live in trust and know the real purpose of marriage. 51 R: As husband and wife are you interdependent with one another? 52 W: Since we live together as husband and wife the bond must continue.Therefore, we need each other and we should work together.
271 53 R: In the course of your marriage have you encountered any conflict? 54 W: Yes, but in relationship I think emotionally we‟re already very matured. The level emotion is stable, mature and dependable like that. We face whatever problems or conflict we encounter. 55 R: What about your group of friends, do you have the same group of friends? 56 W: Yeah, basically colleagues and from old – old friends. 57 R: What about your likes and dislikes? 58 W: There are things that he doesn‟t like but I like. Generally, more or less we have something in common 59 R: Was there a time that you don‟t understand each other? 60 W: (laugh) Words that need context, you need to understand the meaning. Just joking. 61 R: When miscommunication occurs, do you simplify your language? 62 W: Yeah, we simplify our language so that we can understand each other. Although, we assume that how we look at things and there is no filtering of Information. 63 R: When talking to your husband are you careful of any topic that you discuss that he might be offended? 64 W: Not at all, we discuss things or anything and I don‟t think that I need to select anything I want to share 65 R: What about in conversation is interupptionvery common? 66 W: Oh yeah, interruption is common butit depends. If it‟s for sharing, I couldn‟t wait for my turn. it‟s normal 67 R: In general, you say that English is frequently used at home but you sometimes mix it it with Malay and cebuano. 68 R:Thanks a lot for your time. END
TRANSCRIPT FILE 9 Informant: W-wife (Filipino) and H-husband (Chinese) Interviewer: R R= (Researcher) W= FCCB (Filipino wife) H= FCCA (Malaysian Chinese husband)
1 R: How do you find your communication with your wife? 2 H: I love talking to her because we make a lot of fun and we are able to discuss many things that I believe help in building up our relationship. 3 R: Do you think language helps a lot in making your communication successful? 4 H: Yes I agree with you. Language plays an important role. I and my wife at least have something in common. Both of us speak and understand very well in English and we have no language problem. Actually, I speak quite a number of languages: Foochow, Mandarin, English, Bahasa Malaysia, Hokkien, Hakka and a few more Chinese dialects. 5 R: So you speak a number of languages. 6 H: Yes, but of so many languages I speak I think I like Hokkien. 7 R: Why do you like Hokkien?
272 8 H: Because most people in Kuching speak Hokkien. 9 R: Is Hokkien a community language? 10 H: Yeah, Hokkien is used as a community language in some communities but in our community most people speak Foochow. 11 R: So, Foochow is more convenient for you. How about English? 12 H: Yeah, it‟s convenient for me to use English but it depends lah. We use English in business meetings most of the time. 13 R: How about Bahasa Malaysia, how often do you use it? 14 H: Just a little bit only, very rare yeah. 15 R: When do you use Bahasa Malaysia? 16 H: Bahasa Malaysia is used in government offices and when talking to the Malays. But for most Chinese I use English and mixed with Hokkien or Foochow dialects. 17 R: In your case (referring to the wife), how many languagess do you speak? 18 W: I speak Tagalog, English, a bit of Spanish and Bahasa Malaysia. 19 R: how about Chinese 20 W: No, I don‟t speak Chinese. I tried to learn but its hard to pronounce, I guess it‟s easy for me to understand than to speak (laugh). As a Tagalog speaker, it‟s really difficult for me to learn Chinese. 21 R: Is Tagalog your first language? 22 W: Yes, Tagalog is my first language but I speak other languages as well. English is my second language where I learned when I was a kid. Actually, I feel more comfortable using English now. At home that‟s what we use very often. 23 R: So you prefer English to be the medium of communication at home. 24 W: Yes, because it‟s the language that my husband and I understand. Besides English is a universal language wherever you go you will be understood. One more thing is that since I am in publishing and we use English most of the time. 25 R: Can you speak Bahasa Malaysia fluently? 26 W: Yes, I can communicate but not really fluent. I can understand. 27 R: At home, how do you communicate with your husband? 28 W: I have no choice I think but to speak in English and a bit of other languages like BM and Filipino. Sometimes my husband will attempt to speak in Chinese. The mixing is used for fun only, sometimes lah. 29 R: Can your husband understand Tagalog? 30 W: Yeah, but he knew only a few words lah like baboy, manok (laugh). 31 R: Did it happen to you (referring to the husband) that when you speak in English she responded in Tagalog or Malay? 32 H: No, seldom lah (laugh). 33 W:No, it‟s more like playing with words that I unintentionally do. I think sometimes it‟s just a natural thing to do, you know. 34 R : You mean, using other languages other than English english is fun? 34 H : Yeah, it‟s fun because we mix different languages. 35 R: When you go out like in public places do you still use English? 36 H : Me, I use Mandarin but it all depends to the people I‟m dealing with. If I go to the market for example and I talk to a Chinese vendor I soeak in Chinese and if I talk with the Malay then I speak Malay. 37 W: For me it‟s different because I don‟t speak Chinese. Even outside I speak English most of the time but when a Malay speaks with me I Malay then that‟s the
273 time that I start talking in Malay but with some English because I‟m not really good in BM. 40 R: Have you tried learning his Foochow language? 41 W: No but maybe in the future. Actually, I‟m interested. 42 H: I‟ll teach her how to cry. (laugh). 43 R: How about you (referring to the husband) how do you find Tagalog language? 44 H: It‟s nice and I I really want to learn. It might be difficult but I think I can. Actually, I am starting to learn Tagalog at home and with her Filipino friends. But at home you know, sometimes I use Hokkien when I am frustrated because she does not understand. 45 W: Actually, when you use your own dialect you can express your anger better. I use Tagalog when I am really angry. You know the funny thing sometimes I talk to him in Tagalog but he does not really understand. 46 H: You know my wife has become my language teacher at home. Sometimes I ask her, what‟s this, what‟s that. 47 R: Have you invented some words that only the two understand? 48 H/W: No 49 R: As husband and wife, what can you say in husband and wife relationship? 50 W: First of all marriage is a blessing and not everyone can get married. You grow more as a person in terms of character and everything your life become more meaningful because you share with another one so dear to you. 51 H: In my own point of view, I would just want to put it like this, it‟s a divine romance thatGgod put us, we are his bride. 52 R: As husband and wife are you interdependent with each other? 53 W: Yeah, we are interdependent particularly in making decisions at home we consult each other. 54 H: all decisions made should be discussed and we talk about it. It‟s not that I‟m a man and to make the decision. I listen to my wife. 55 R: How do you deal some conflicts? 56 W: When we have conflict, we communicate. We are open to each other and we discuss things. 57 H: Both of us are open to discuss whatever disagreements we have. So conflict is unavoidable but can be resolved through proper discussion 58 R: Do you have common interest? 59 W: I think, it‟s a matter of preferences. But I would say we have something in common. Like me, I love to read and he does too. He likes to sing and I sometimes do. 60 R: So you have some common interest. 61 W: Yes we have. 62 H: We do things together, we share whatever have. 63 R: When you‟re upset or angry do you express your anger in your mother tongue? 64 W: Yeah, sometimes but I also express it in English because we respect each other so much and we honor each other we don‟t want to be mean. 65 R: How do you find our Filipino language? 66 W: It‟s a beautiful language and I talk to my child in Tagalog to retain my Filipino culture. 67 R: Do you have the same group of friends? 68 W: Yeah, we have some groups that we meet similar people like in church but of course we also we have different groups of friends.
274 69 R: Do you share your cultural beliefs and practices? 70 H: Yes we share. Honestly, I say a lot about the Philippine culture and she gets angry. 71 W: Yeah, because he criticizes the Philippines many times. I feel bad. 72 R: Did you encounter some language problem when only the two of you are talking? 73 W: Yeah, for me like sometimes but it rarely happens. I think, it‟s more of different words, pronunciation and sentence construction. 74 R: It shows that your language preference at home is English with some mixes with Hokkien and Tagalog. 75 H:Yeah 76 R: Thanks a lot. I really appreciate your contribution in my research.
END
TRANSCRIPT FILE 10 Informant: W-wife (Filipino) and H-husband (Chinese) Interviewer: R R= (Researcher) W= FCCB (Filipino wife) H= FCCA (Malaysian Chinese husband)
1 R: How do you communicate with your husband? 2 W: I communicate with him in English and other languages (laugh). Most of the time is in English. I can speak different languages like English, Japanese, Chinese, Tagalog, and Bahasa Malaysia. 3 R: Any local Filipno language that you speak? 4 W: No, Tagalog only. 5 R: With the many languages you speak, how do younfind using these languages? 6 W: I feel great because I can exprexx myself in many ways but I love Tagalog most because I'm a Filipino then English. I feel more comfortable in Tagalog. 7 R: In your community what language that is commonlyspoken? 8 W: Here, mostly in English. I speak English with my neghbors. However I sometimes speak in Chinese because some of them do not speak English, maybe more or less 40 % of our community speaks Chinese 9 R: What Chinese dialect you speak? 10 W: Hokkien, I speak for a few years and I also speak Bahasa for almost 10 years. 11 R: At home, what language do you use when you are talking to your husband? 12 W:English but I encourage my children to speak in Tagalog. I teach them but not my husband 13 R: What about with your in-laws, what language do you speak? 14 W: Chinese, because they don't know English and they don't speak good Bahasa Malaysia as well. 15 R:What encouraged you to learn English? 16 W: Because everytime they talk they speak in Chinese and I look stupid and I can't interact with them.
275 17 R: Between you and your husband, what language do you speak? 18 W: English but we mix in Filipino and Chinese. My husband can understand a bit of Tagalog like cursing (laugh). My friends speak with him in Tagalog 19 R:Whe you get mad what language do you speak? 20 W: If I'm mad I speak in Tagalog and the worst thing is that when I started to curse in Chinese. 21 R: Do you mean you mix different languages at home? 22 W: yeah, we do even with my children and my husband and friends. 23 F: When you are in the market, what language do you use? 24 W: I speak Bahasa or Chinese but not in English. Some of them they don't speak English. if Malay, I speak BM and Chinese when Chunese 25 R: What about your husband, how many languages does he speak? 26 W: He speaks Chinese, Bahasa, and Chinese. He speaks a lot of Chinese dialects like Hokkien, Mandarin, Fou chow and Cantonese but Hokkien is frequently used. 27 R: Did your husband try to learn Filipino? 28 W: He did but he is not really good in learning other languages.perhaps I'm a poor teacher. 29 R: What about to your mother-in-law what language do you speak? 30 W: I speak in Chinese, Hokkien because they do not speak English much. They spaek to me in Chinese 31 R: If yopu were to choose what language will you prefer? 32 W: I guess English, because it is easy to use because it is the only language that we can communicate with the locals but with my kids I speak in chinese. 33 F: Is there any language barrier between the two of you? 34 W: No, I think if I speak in Tagalog. But he knows already when I speak in Tagalog he will assume that I'm already angry. 35 R: How many years have you been married? 36 W: 13 years 37 R: Was there any problem with the language during your first year of marraige? 38 W: No it was ok. 39 R: By the way as a wife what do you think is an ideal marriage for you? 40 W: I think husband must be a good provider and the wife must be a good wife. true or not? 41 R: Who makes decision? 42 W: It's my husband always makes the final decision but we discuss everything before the decsion is made. House related decision it would be mine 43 R: Do you avoid conflict? 44 W: If I can avoid I will but sometime you can't. My husband knows me so well and he easily know if I'm mad because I just keep quiet and he knows it already. I don't really argue with my husband, we talk if there are problems. 45 R: What about your group of friends, do you have similar group of friends? 46 W: No, he doesn't normally join with my Filipino friend particularly outside. He has his own group of friends because he has a different interest. 47 R: Pag kayo lang naguusap meron bang time na hindi kayo nagkaintindihan kahit English?(If only the two of you are talking is there a time that you don’t understand each other even if it is in English?) 48 W: Yeah, because sometimes I can't understand his English, and sometimes he does not understand my English. 49 R: How do you manage the conversation?
276 50 W: Sometimes he notices it and after that he will talk slowly then it becomes clear to me 51 R: I see. So far you don‟t have any problem in communicating with him. 52 W: Yeah. 53 R: Ok. Thanks a lot for your time.
END
FILIPINO-MALAYSIAN INDIAN COUPLES
TRANSCRIPT FILE 11 Informant: W-wife (Filipino) and H-husband (Indian) Interviewer: R R= Interviewer W= FCIB (Filipino Wife) H= FCIA (Malaysian Indian Hhusband)
1 R:For how many years have you stayed here? 2 W: I stayed here for two years. 3 R: How do you find your stay in Malaysia? 4 W: It‟s great, I learn many things. First I learn to speak a bit of Malay and I learn the Mlaysian culture. 5 R: So you learn another language which is Malay. 6 W: Yeah, aside from English, Tagalog, Pangasinensi I also speak a bit of Malay. 7 R: It‟s great you speak a number of languages. How do you find yourself being married to a Malaysian Indian? 8 W: So far so good. We have no big family problems. I think we both know each other well so we have no much problem. Inspite of our differences we compliment with each other. Although he speaks different languages but we still have something in common. 9 R: How do you communicate with your husband? 10 W: I talk to him in English. Actually, my husband speaks Tamil and other Indian languages, English and Bahasa Malaysia but he is fluent in English. We both use most of the time in English. But you know sometimes I say something in Filipino and he will be surprised. 11 R: It seems that English has become your preferred language at home. 12 W: Yes, I think it‟s also beneficial to use English because it's a universal language and there's no need for us to adjust each other. 13 R: Are you trying to learn Tamil? 14 W: I‟m trying a bit because my father-in-law is encouraging me to learn. 15 R: How do you communicate with your in-laws? 16 W: My husbands's family speaks in English and I don‟t have any problem at all. They speak Tamil but most of the time they speak English at home. 17 R: Is it the reason why you are not really eager to learn Tamil?
277 18 W: Yeah, aside from that it‟s difficult to learn Tamil and it is not commonly used. 19 R: Does your husband learn to speak Tagalog? 20 W: No, he has no eagerness to learn Filipino language, for him it‟s English only. In fact, he is not even well-verse in Tamil. 21 R: I see. Do you have a child? 22 W: Wala pa. (we don’t have yet) 23 R: As a wife, what do you think is an ideal husband and wife? 24 W: As husband and wife, you must be together and kaya nga kayo nagpakasal (that’s why you get married). I gave up my job in the Philippines just for him. 25 R: Paano ka makipag blend sa kanya (How do you blend with him) he has a different culture? 27 W: It's difficult I'm still adjusting kasi iba ang kanilang (because they have different) culture parang ang lalaki (it seems the man) is really superior unlike for Filipinos hindi masyado (not much). 28 R: Nag share ba kayo sa (Do you share in) decision making? 29 W:Nag share kami pero sya pa rin nag decide.(We share but he is the one who decides). 30 R:Meron bang time na nag conflict kayo? (Was there a time that you had conflict?) 31 W: a lot of times kasi nasa adjustment period pa kami (because we are still in an adjustment period) Perhaps dahil magkaiba ang culture (because we have different culture). Ang Filipino very loving kasi pero sa kanila hindi masyado (Filipinos are very loving but for them they are not really) they never talk about emotion. Tayong mga Pinoy very emotional pero sa kanila they hide it kahit mahal ka hindi masyadaong na express kaya malaking adjustment.(We Filipinos we are very emotional but for them they hide their feelings even if they love you, they are not really expressive that’s why it’s a big adjustment) 32 R: When you have conflict with your husband do you avoid it? 33 W: Sometimes pero pag nandyan na (but when it’s there) then you have to face it. 34 R: So you are adjusting? 35 W: Yeah, ako ang nag adjust para sa kanya (I am the one who adjusts for him). Yung culture nila (their culture) I don't like. 36 R: Do you celebrate Indian celebration? 37 W: Yes but not at home pero sa bahay ng in-laws ko (but in my in-laws’ house) . 38 R: Do you wear Indian attire? 39 W: Yes, nagsusuot din medyo iba ako kasi Christian ako at sila Hindu pero hindi ako nila pinipilit na mag hindu pero sinasama ako sa temple, sumsama naman ako at sumusunod din ako sa dress code nila (I wear but a bit different because I’m a Christian and they are Hindu but they don’t force me if I don’t but they accompany me to the temple, I go and I follow their dress code). 40 R: Do you celebrate Christmas? 41 W: Yes we do celebrate, nung nagakasama na kami saka lang sya nag celebrate. Hindi nya pwede pigilan ako kelangan kung i practice ang Christain values.(When we were together that’s the time that he celebrated. He cannot stop me becuase I need to practice my Christian values). 42 R: Do you share your cultural belief and practice? 43 W: Yes, we discuss. They have a lot of superstitious beliefs but interesting for me as a Filipino. He sometimes asks me about the Filipiono women in Malaysia (laugh) 44 R: What about?
278 45 W: He directly tells me that there are Filipino prostitutes. My husband is very direct. 46 R: So at home you use English most of the time and rarely you mix with Filipino because your husband prefers English. Thanks so much for your time. 47 W: you're welcome END
TRANSCRIPT FILE 12 Informant: W-wife (Filipino) and H-husband (Indian) Interviewer: R R= Interviewer W= FCIB (Filipino Wife) H= FCIA (Malaysian Indian Hhusband)
1 R: Nang asa mo nagpuyo diri?(Where do you stay here?) 2 W: Sa Jalan Loke Yeow lang malapit sa Hang Tuah. (In Jalan Loke Yeow near Hang Tuah) 3 R: How do you find your stay in KL? 4 W: So far okey. My husband work in a bank and I stay at home, plain housewife. 5 R; Ilang taon na kayo ngasama? (For how long have you been together?) 6 W: Mga 9 years na. (Almost 9 years) 7 R: How do you communicate with your husband? 8 W: I communicate with him in English most of the time. He also speaks with me in English although my English is not really good because my first language is not English. I speak Cebuano, Tagalog then English and Malay (laugh). But my husband speaks English well and he speaks Tamil, English ug Bahasa Malaysia kay diri man sya na tawo (and Bahasa Malaysia because he was born here) 9 R: So when you are at home you speak English. 10 W: Yeah we speak English but I sometimes mix a bit of Cebuano. 11 R: English has become your language at home. 12 W: English jud minsan Tamil ug Malay, depende sa situasyon, pag may Malay mag Malay ko.(It’s really English sometimes Tamil and Malay, it depends on the situation, if there’s a Malay then I speak in Malay) 13 R: Sa Indian ninyo nag kaila unsa imo salita? (With your Indian friends what language do you use?) 14 W: English 15 R: Kabalo imong asawa magTagalog ug Cebuano? (Does your husband know how to speak Tagalog and Cebuano) 16 W: Dili pero gusto nya pero kapuyan ko mag tudlo ba.(No, but he wants but I feel tired teaching him). 17 R: Sa mga anak unsa inyong gamit nga pinulungan?(With your children what language do you use?) 18 W: English lang, pag nag Tagalog ko i translate ko in English. (English only, if I speak in Tagalog I need to translate in English). 19 R: Kung ok lang sa inyo, Ilang taon na po kayo?(If you don’t mind, how old are you?)
279 20 W: 50 years old 21 R: Imong asawa? (Your husband?) 22 W: 45 years old. 23 R: Pagnagusap nyo unsa inyong gamit?(When you talk what langauge do you use?) 24 W: English lang jud tapos gagmay nga Bahasa Malaysia.(English only with a bit of Bahasa Malaysia). Medyo sayun sya para sa trabaho sad. Kapoy na sad mag aral ug bag-o nga language. (It seems easy for work reasons. It’s tiring to learn a new language). 25 R: Do you speak in Cebuano when you are mad? 26 W: Nag bisaya ko kay mahutdan ko ug English. (laugh). Di jud niya masabtan. Kadugayan pag didli sya makasabot mulakaw lang na sya. Tahimik lang naman sya ako pirmi ang sigi ug baba.(I speak in Bisaya because I might run out of English (laugh). He can’t really understand. After that he would go. He is just quiet and I talk a lot) 27 R: Pag may conflict kayo, (If you have conflict), Do you avoid conflict? 28 W: Dili man, we just face it kung nandyan na. (No, we just face it when it’s there) 29 R: How about in decision making who makes the decision? 30 W: Kaming duha, iyaha sya mag decide, akoa then ako ang mag decide. Lahi lang sya. Dili sya naga consult sa akin, iba talaga sila.(The two of us, each of us decides our own. I decide myself for my own. He is different. He does not consult me, he is really different) 31 R: Do you celebrate Indian celebration? 32 W: Yeah, nagsuot sad ko ug Indian attire. Sya rin nag suot ug Filipino attire.(I wear an Indian attire. He also wears a Filipino attire). 33 R: What other celebrations you celebrate? 34 W: Christmas nag celebrate kami sa balay gidala gani naku sya sa simbahan.(Christmas, we celebrate it at home. I even brought him to church). 35 R:Sa pagakaon? (What about the food?) 36 W: Ok lang, pero sya Indian food jud mao nay iyang pagkaon, pero ako kaon nalang. (It’s ok but he prefers Indian food, that’s his food, but I just eat) 37 R: What do you prefer, Indian or Filipino food? 38 W: Of course, Filipino food. 39 R: Do you have common friends? 40 W: No, ang friend ko, friend ko. Mga friend nya friend nya. (No, my friend is my friend. His friends are his friends). 41 R: Ang inyong likes ug dislikes? (How about your likes and dislikes?) 42 W: Magkaiba.(Different) 43 R: What about? 44 W: Alam mo (you know) he tells me that he sometimes does not like our culture. Di ko alam (I don’t know) perhaps because of other Filipino women. 45 R: I see. 46 W: Yeah. 47 R: Thanks a lot. 48 W: Ok lang yun (It’s ok). END
280 TRANSCRIPT FILE 13 Informant: W-wife (Filipino) and H-husband (Indian) Interviewer: R R= Interviewer W= FCIB (Filipino Wife) H= FCIA (Malaysian Indian Hhusband)
1 R: Ilang years na po kayo dito? (For how many years have you been here?) 2 W: 1994 pa (Since 1994). 3 R: Taga saan po kayo sa Pilipinas? (Which part of the Philippines you come from?) 4 W: Zamboanga 5 R: How do you communicate with your husband? 6 W: I talk to him in English. But sometimes we talk in Malay. It depends but often we mix different languages. 7 R: You mean, you can speak Bahasa Malaysia? 8 W: Yes, I can speak a bit of Malay. Actually, I speak four languages such as Chavakano, Cebuano, Tagalog, English, and Malay. All in all there are five languages that I speak. 9 R: What about your husband, does he speak other languages? 10 W: Yes, he does. He speaks Tamil, Malay and English. He can speak three languages. 11 R: Can you speak Tamil? 12 W: No, I don‟t, I find it difficult to speak in Tamil. I don‟t speak Tamil but my husband can speak a bit of Tagalog. 13 R: By the way, how many children do you have? 14 W: We have only one child. 15 R: When your child is around, what language do you use? 16 W: You know, we always speak in English even with or without the presence of our child and we use a few words in BM and Filipino. When we talk to the child it‟s plain English because that‟s how my child has used to. It seems that English has become our child‟s first language. My child is learning Tamil but I also teach the Filipino language. 17 R: As a couple, have you invented some words that only the two of you can understand?. 18 W: Yeah, just a few words that we use for fun. It‟s just our own invention. 19 R: Since both of you speak different languages, did it happen that you simplify your English so both of you can understand each other? 20 W: Yes, sometimes. I think both of us do this thing 21 R: As a wife how do you view a husband and wife relationship? 22 W: As husband and wife proper communication is needed to understand each other better. In a relationship, it should always be give and take. 23 R: Are you interdependent with each other? 24 W: yeah, we are. We discuss our plans and big family decisions. 25 R: What about when conflict occurs, how do you deal with it? 26 W: We discuss any conflict that we have and solve it by ourselves. 27 R: How about your circle of friends, is it similar to your husband? 28 W: Not really some of my friends are his friends and some of his friends are my friends. We have some common friends.
281 29 R: Do you have similar things that you like and dislike? 30 W: We have something in common but often we differ. I guess, we have different interests. 31 R: As a wife of an Indian husband, do you celebrate Indian celebrations? 32 W: yeah, we do celebrate like Depavali and others. 33 R: Are you adjusted with the Indian food? 34 W: I think so but I still prefer the Filipino food.. 35 R: Do both of you share your cultural practices? 36 W: Yes, we both share our cultural practices. We have no problem except that he is disappointed of the Philippine politics. 37 R: That‟s for sure. 38 W: Yeah, he criticizes a lot but Malaysia has also some political problems, right? 39 R: Yeah, but they don‟t criticize a lot here. 40 W: Poor Philippines. 41 R: How about our Filipino language, are you still proud of it? 42 W: Definitely, I‟m very proud of it that‟s why I teach my child to speak in Filipino. 43 R :Thanks a lot for your time. END
TRANSCRIPT FILE 14 Informant: W-wife (Filipino) and H-husband (Indian) Interviewer: R R= Interviewer W= FCIB (Filipino Wife) H= FCIA (Malaysian Indian Hhusband)
1 R: For how many years have you been married? 2 W: I‟ve been married for 25 years. 3 R: For 25 years how did you find your marriage? 4 W: I would say, it has been productive. I think our.marriage is a bit different from other couples because we knew each other through letters. My husband now used to be my penpal. When we decided to get married we had our weddig in the Philippines then we came to Malaysia because my husband is a Malaysian Indian. 5 R: Whe you first met your husband how did you communicate with him? 6 W: I think when we personally met, we were like old friends because we already knew each other through our letters. 7 F: Did you encounter problems in communication with your husband? 8 W: At first there was none because we basically communicate in English and both of us can speak and write English well although we also speak other languages. I speak Cebuano, Tagalog and Malay while my husband speaks Tamil, English and Chinese. 9 R: How did you meet your in-laws? 10 W: They also went to the Philippines. At first they could hardly accept me, that's the truth and I struggled a lot but now they are fine with me. 11 R: As interracial couple, how do you communicate with each other at home?
282 12 W: We simply communicate in English pure in English,.We do not mix any other languages but sometimes I make some jokes in Tagalog. 13 R: Can you converse in Malay? 14 W: Yes this time I do. Pehaps because of the number of years that I stay in Malaysia. 15 R: How about your husband does he speak in Tagalog? 16 W: Yes, he knows how to speak Tagalog. He can communicate because we frequently go back to the Philippines. Although both of us can speak Tagalog but we still use English at home my husband was educated in an English medium school. You know, even when I'm mad I always speak in English. 17 R: As a couple, how do you deal when you encounter conflicts? 18 W: I‟m a bit strong and both of us face and discuss our conflicts. I ven had conflicts with my in-laws. Since they do not like me, I spoke to them directly. I'm straight forward and I do not care if they do not like me. I'm different and I guess my daughter is like me. Sometime huh I just laugh. 19 R: Do you teach your daughter the Filipino culture? 20 W: Yes I do. 21 R: Since your husband is an Indian, do you celebrate Indian celebration? 22 W: No, we don't. We only celebrate christmas. 23 R: Are you ok now with your in-laws? 24 W: Yes, we are ok now. 25 R: How often do you visit your in-laws? 26 W:If they invite me, then I will visit them. 27 R: As husband and wife, are you interdependent? 28 W: Yes, we are. We plan and decide some things together. He consults me and I do too. 29 R: What about your group of friends, do you have similar group? 30 W: Not really, I have a lot of friends that he does not know and he has friends also that I am not close. 31 R: What about your hobbies? 32 W: We certainly differ. 33 R: You were married dor quite sometime, have you experienced that both of you invented some words that only the two of you understand? 34 W: Yes but that was long time ago. This time we are old and we no longer invent our own words. 35 R: I see. Since you have been away from the Philippines for quite sometime, are you still proud of your own language? 36 W: Yes, I am and I still use Cebuano. I‟m very proud of it. 37 R:Thnak you very much for your time. 38 W: You‟re welcome END
TRANSCRIPT FILE 15 Informant: W-wife (Filipino) and H-husband (Indian) Interviewer: R
283 R= Interviewer W= FCIB (Filipino Wife) H= FCIA (Malaysian Indian Hhusband)
1 R: How do you find your stay here in KL? 2 W: It‟s fine. I enjoy with my family. My husband is very understanding. 3 R: That‟s good you have an understanding husband. By the way, as a Filipino, how do you communicate with your Indian husband? 4 W: We communicate normally in English, I think that‟s the only choice because he cannot speak fluently in Filipino and I don‟t speak fluently any Indian languages. Besides, the two of us speak different languages. I speak English, Malay, Tagalog, and now learning Malayalam and Tamil and my husband speaks English, Malaysalam and Tamil. So far we have not encountered problems in communication except with some personal and family problems. 5 R: Does it mean that English is the only language used at home? 6 H: Yeah, English because it is easy to communicate. I also tried to speak Tagalog with my wife because I know a few words. 7 R: Are you really eager to learn Tagalog? 8 H: Yeah, I am learning it now. 9 R: Can you can speak a bit of Tagalog?. 10 H: Yeah, like kumain ka, na halika na. (Have you eaten, come here) 11 R: What make you learn Tagalog? 12 H: Because of my wife and it seems that I often get married daily with her (laugh). 13 R: How do you find the languages that you speak? 14 H: They are helpful because you can interact with different people. But of the languages I speak, English I guess is more important or it can be Tagalog for the two of us. I sometimes speak with my wife in Tagalog and English. We mix sometimes. 15 R: How many years have you been married? 16 H: It will be 9 years. 17 R: Nine years, oh that‟s quite long. For 9 years have you invented some words that only two of you can understand? 18 W: Yeah, we talk in Tagalog so that no one can understand like when we go to Sha Alam. Some words that we invent are of Tagalog origin. (laugh) 19 R: Yeah, so what about Malayalam can you speak? (referring to the wife) 20 W: No, I don‟t. It‟s difficult. 21 R: How do you communicate with your in-laws? 22 W : I communicate with them in English. They are good in English but they also speak Malayalam. 23 R: How about Bahasa Malaysia, do you speak with them? 24 W: No, only English. They have not talked to me in BM. I speak Malay a bit in the market and sometimes with my husband. 25 R: In your community here what language that is widely spoken? 26 W: Actually, Malay but when they talk to me they speak in English, sometimes others speak in Mlay but if they notice that I don‟t speak Malay others try to speak in English. 27 R: What if you have Filipino friends who come to your house what language do you speak?
284 28 W: We speak mixed English and Tagalo.g 29 R: How do you find English and Tagalog languages? 30 W: I think, English is international but I feel more comfortable in Tagalog because it‟s my mother tongue. 31 R: As a wife how do you describe an ideal husband and wife relationship? 32 W: Both husband and wife encounter the good times and bad times. Despite the difficulties both of them must understand each other. 33 H: I agree with my wife that an ideal husband and wife relationship must always be there both in good times and bad times. 34 R: What about in you relationship are you interdependent with each other? 35 W: Sometimes only When we make major decisions at home. But for minor decision I decide my own and he decides his own. For major decisions the two of us. 36 R: Have you thought of doing things by yourself? 37 W: So far, no. My husband cannot do without me, so we must always do things together. 38 R: Do you have common friends? 39 W: Yeah, my friends are also his friends and his friends are also my friends. We have the same friends. 40 R: Do you like and dislike similar things? 41 W: Sometimes, he likes curry and I also like it. I like Indian food. 42 R: Do you wear the Indian Sari? 43 W: Yeah, but I wear Sari occasionally only when they ask me to wear particularly in her sister‟s house if they have function I need to wear the Sari but with his uncle there is no need to wear it. 44 R: So it depends on you 45 W: Yeah, it‟s up to me if I want to wear the sari its ok but if I don‟t like it‟s not really necessary. 46 R: In your relationship, do you avoid conflict? 47 W:Sometimes, but if it‟s already there we just face it. 48 R: What about Jo. Do you avoid conflict? 49 H: Sometimes, but if it‟s already there we just face it. 50 R: When you‟re angry and you quarrel what language do you speak? 51 W: When I‟im really mad, I say it in Tagalog. 52 R: Why? 53 W: It is easy to say. 54 R: Do you think your husband can understand you? 55 W: Who say, he can‟t understand, he understands. 56 R: Oh he understand, what about you Jo what language do you speak when you are angry? 57 H: English 58 R: In the course of your marriage, have you invented some words that only the two of you can understand? 59 W: Yes, we have invented but we keep it ourselves because it‟s very personal. 60 R: I see, how about you (referring to the wife) you‟ve been in KL for several years, are you still proud of your mother tongue? 61 W: Of course, I‟m a Filipino and I‟m proud of my own language. Tha‟s why I teach my husband to speak and learn Tagalog.
285 62 R: Your language loyalty towards Filipino language is still there. Thank you very much for your help in my research. 63 H: you‟re welcome. END
TRANSCRIPT FILE 16 Informant: W-wife (Filipino) and H-husband (Indian) Interviewer: R R= Interviewer W= FCIB (Filipino Wife) H= FCIA (Malaysian Indian Hhusband)
1 R: How many years have you been married? 2 W: For 13 years. 3 R: Thirteen years, that‟s quite long. Is your husband an Indian? , 4 W: Yes, Indian but he is an English speaking Indian. 5 R: Do you speak any Indian language or languages? 6 W: No lah, even my husband seldom speak Indian language. I speak only Tagalog, English, Malay and Kapampangan. 7 R: So, you speak four languages. Is Tagalog your first language? 8 W: No, not Tagalog. My first language is Kapampangan and my second language is English then Tagalog. 9 R: I see, by the way how do you communicate with your husband? 10 W: It‟s easy (laugh) I just talk to him in Malay and English. You know my husband can speak only 2 languages, Malay and English. 11 R: Only two languages, what about any Indian languages? 12 W: He does not speak but he can understand. 13 R: You mean, he doea not speak any Indian language at all. 14 W: He can understand only the simple Indian words. 15 R: So at home you speak only two languages? 20 W: Actually only English but sometimes I use Malay. My husband speaks English all the time but he speak a little bit slow when he wants me to clearly understand his message. 21 R: What if your husband talks to his Filipino friends? 22 W: Still in English. 23 R: Did he attempt to lean Tagalog? 24 W: No, he is not interested to learn Tagalog. 25 R: Did you attempt to learn any Indian Language? 26 W: No, but I learn Malay. 27 R: I see, you mentioned it earlier. When do you use Bahasa Melayu? 28 W: When I speak to a Malay and sometimes I and my daughter speak in Malay. 29 R: English has become your choice at home. 30 W: Yes, English because it‟s the only language that I and my husband can understand each other. 31 R: You have been together for many years, is there any words that both of you have invented that only the two of you can understand?
286 32 W: Got, that one our language when I get mad “putang ina mo” (son of a bitch) that‟s it‟ if he heard this words he will stop this is my secret word to him becausee he knows me already that I‟m mad. 33 R: What about with your in-laws, how do you communicate with them? 34 W: In English. 35 F: Yeah, what about when your husband talk to your parents what language does he speak to them? 36 W: My mom don‟t know how to speak English, only one word they can understand both when it‟s time to eat the word “makan” (eat) then my husband will say inang makan (mother let’s eat). Sometimes they use sign language to understand each other (laugh). 37 R: What can you say about husband and wife relationship? 38 W: All I can say is that there must be understanding, give and take is the most important. I don‟t keep any secret both husband and wife must be open to each other so that you can understand each other and your relationship will last forever. 39 R: What about when you encounter conflict, do you avoid it? 40 W: We don‟t talk about it. We just face the conflict. 41 R: What about in decisions making, are you interdependent? 42 W: We talk about it, if it‟s ok for both of us then we go on. 43 R: At home, there are no other languages used except English and Malay. 44 W: Yes, English but if my husband knows how to speak in Tagalog. I‟d rather choose Tagalog because it‟s easy to say. But the problem is he doesn‟t know and understand Tagalog that‟s why we use English. 45 R: Do you like and dislike similar things? 46 W: Almost similar but of course there are also some things that I like but he does not like or things that I don‟t like but he likes. 47 R: What about your group of friends, do you have similar friends? 48 W: When it comes to his friend I can be friends (of his friend). But when it comes to my friends, he will not be friend with them. My husband is not, you know. He does not like my other friends. 49 R: What about the celebration of Indians like Deepavali. Do you celebrate? 50 W: Yes and everything we celebrate. 51 R: All Indian celebrations. 52 W: Yeah, we talk about it sometimes with his brothers and sisters. 53 R: In general, your choice of language is English because that‟s only the language that your husband can understand and he doesn‟t know Tagalog and it‟s only English. Then when it comes to marriage you‟re interdependent and you don‟t avoid conflict but you face it. 54 R: Thanks a lot for your time. END
TRANSCRIPT FILE 17 Informant: W-wife (Filipino) and H-husband (Indian) Interviewer: R R= Interviewer W= FCIB (Filipino Wife) H= FCIA (Malaysian Indian Hhusband)
287
1 R: For how long have you been married? 2 H: We have been married for 8 years. 3 R: How many children do you have now? 4 H: We have 6 siblings 5 R: I see. How do you describe when you communicate with your wife? 6 H: We communicate like friends. Everytime we talk we use English and Malay. Sometimes we use Tagalog but I don‟t really understand it. 7 R: So you speak different languages? 8 H: Yes, I do. I speak English, Malay, German and a bit of Filipino. 9 R: Is Malay or any Indian languages your first language? 10 H: No, my first language is English. 11 R: So you don‟t speak your ethnic language. 12 H: Yeah, eversince I have been using English. 13 R: So most of the time you speak in English with your wife. 15 H: Yeah but sometimes I mix with Malay and wife sometimes uses Tagalog. 16 R: As a Filipino, how do you find communicating with your husband? 17 W: I think, we have no problems in communication because we understand each other. We both speak English. 18 R: What about Malay? Your husband said you use Malay sometimes. 19 W: Actually, I speak different languages including Malay. I speak Tagalog, English, Malay, a bit of Spanish, Tamil and Hindi. English is frequently used at home and Malay is used rarely. 20 R: So you speak a lot of languages. Do you speak any Filipino dialects? 21 W: No, I only speak Tagalog and it‟s my first language. 22 R: When you first met what language did you use? 23 H: Of course in English. My wife at that time could not speak Malay. Now that she knows Malay, we already use it at home. 24 R: When do you use Malay often? 25 W: If we want to buy something with kids we speak in Malay. 26 R: By the way, did you attempt to learn and speak Tagalog? (referring to the husband) 27 H: Yeah, I tried to manage pick up a few words but still I could not speak fluently. 28 R: How about with your in-laws, how do you communicate with them? 29 H: I talk to them in English because both of them can speak and understand English 30 R: What about you, how do you communicate with your in-laws? (referring to the husband) 31 W: I speak to all of them in English. 32 R: Since both of you speak a number of languages, do you pass it on to your children? 33 W: Yes we do. In fact I teach them Tagalog words. They learn simple words like kain-inom (eat and drink), its easy to translate. 34 R: What‟s your view about husband and wife relationship? 35 H: The thing is that no couples are the same.Understanding must be there.You must understand each other. 36 R: What about you, what is your view of husband and wife relationship? (referring to the wife).
288 37 W: Trust must always be there because if there‟s none the relationship will not be good.Then we talk like friends and treat each other as friends. 38 R: Are you interdependent with each other? 39 H: Yes, definitely. Well difficult for things we talk about it. 40 R: As husband and wife sometimes conflict arises, do you avoid it? 41 H: We talk about it. We face it. 42 R: Do you have the same interest? 43 H: Just a sort of things but not everthing. 44 R: What about friends, do you have common friends? 45 H: Some, we have common friends. Sometimes couple to couple or individual. 46 W: Yes, we have some common friends but he has some friends whom I don‟t know. I have friends too who are not his friends. 47 R: Did it happen thatyou don‟t understand each other becuase of language problems. 48 H: No, we didn‟t have any problem. 49 R: As husband and wife, do you have languages that only the two of you can understand? 50 H: Yes, we have. 51 R: What about when you‟re talking to your wife and she never understands what you are trying to say, how do you resolve it? 52 H: So far we have not encountered any problems. Filipinos are good in English. She‟s ok. She can understand. 53 R: Thanks a lot. To sum up my interview, I would just want to reiterate that your language choice at home is English but you also use Malay and Filipino. Thanks a lot for your time. 54 H/W: You‟re welcome. END
FILIPINO-MALAY COUPLES
TRANSCRIPT FILE 18 Informant: A (Wife) and H (Husband) Interviewer: R R= Interviewer A= FCMB (Filipino Wife) H= FCMA (Malay Husband)
1 R: I would just want to know about the languages that you speak at home. Let me start first with your wife. How many languages do you speak? 2 A: Three I think. When I'm with my husband I speak English but with my family I speak Bisaya and with some of my friends I speak Tagalog and Bisaya. 3 R: You speak different languages but what is our first language? 4 A: Bisaya thenTagalog and English but I use these three languages depending on the people I‟m speaking with. With my friends of course I use Tagalog but here in Malaysia I speak English. But of these many languages, I prefer English.
289 5 R: How about you (referring to the husband), How many languages do you speak? 6 H: I speak Malay, English, Chinese (Mandarin). 7 R: You also speak three languages and what is your first language? 8 H: My first language is Bahasa Malaysia but at home we speak English most of the time. Although, we use also Malay often and Filipino (laugh) Bisaya. Of the four languages I feel and I prefer English to be spoken at home because it is a universal language and both of us I guess prefer English (laugh). 9 R: What about Bahasa Malaysia since it is your first language? 10 A: We sometimes use it when we are playing. 11 H: Actually it depends where we are, if we go to my parents house of course she speaks in Bahasa because my parents don't understand English but at home she speaks English, Bisaya and Malay. 12 R: You mix different languages at home? 13 A: Yeah, because sometimes when I really cannot express something but I feel that I need to explain to him I‟ll say it in Bisaya and he understands. 14 R: Are you learning the Philippine language: Bisaya? 15 H: I just learned from her. 16 R: What about you (referring to the wife). How did you learn Bahasa? 17 A: I learned from him. 18 R: What drives you to learn Bahasa? 19 A: Well my parents and of course my parents-in-law beacuse my in-laws don't know English. 20 H: But my father can speak English. 21 R: What about you (referring to the husband) when you speak to your wife‟s mom what language do you use? 22 H: I'm forced to speak in Bisaya (laugh) 23 A: You know, I‟m with him all the time and when we shop. When I‟m alone in the mall or anywhere and I don't understand Malay I have to call him and ask him to speak to the ther person I‟m talking on the phone (laugh). 24 H: normally she will tell me and I wil talk to the person. 25 R: What about if you have visitors at home? 26 A: It depends on the visitors. If the visitors are Filipinos we normally speak in English and mix with Cebuano or Tagalog. but sometimes some of his friends don't know how to speak English so we speak in Bahasa Malaysia. Speaking Malay at home helps me to learn the language faster. 27 R: You have been married for almost 2 years, what does it mean to you being a husband and a wife? 28 A: For me I think as a wife I will have to be more responsible at home, in the house. Everything what your husband has to wear, eat and other things must be prepared by me. 29 R: What about you (referring to the husband) what do you think is the role of a husband? 30 H: For me since I become a husband, I think it‟s not difficult but challenging. I must earn money and provide the things that my wife needs, the house needs because if Idont provide things she cant do her responsibility as a wife and then as head of the family everything is under my responsibility. 31 R: Are the two of you are interdependent with one another? 32 H: No, we are not. We share. 33 A: we have to share by thinking, making decisions and everything.
290 34 H: Actually we discuss, we discuss if we make decisions because if we don't discuss there will be an argument for sure (laugh). 35 R: Do you avoid arguments or conflict? 36 A: I don‟t avoid conflicts (laugh) I trigger conflict (laugh). When I dont agree with him, I really have to fight for it and he must to listen to me. I'm like that but sometimes I also compesate him. 37 H: We are different, I do avoid conflict for example if I know that that she wants to do something but I know that it is negative then she still wants to do it I just let her do it until she got the result. Then she will realize, she will learn from it because I know I cannot really stop her. 38 R: If the conflict is already there, do you discuss? 39 H: fighting (laugh) 40 A: Honestly, we fight. 41 R: When you fight, do you discuss after that? 42 H: Yes, we do. I do it first. I realize that fighting is normal at the same time you can let out whatever inside you eventhough you‟re husband and wife you sleep together, eat together still I dont know what's inside her, when it's figthing time that's the time that you know each other. 43 R: When you discuss, what laguage do you use? 44 A: We use English but if we argue to really express my feeling I use both English and Bisaya. If I say something bad I say it in Bisaya. 45 R: What about your friends? Do you have similar group of friends? 46 H: No, different. I don't have really Filipino friends but she has many Malaysian friends but she knows my friends. 47 A: Yeah, that‟s right. 48 R: To sum up, English is your preferred language at home but most of the time when you communicate you mix English with other languages like Bahasa Malaysia and Filipino (Bisaya). Thanks a lot for your time. Thank you. END
TRANSCRIPT FILE 19 Informant: W-wife (Filipino) and H-husband (Malay) Interviewer: R R= Interviewer W= FCMB (Filipino Wife) H= FCMA (Malay Husband)
1 R: Paano mo tawagin yung husband nyo? (How do you address your husband?) 2 W:I call him Abdul Asis. 3 R: Ilang years na po kayo married? (For how long have you been married?) 4 W: 8 years na kami ngayon. (We have been married for 8 years now) 5 R: For 8 years, did you learn to speak Malay? 6 W: Yes, I can speak Malay fluently now but of course I‟m more fluent in Cebuano because it‟s my first language and English I think is my second language. When people see me, they think I‟m a Malay because I speak Bahasa Malaysia and I look like a Malay.
291 7 R:Does your husband speak other languages apart from Malay? 8 W: Yeah, my husband speak Malay and English. 9 R: How do you communicate with your husband? 10 W:We communicate as typical husband and wife. We discuss a lot of work and family related things. 11 R: When you discuss things did you encounter some problems like language problems? 12 W: So far, we didn‟t have any problems in language because we use English and Malay at home and both of us are fluent in these two languages. At first when I have just started learning Malay there were a few things that I could not understand sometimes but later on everything went on smoothly. 13 R:I see, even if your husband is a Malay, English is still prevalent at home. 14 W: Yeah, I think because we started everything in English and at first I could not speak good Malay and later on it became natural for us. That‟s why at home there are always two or three languages used like English, Malay and Filipino. 15 R: How did you learn Malay? 16 W: I studied Malay and I watch Malay shows on TV and I follow the English subtitle. 17 R: You mentioned earlier that at home you speak English and Malay. Does it mean to say that you mix English and Malay language often at home? 18 W: Yeah, English and Malay are used most of the time at home. Yeah, it‟s mixing two languages. I think because we started using English when we first married then later when I learned Malay we started using Malay as well. Sometimes we use Tagalog at home becuase I want my children to learn Tagalog so that when my relatives see them they can communicate. 19 R: What about your husband, does he speak Tagalog? 20 W: No, he does not speak Tagalog but he understand some words. When we talk sometimes I use some words in Tagalog and he understands me. 21 R: What about when you talk to your in-laws? 22 W:Malay kasi hindi sila marunong mag English. Pero sa bahay English o Malay ang gamit namin (Malay because they don’t know English. However, we use English and Malay at home) 23 R: Ilan na po ang anak ninyo? (How many children do you have?) 24 W: Wala pa kaming anak.(WE don’t have a chld yet) 25 R: Ano po ang language dito sa community nyo? (What language is commonly used in your community?) 26 W: Malay kasi karamihan ng kapitbahay namin mga Malay.(Malay because most of our neighbors are Malays) 27 R: As a wife what is your idea about husband and wife relationship? 28 W: I think, husband and wife must understand each other and it will result good relationship between husband and wife. 29 R: What about if you have conflict with your husband, how do you deal with it? 30 W: If there is a conflict we talk and we tell to each other our problems and we settle. 31 R: When it comes to decision making, who decides at home? 32 W: Ang asawa ko, ako sunod lang ako. (My husband, I just follow him) 33 R: Anong cebration ang sinicelebrate nyo?(What celebrations do you celebrate?) 34 W: Hari Raya, yung asawa ko hindi mahilig mag celebrate pero ang Hari
292 Raya at Ramadan sini celebrate talaga namin.(My husband loves to celebrate but we really celebrate Hari Raya and Ramadan) 35 R: As a wife, do you have similar friends with your husband? 36 W: Yeah, karamihan mga Malay, kagaya ng mga kaibigan ng friends ng asawa ko. (Mostly are Malays, like my husband’s friends) 37 R: Ano po ang food na preferred nyo? (What food do you prefer?) 38 W: Malay food na, kasi bihira na kami kumakain ng Filipino food kasi most of the time sa bahay Malay food talaga kasi yun ang gusto ng asawa ko. (It’s Malay food because we seldom eat Filipino food and most of the time at home it’s Malay food because that’s what my husband prefers) 39 R: Having been married for several years, have you and your husband invented some words that only the two of you can understand? 40 W: None that I can remember. 41 R: I see. Thanks a lot for your time. 42 W: Welcome END
TRANSCRIPT FILE 20 Informant: W-wife (Filipino) and H-husband (Malay) Interviewer: R R= Interviewer W= FCMB (Filipino Wife) H= FCMA (Malay Husband)
1 R: Ano po ang pangalan ng husband nyo? (What’s your husband’s name?) 2 W: His name is Ismael Abdullah 3 R: How do you communicate with your husband? 4 W: We talk to each other as husband and wife. We don‟t hide anything. 5 R: Did you encounter any communication problems? 6 W: Problems. I don‟t think so. We both understand even if we speak different languages but at home we use English and Malay. Both of us can speak these two languages. 7 R: How many languages do you speak? 8 W: I speak Bicol, Tagalog, English, Malay and I am learning Arabic and Chinese. 9 R: So, you speak six languages. 10 W: Yeah. 11 R: How about your husband, what languages does he speak? 12 W: The same with me English, Malay, Arabic and Chinese. 13 R: Ilang taon na kayo married? (For how long have you been married?) 14 W: 22 years na.(For 22 years already) 15 R: What language do you use when you speak to your children? 17 W: Halo halo, English, Malay, Chinese minsan Arabic at Filipino. (Mix English, Malay, Chinese sometimes Arabic and Filipino) 18 R: When you talk to your husband, what language do you use? 19 W: Malay and English. Pag di ko ma express in Malay nag English ako.(If I can’t express in Malay, I speak English)
293 20 R: When conflict happens between the two of you, do you avoid it? 21 W: No, In fact, sa mga material na bagay nalang kasi wala na syang family. Sa mga material na bagay kami nga argue. Kasi pag may holiday ng mga anak namin wala kaming mapuntahan kasi wala syang mga close relatives, medyo mahirap. Minsan naisip ko walang mapuntahan yung mga anak namin pag may break. (It’s only in material things because he has no other family. We argue in material things. When our children have the school holiday we have nothing to visit becuase he has no close relatives, it’s a bit difficult. I sometimes think that my children have no place to visit during the holiday.) 22 R: Are you interdependent with each other? For example in decision making. 23 W: Yes, and in decision making sya pagdating sa major decison like sa education ng mga anak namin pero sa mga material things sa bahay ako lahat. (When it comes to major decision makinghe decides like our children’s education but when it comes to material things at home I decide.) 24 R: Pareho po ba kayo ng group of friends? (Do you have similar group of friends?) 25 W: Medyo lang kasi both of us are busy sa work. (Partly because both of us are busy at work) 26 R: How do you find your husband who happens to be Malay? 27 W: Ok naman, mas religious ang husband ko, pero ako bilang isang Pilipina medyo iba ng konti pero sumusunod pa rin naman ako. (It’s ok, my husband is more religious but being a Filipina I’m a bit different but I still follow) 28 R: Ano pong celebration ang pinagdiwang nyo?(What celebration do you celebrate?) 29 W:Marami, Hari Raya, Ramadan, Christmas kasi yung pamilya ko sa Pilipinas hindi naman Muslim at parang nakasanayan ko na rin kasi culture yan ng Filipino kaya nag celebrate ako ng Christmas minsan Chinese new year din. ( A lot, Hari Raya, Christmas because my family in the Philippines is not Muslim and it seems that it’s part of the Filipino culture that’s why I celebrate Christmas sometimes Chinese New Year) 30 F: Ano yung food na gusto ninyo? (What food do you like?) 31 W: Ako mahilig sa Filipino food at Malay food.Ok lang sa amin.(I like Filipino food and Malay food. It’s OK for us) 32 R: Have you invented some words that only the two of you can understand? 33 W: Yeah but that was long time ago. This time as we become older we no longer do that. 34 R: I see. Thanks a lot for your time. 35 W: it‟s ok. END
TRANSCRIPT FILE 21 Informant: W-wife (Filipino) and H-husband (Malay) Interviewer: R R= Interviewer W= FCMB (Filipino Wife) H= FCMA (Malay Husband)
294 1 R: Since you were converted to Islam, ano na po ang complete name nyo?(What is your complete name?) 2 W: Yasmin Binti Abdullah 3 R: Saan po kayo sa Pilipinas? (Which part of the Philippines you stay?) 4 W: Sa Singalong Manila, doon ako pinanganak, malapit kami sa San Andres Bukid. Palipat lipat kami sa Manila.(In Singalong Manila, I was born there we live near San Andres Bukid. We move many times in Manila) 5 R: Ilang taon na kayo dito sa Malaysia?(How many years have been here in Malaysia) 6 W: 23 years 7 R: Ano ang first language nyo? (What’s your first language?) 8 W: Tagalog, tapos English but now mostly English and Bahasa Malayu but most of the time English but for my children most of the time Malay. 9 R: So maraming languages ang gamit nyo sa bahay? (So you use different languages at home) 10 W: Yeah, most of the time nag mix mix kami ng maga languages kagaya ng English , Malay at Filipino. (We mix different languages like English, Malay and Filipino) 11 R: Saan kayo nag meet ng husband nyo? (Where did you and your husband meet?) 12 W: In the Philippines because we studied there. 13 R: Ano yung language na gamit nyo nung first meeting nyo?(What language did you use during your first meeting?) 14 W: English particularly when I first came to Malaysia because my in-laws can speak English. Even at home now most of the time English but mixed with Malay and Tagalog pero pag nagalit ako nagmumura ako in Filipino pero naintindihan na ng asawa ko yun.(But when I’m mad I curse in Filipino but my husband understands it) 15 R: Sa loob ng 23 years may na invent ba kayong mga words na kayo lang makaintindi?. (For 23 years have you invented some words that only the two of you can understand?) 16 W: Wala talaga, lalo na nung nagasawa sya ng another woman talagang English na kami parati.(No, really, especially when he married with another woman we really talk in English often) 17 R: Ilang taon na kayo dito?(How many years you’ve been here?) 18 W: 23 years already 19 R: What can you say about Filipino-Malaysian marriages? 20 W: Mas madaling intindihin yung Filipino-Filipino, medyo maraming conflicts na hindi magkaintindihan kagaya sa religion marami kang susundin at hindi kagaya sa atin we can do whatever we want dito kelangan mo sundin yung asawa. Dito wala kang choice kelangan mo magpaalam. Pero nung nagasawa pa sya ng isa medyo ayaw ko pero part ng religion nila. Yung husband ko medyo mahilig kini control nya ako. Mahirap. Siguro ganyan sya para hindi ako makalabas at makita sya sa labas baka makita sya sa kanyang another wife. (It’s easy to understand a Filipino-Filipino marriage, it seems that we have a lot of conflicts that we can’t understand each other like the religion you have a lot of rules to follow unlike in our country we can do whatever we want, here you always have to follow your husband. Here there is no choice you really have to ask permission. When he had another marriage, it seemed that I didn’t like but it’s part
295 of their religion. My husband likes to control me. It’s difficult. Maybe he is like that so I can’t go out becuase I might see him with his another wife.) 21 R:Paano yung time nyo sa isat isa? (How’s your time for each other?) 22 W: Wala kaming masyadong time kasi na divide yung time nya sa akin at second wife nya. (We don’t have much time becuase his time id divided with me and with the second wife) 23 R: As a Filipino wife what is your reaction about having a second wife? 24 W: Halos lahat ginagawa ko parang gusto kung maging perfect housewife, pero wala pa rin. Nasaktan talaga ako sa ginawa nya pero yun ang culture nila.(I did everything just to make me a perfect housewife but nothing happens. I was really hurt for what he did but that is their culture) 25 R: Are you interdependent with each other? 26 W: Not really. Siya lahat nagdedecide, minsan tinatanong ako pero pag di nya gusto sya pa rin ang nasusunod.(He decides everything, sometimes he asks me but if he does not like, it is still his decision) 27 R: Ano ang involvement nyo sa decision making?(What is your involvement in the decision making?) 28 W: Wala sya lang pero ngayun natuto na ako. (Nothing. It’s only him but now I learn) 29 R: Are you independent? 30 W: Yeah, noong nagasawa sya ng isa dun ako natuto (When he married another woman, that’s where I learn) to stand with my own feet. I tried to earn by my own. 31 R Did you discuss about it? 32 W: Wala naman masyado, medyo martyr yata ako.(Not really, It seems I’m a martyr) 33 R : Iba ba ang culture natin sa Malay?(Is our culture diferent from the Malays ?) 34 W: Yeah, malaking pagkaiba, na compare ko yung Filipino men at Malaysian men ang mga Filipino medyo caring, loving and sweet. Sila parang walang pakialam hindi nga nag embrace at tawagin kang sweetheart. Iba talaga, sila walang pakialam hindi ka man lang yayain sa labas. Hindi sila romantic. (Yeah, there is a big difference, I can compare Filipino men and Malaysian men. Filipino men ar caring, loving and sweet. Malaysian men don’t care, they don’t embrace you they don’t call you sweetheart. They are really different, they don’t care. They don’t even bother to bring you out. They are not romantic) 35 R:Do you have similar interest? 36 W: Magkaiba kami. Siya sa bahay lang, ako mahilig akong manood ng movie. (We are different. He stays at home and I like ro watch movie) 37 R: Do you have similar group of friends? 38 W: Wala syang masyadong friends. Most of the time sa bahay lang kaya nagulat ako bakit nagkaroon ng second wife. Before may affair sya sa Indoneisan girl parang girlfriend at boyfriend. (He does not have a lot of friends. Most of the time he stays at home that’s why I was surprised why he got a second wife. Before he had an affair with an Indonesian girl just like botfriend and girlfriend) 39 R: Sino yung second wife nya? (Who is his second wife?) 40 W: Malay, alam ko hindi ko masyado ma express sa kanya. Sila mas nag enjoy kasi pareho silang Malay nakapag joke sila at tumatawa. Ako hindi ko magawa yun hindi ako makapag joke in Malay di ko alam.(Malay, I know I can’t really express my feelings towards him. The two of them are enjoying because
296 they are both Malays, they can make jokes and laugh. I can’t do that. I can’t make jokes in Malay, I don’t know.) 41 R:I see. I think you have provided me a lot of information. Thanks a lot for your time. END
TRANSCRIPT FILE 22 Informant: W-wife (Filipino) and H-husband (Malay) Interviewer: R R= Interviewer M= FCMB (Filipino Wife) H= FCMA (Malay Husband)
1 R: How many languages do you speak? 2 M: Four 3 R Four languages, quite a lot. 4 M: Not language it‟s Bisaya, Tagalog, English and Malay. 5 R: Bisaya is your first language then the second language is English. 6 M: Tagalog can also be my second language. 7 R: Which of these four languages that you feel comfortable? 8 M: I think English and Bisaya of course. 9 R: What about Tagalog? 10 M: Tagalog , yes I‟m proficient. 11 R: Tagalog then Malay. 12 M: Yeah 13 R: In your place what language that is widely spoken? 14 M: English. You mean our neighbors? 15 R: Yes, with your neighbor 16 M: English 17 R: If you were to choose, which language would you prefer? 18 M: Other than Bisaya, of course English. 19 R: Yeah of all languages including 20 M: Bisaya 21 R: You prefer Bisaya. 22 M: Not really (laugh) English is better. 23 R: So you prefer English rather than Bisaya (laugh). Why English instead of Bisaya 24 M: Because it‟s easy to understand.. 25 R: Here it‟s easy to understand.. 26 M: Yeah 27 R: How long have you been using Malay because Malay is something new to you, right? 28 M: 17 (pause) 18 years. 29 R: That‟s quite long, so you must be proficient in that language. 30 M: Quite, quite 31 R: The Tagalog langauge for how many years you‟ve been using that? 32 M: It‟s learned, you know, that language is learned it is just really something that you use sicnce when you were young. Yeah, English and Tagalog they are both
297 learned, they‟re not my mother tongue but then again mas preferred ko yung English kay sa Tagalog. 33 R: Is it because you are in Malaysia?. 34 M: It could be. 35 R: That‟s why you prefer English. What about your husband? What is his preferred language? 36 M: English 37 R: English 38 M: Yeah, he is Malay but he is not good at it. (laugh). 39 R: It‟s quite surprising. 40 M: I am better, I‟m better than him when it comes to his own language. 41 R: That‟s quite surprising. 42 M: Manoy is not really good in Malay. Yeah, he is more of English, American English. 43 R: He prefers American English instead of Malay but he grew up in Malaysia. Right? 44 M: Malaysia, yeah 45 R: Malaysia 46 M: But the family. They always travel. 47 R: So it‟s just like he becomes more proficient in English language. By the way, do you encourage your children and your husband to speak Tagalog or Filipino? 48 M: Yeah, something like that. 49 R: You encourage? 50 M: Yeah. 51 FR:You mean your husband speaks Tagalog now? 52 M: Yeah. 53 R: When you speak in Tagalog, can he understand? 54 M: I speak to them in Tagalog. 55 R: They learn also Tagalog from you. 56 M: Not only from me, I guess from the beautiful auntie‟s (laugh while looking at the two Filipino women on her side). Because when they can hear Tagalog everyday more or less they will get it, so they will start asking, mommy what‟s that? 57 R: No such formal training that you know the language, it‟s just like they learn from you and your friend. 58 M: Yeah 59 R: That‟s quite interesting. What about with your in-laws? What language do you speak? 60 M: English 61 R: How about Malay? 62 M: Sometimes we do speak Malay a bit, a bit. 63 R: Yeah. 64 M: Yeah (laugh) 65 R: It‟s just like you mix English and Malay. 66 M: Yeah. 67 R: How about an intimate talk with between you and your husband. What language do you use? 68 M: It‟s always English and sometimes Tagalog, even my dialect . 69 R: Can he speak also Cebuano and can he understand? 70 M: a bit, not all.
298 71 R: He is becoming multilingual. 72 M: Yeah. 73 R: So how about when you go out for example the two of you go out and let us say in a supermarket in a department store, what language do you speak? 74 M: English. 75 R: When you go to the market? 76 M: Still in English. 77 R: So English is often used. 78 M: Not unless we speak to the people in the market. 79 R: But between the two of you, do you still use English? 80 M: Yes. 81 R: What about if there‟s an argument. I know it is inevitable between husband and wife not to argue, what language do you use? 82 M: English 83 R: Interesting that English is still used 84 M: Yeah 85 R: Even though you‟re expressing your anger. 86 M: We are more, we can express it better when we speak in English. 87 R: Can you express more of yourself in your own language? 88 M: No. 89 R: I see. 90 M: Different. 91 R: It‟s just like if you look at the level of languages that you learn, it‟s just like English is on top and followed by Cebuano. 92 M: Yeah, it‟s Cebuano but here in Malaysia usually it should be Malay. English, Malay, Tagalog and Cebuano is the last. 93 R: Yeah 94 M: Because not many people understand it. Even our own friends don‟t understand Bisaya (Cebuano) 95 R: Right, it‟s just like you seldom speak Bisaya here. 96 M: I always speak Bisaya with my other friends, the same Bisaya people (laugh). 97 R: So what about in front of your children what language do you speak? 98 M: English. 99 R: Did you attempt to speak in Malay? 100 M: Yeah, we do. 101 R: You do that, like you mix. How often do you mix English-Malay, English Cebuano, or English? 102 M: If we are with our friends, especially with the Malay or my daughter‟s friends. When they come over, usually we mix because they don‟t quite understand English. 103 R: Most of the time you mix these different languages. 104 M: Yeah, in Malay but when I‟m with my friends because she (Maris‟ daughter) always joins with us, you know, she also joins the conversation and it‟s more on Tagalog. English-Tagalog. 105 R: Yeah, it‟s more of English-Tagalog, English-Tagalog. By the way, for how many years you‟ve been married? 106 M: 18 years. 107 R: Are there some private languages that you‟ve invented? 108 M: Yeah (laugh). 109 R: It‟s just like only the two of you can understand.
299 110 M: Yeah, they cannot get it, only between us (laugh). 111 R: You invent some words. 112 M: Yeah we do it‟s like words (laugh). 113 R: It‟s only the two of you can understand. 114 M: Yeah. 115 R: How do you do that, you just invent like that? 116 M: No, it‟s something that we joked about when we are talking. O yeah that‟s the thing and that we start in calling it in a different way. So we put it, you know, in every conversation or when other people around that we use it, okey that one, that thing. 117 R: Is it intentional? 118 M: Sometimes it is, but actually you discover it yourself. It is not really that we talk about, this is how we call it. It is not just we discover it (laugh). 119 R: It‟s just like you‟re playing with words. 120 M: Yeah (laugh). 121 R: This one has something to do with, you know, with your relationship as husband and wife. What is your idea about husband and wife relationship? 122 M: In what? 123 R: What can you say about husband and wife relationship? 124 M: You mean in our everyday term? 125 R: Yeah. 126 M: It‟s more of friends. 127 R: Do you mean treating one another as friends. 128 M: Yeah and respecting. Well, something like that. 129 R: I‟m just curious in a husband and wife relationship, it‟s just like with your friends, sometimes you like your friend but sometimes you don‟t like. Does it happen with husband and wife? 130 M: It does, some of the irritating traits (laugh), you cannot avoid that but then again you take it as he is your friend at the same time a husband. Easy to understand him more. But mostly friends. 131 R: Do you agree with this idea that if you are the wife you must be submissive to your husband? 132 M: No, no. 133 R: It‟s just like. 134 M: It‟s just like, ok, is it fair? The question, Is it fair? I think we don‟t have to think being I‟m your wife and you are my husband, we don‟t think that way. We think more like, we respect each other. 135 R: As husband and wife are you interdependent with one another? 136 M: In more ways than one. We are interdependent. 137 R: Yeah, with one another. So it‟s just like you sense it but you cannot express why. Sometimes there‟s something but you could not just explain. 138 M: Why? (laugh). Yeah, that kind of feeling. 139 R: How about conflicts? 140 M: What? 141 R: Do you avoid conflict with each other? 142 M: Yeah, most of the time. I think we both do. So if you can‟t just help it, we start to argue everything, and if we have to argue, we try not to hurt each other and then (laugh).
300 143 R: But there are husband and wife, you know, when they‟re not in good terms, they fight with words. Does it happen to you or you‟re just a quiet person. 144 M: No, he talks a lot. After that mine is only one sentence. If he doesn‟t like something, he talks a lot. So if I don‟t argue with what he says, I just say in one sentence and then everything all the meaning is there. It doesn‟t really go to argument. 145 R: So, who usually keeps quiet? 146 M: I‟m the one. I‟m always quiet. I don‟t want to talk. If I don‟t like something, I‟ll just explain it in one sentence but if he doesn‟t like something, he talks too much about it. When I say enough, “enough”. 147 R: That‟s quite different with some other couples. 148 M: Yeah, we don‟t shout at each other. No (laugh). 149 R: So you just keep quiet. 150 M: But if he talks too much, I mean something below the belt, I‟ll say enough. It‟s only one word. We don‟t end up in a quarrel. 151 R: That‟s right, what about. Do you have the same interest? 152 M: No, not really. Some of it, yes but most of our interest are not the same. 153 R: You really agree much with your interest and his interest. 154 M: Not really, yeah. 155 R: So, does it affect your relationship since you don‟t have similar interest? 156 M: No, it doesn‟t. 157 R: I see, it doesn‟t. 158 M: We just try to work it out (laugh). Even if he likes it that way then I will just, let him be. Yeah, so it doesn‟t bring any conflict. 159 R: What about your group of friends. Do you have the same group of friends? 160 M: Yeah, normally it‟s all the same but last time no. He had his own group of friends. I know them but I didn‟t mix around with them. All my friends he mixed around with them. 161 R: You mean this time it‟s different. 162 M: Yeah, no it‟s like. 163 R: So you have common friends now. 164 M: Yeah, common friends. 165 R: Your friends are his friends and his friends are also your friends. However, you said before it was different. 166 M: Yeah, before it was different because when he had to do a lot of traveling, working, you know. Of course, I don‟t want to mix around with these people and I didn‟t even know how deep was his friendship with those people. 167 R: Yeah, that‟s right. 168 M: It‟s so easy to predict but now we share the common friends. 169 R: Do you have difficulty in mingling with his Chinese friends and with his local friends? 170 M: No 171 R: I see. 172 M: They all know mw that I‟m a Filipino. 173 R: Were there instances that both of you did not understand one another because of language differences? 174 M: No 175 R: When you first met what language did you use? 176 M: English.
301 177 R: English. 178 M: Yeah. 179 R: Is it one of the reasons why you prefer English because it‟s the language that you use. 180 M: Maybe, it‟s just that we get used to it. 181 R: Yeah, maybe because that‟s the language you used when you first met. 182 M: Maybe that would be. 183 R: So there were no instances that you don‟t understand each other. Was there an instance that when you speak in Malay he respondsalso in Malay, when you speak in Cebuano, he also speaks in Cebuano? 184 M: Whe I speak in Cebuano, it‟s very seldom but he just tries to respnd, reply in that language but it‟s not common that we use. 185 R: Was there an instance where you speak in Cebuano and then he speaks in English or in Malay? 186 M: Yeah, but not in Malay, in English. 187 R: You speak in Cebuano and he responds in English. 188 M: If he cannot get it in Cebuano, he‟ll answer in English (laugh) 189 R: The other way around. Is there an instance that your husband speaks in English and you respond in Cebuano or Tagalog? 190 M: No. 191 R: Never, it‟s just like you always accommodate him. 192 M: Yeah. 193 R: Is there an instance that he cannot accommodate you because of language proficiency problem and you respond in Cebuano or Tagalog? 194 M: No, never. 195 R: So, do you sometimes compare your language with your spouse? 196 M: With his language, yeah, I do. 197 R: You compare your own language to his own language.. 198 M: Not really] 199 R: Are you proud of being a Filipino? 200 M: Yes, that‟s why I use Cebuano, you know, (laugh). Actually, I don‟t have to do that but then again I want to remind him that I am a Cebuana. 201 R: It‟s just like that you are proud that you are a Cebuana. 202 M: Yes. 203 R: What about with your husband? 204 M: Binibisaya ko yan. 205 R: You do that one to your husband? 206 M: Yeah, but not around with my friends. 207 R: You do that one to your husband to let him know that you are a Cebuana. 208 M: Yeah. 209 R: Does he speak this language? 210 M: He tends to remember the words that I normally use and even though he is not very good at it, he tried. 211 R: What about your husband, does he do the same thing? 212 M: In Malay, no, because he is not really good in his own language, I guess. I mean, he can converse. Yeah, some of the words he doesn‟t quite know. I have to put that into his mouth (laugh). I mean, he is not very good in his own language (laugh). 213 R: It‟s quite surprising for him to do that.
302 214 M: Yeah that‟s why I call him a very funny Malay and he says he is a modern Malay (laugh). 215 R: So, how do you show him that you are a Filipino? 216 M: Not really, it‟s seldom, only when it has a purpose. Not really that we do it everyday. All the time, no. It‟s just when there‟s a purpose. I talk in Cebuano so that he will remember that I‟m a Cwbuana and something like that. Maybe it‟s an ego thing. 217 R: Is there an instance that he imposes that at home that this is the language that you should speak? 218 M: No, it‟s just a natural thing that we have to use English. 219 R: It comes out naturally. 220 M: Yeah. 221 R: Some would say, we have to use English so the kids will also learn. 222 M: Not in our case. 223 R: It‟s just like a natural understanding. 224 M: And I‟m the one who tells him, can you speak in Malay to you children because they need to learn and that they would learn more if they hear it from you and not from me because I‟m not a Malay. 225 R: So everything just comes out naturally. No one imposes which language must be used at home. 228 M: Yeah. 229 R: In general, the language is not imposed by anyone, so it just comes out naturally. Ok, that ends up everything. Thank you so much for your time. END
303 Appendix B: Recorded Conversations
Conversation 1
A husband and wife conversation during lunch time with the presence of the wife's brother.
Husband - H Wife - W Wife's brother- A
Note: The recorder was placed in the middle of table while having lunch.
A: Karon ra luto Lyn, kaging naman to (…) (Lyn you can cook now, this one has dried) W: (( )) Kataw-anan kaayo imong kuya gabii kalit lag ana, hon sakit kaayo akong tiyan, hon sakit kaayo akong tiyan, unya ming ingon ug kuan terima kasih, (laugh) gusto ko, gusto kaayo ko sagpaan siya kay sakit kaayo akong tiyan lagi gabii niana lang terima kasih, terima kasih why? because of my dream you know (( )) (Your brother was so funny last night he abpruptly did like this, hon, my stomach is really aching, hon, my stomach is aching, then he said thank you (laugh) I want, I really wanted to slap him because my stomach was really aching and then he just said thank you, why thank you?) H: You‟re dreaming (.). I didn't dream. I didn't remember anything A: But you know that you‟re saying something? H: I didn't, I can't remember anything. (( )). W: Katulo na nako siya gi pukaw. Hon, hon, hon pag hilom uy (.) pag hilom ikaw to. Kinsa man diay akong katapad? ikaw man.(I wake him up three times. Hon, hon, hon keep quiet (.). It was you. Who do you think who was beside me? it’s you.) A: So what's your dream that time? H: Uuhh A: You‟re dreaming about what? H: I don‟t know I don't remember anything (…) A: Kuan lang to Lyn na alingpungatan. (You know Lyn you were just surprised). H: But I know I was dreaming of something. A: And then ingon ka dream, (you said dream). You even told me that my dream was terima kasih (thank you). Then after you know only seconds then he was already snoring. He is always like that (mumbling). W: Pukawon na siya (You wake him up) (…) You alarm. A: After that you can remember your dreams no? (right?) H: Normally if I dream, only few dreams that I can remember. Normally I know that I dream but I forgot. A: You know that you dream something that night. After I woke up and I tried to remember my dream. W: Say terima kasih (thank you). Nangutana pa gyud ko terima kasih? (Then I asked, thank you?) A: Did you experience dreaming that you‟re running and then you try to run fast but you cannot run fast it‟s like someone is running after you. H: Oh yeah A: You want to run faster but you cannot do anything.
304 H: Yeah, I was sitting in a taxi, bus or LRT then one guy who looked like a theif lah looking for money or anything. I wanted to punch him you know but my hand was so slow (ahhh.) (( )) you know (cell phone ringing) very gigil (giggling) lah because you want to punch him. W: My experience when I was young with Aries and Archel (laugh). A: Sleep walk ya (brother) (.). I even tried to put my blanket inside the refrigerator H: Gago. (Crazy) W: He went to Aries, then mama said “Arlyn ah (.) wake up ah.” wake your brother up because he is sleeping in the living room. I woke him up, I said, Aries balhin na daw ingon mama (Aries you transfer, mama said) so he's like that (uh uh) with the blanket and the pillow because he always sleeps in the living room with the blanket and pillow. He‟s still young that time. A: Sige ko matulog sala. (I always sleep in the sala) W: Oo (yes) A: Nganu man? (why?) W: Tan-aw TV (watch TV) (pause). Unya tapos hon (and then after that hon). Hon you know he woke up with his eyes closed, took the pillow with the blanket and then walking through the refrigirator then opened the refrigirator (( )). My mother was surprised and then we stopped him you know. A: Maka remember man ko na everytime na gina sugo ka na pukawon ko maka dungog man ko na mangatawa namo daan. (I can remeberthat everytime they asked you to wake me up I could hear them laughing) W: And then one time, he slept again in the living room. Aries balhin didto pugak, balhin, (Aries transfer there, Pugak transfer). He stood up then opened the door then urinate outside. (( )) Gago ning bata ni (this child is crazy). A: Permanente ko ana. (I was always like that). H: Did I tell you that? (.) W: Si Archel kay lain man kay manadyakay (Archel is different because she kicks). H: Willie the dreamer, my ex-drummer. Before he was worst. Don't sleep beside him because he‟s dangerous. While sleeping he can sit down and then sit beside you and he will just grab like that and then punch like that. A: Buang (crazy). H: Yeah it's true, crazy. A: My uncle is like that too. H: One time we were in Armada Hotel ,I think that was almost 3 o'clock in the morning I was listening to the song for a practice the next day. He woke up, I thought he woke up and then I asked him it's only 3 o'clock in the morning lah where are you going I said. He just kept quiet, he was really serious you know, with his long hair but he didn't let go his hair you must have target you must have target, (( )) buang siya (he is crazy). (( )) W: - Si boyeng gyud, Ries (( )) kami ni Love Love chismis pa kaayo mi ato ba permanenti man ko matulog ato sa ilahang balay pasa pasa diri ris (Boyeng ris (laugh) we had a chat with Love Love, I always sleep in their house…pass here and there) H: What is that pasa? (pass) W: Pugak, pina ana pa gyud (Pugak was really like this), they are best friends: Mar Mar, Aries, Boyeng. Three of them had the same dream, (( )) sa kakapoy siguro na ris kataw- anan man mo uy. (…) (Out of tiredness maybe Ries, you were really funny) H: He walks sleep. W: Ang dilikado diha,(The danger there) is that if he walks outside the door.
305 H: I don't know with Alang huh, I forgot maybe he walked into the window. (…) A: Singing, I never forget. H: In China it‟s very funny you know. One day I had to wake up early in the morning and then I told him (?) he went to the toilet then he came out and came back again. (( )). W: (( )) Hon ako gyud hon in Shang-rila ba Shanghai, (Hon when I was in Shangrila Shanghai) Sarita told me huy huy (hey hey) Arlyn we have an early work time today ha? So wake up early 5 o'clock, we have to go down. It was five o'clock in the afternoon hon (.) so of course lah I have to prepare the alarm. What I did was kuan (that) I alarmed at 5 o'clock. I thought I slept early so I set the alarm at 12 o'clock midnight. So the alarm sounded loudly. I woke up and I felt dizzy, then I took a hot shower then I got my clothes from the wardrobe and then after I put make up then I was looking outside and asked myself, why it‟s still dark? Actually, I woke up 5 o'clock in the morning. H: (( )).gago (crazy). W: It was supposedly 5 o'clock in the afternoon(.). I don‟t want them to get angry because kuya Marlo gets angry quickly when you are late. H: Because you‟re always late. Finish already the back up? finish already? A: I dont know, I have just checked it now. The folder is already there. W: Ah finish na, finish na? H: I will install that one. W: Siya nalang mag install Ries, microsoft word lang man kaha Ries? (He will be the one to install ris, it’s only Microsoft word) H: Word only right? A: Unsa gani na year ni Lyn? (What year is that Lyn ?) W: 2003 (…). After you finish hon you go up and prepare my clothes. Why you don't eat this one? H: So much, I'll take it away. W: This one is nice H: No lah, the curry (…) W: You want water? (…) H: A little bit only (…) W: Wala pa, wala pa ta naka booking hon, sa hospital ba wala pa ang booking. (No, no, we haven’t booked honey, the booking is not in the hospital yet) H: if not today tomorrow morning I will get. (…) H: Raihan, Raihan. W: Hony, he wants to go out in my tummy. Lets go to the hospital hon. H: Is it in Bandar Baru or Taman Putra? H: Can, can W: In Taman Putra ada? (there is) H wala (no) H: Is this a recorder Ries? A: yup. H: wah so small ha. (( ))
Conversation 2 (Filipino – Malay Couples)
A Filipino-Malay couples talking about the wife‟s trip to the Philippines Wife- W Husband- H
306
W: I‟m planning to visit my family in the Philippines in December. What do you think? Ada suggestion? (do you have a suggestion?) H: Ta ada suggestion (I don‟t have any suggestion), my question is ada budget ah? (is there a budget?) W: Saya punya tabungan tapi tidak terlalu besar (I have some savings but not really big) H: Yah, itu bergantung kepada anda jika anda pikir itu cukup untuk anda, maka anda boleh memutuskan. (Well, it’s up to you if you think it’s enough for you then you may decide). W: That‟s why I‟m telling to you. H: Apa? (what?) Sometimes you make decision by yourself. I know you. W: I don‟t, Aku hanya ingin kau tahu (I just want you to know). H: Then, if you go, berapa hari kau akan di sana (how many days will you be there?) W: Maybe lima blas hari (fifteen days). H: Huh, lima blas hari (fifteen days)? Quite long ah. W: I seldom see them. H: Yeah, I know but what about our child? W: I will bring him. H: (silent) W: What do you think? H: What about one week? Cukup? (enough) W: Too short lah, I need to meet my sister who has just arrived from Australia. H: When is she arriving? W: On the 23rd of December. H: Yeah lah then kembali (come back) after Christmas. Let‟s say December 26 or 27. W: I plan to spend the New Year there as well. H: When is your sister leaving? W: She will be back to Australia on the 20th of January. H: If you stay there until the New Year that means you will stay more than lima blas hari (fifteen days) if you leave on the 10th of December. W: Then I will just make it on the 15th of December so it would be tepat lima blas hari (exactly 15 days). H: You will come back on the 2nd of January. W: Jangan bimbang (don’t worry), I will ask my sister to pay for my fare in coming back. H: No, we can book a return flight for you lah. The only problem is that you will spend more while staying there. W: No lah, my sister will definitely spend more because she has been away for so many years. H: Did you check how much is the airfare? W: Not yet but I will call my friend later and ask her. H: Why do you check it directly? You always ask from your friend. W: Because she is always updated. H: You can check it online. W: I don‟t have Kad credit (credit card). H: You just check dan anda tidak perlu (and you don’t need) credit card to check. W: Ok, I will check later. H: Ok.
307 W: If it‟s cheap then we can book later. H: We will see. W: By the way I will bring the mangga (mango) that you like. H: But don‟t bring the ripe one. W: Yeah, I know. I will ask my mother to order. H: Where do they buy the mango? W: Next to our town. H: Far from your place. W: Not really, some of our neighbors they just walk in going there. H: Really? W: They become used to it. H: I see.
Convesation 3 (Filipino-Indian) A husband and wife conversation at home while cleaning the car
Husband - M Wife - F
H- So we buy the house or not? W- What you think? H- I think we should buy, I think me and my mother would buy. W- yeah, yeah H- Bukas (tomorrow) we possibly see. W- Totoo (true) So, how‟s the room? H – Later we can fix W- You don‟t want to look for another house. H- Not necessarily. W- You said already. Final decision lah. Hmmm. What are you doing? Don‟t make me wet lah. What are you doing? H- Putting air (water) for the car. W- Don‟t make me wet. Here already huh, putting what. H- Putting water for the car. The car wash. W- Huh? H- The car wash? W- Where you put? H- There (pointing the finger) W- What did mother say about the rumah (house). H- [It‟s nice]. Put the cover there. W- Di mana (where)? H- There? W- No. hmm. The house. hmm, the area, how? Sa labas(outside) you can see. H- [Not everything when you go up] W- Ano? (what) H- [How many] times there you go up. Yeah, if you are staying the house more. I think it‟s peaceful and not tight like that. All the the house are very far far, k? It looks like ahhh. W- Yeah, sige (ok) .
308 H- [Then] security also. W- So lah, tawagan ko si Philip (I will call Philip). H – Call him now lah W- You call him now? H- [I‟m doing] the car wash W- Why you have the two percent to put the down payment now ah. H- [I think] we can give the check until the loan is approved lah. W- Oh my God! No more money ah. H- [Can] you get that ah. W- I don‟t know where you put? H- In that place. Ok W- ok.
Convesation 4 (Filipino-Chinese)
A husband and wife conversation at home while resting)
Husband - M Wife - F
W- Even the underwear no stock ah, can? H- [can] W- He want to buy. H- Huh W- He want to buy. H- Underwear? W- Oo, at saka (yes, and also) stocking, black. Later you bring them. H- Office one. W- Oo, at saka (Yes, and) H- yung maganda (the good ones) W- Uhm yung magandang quality at saka yung underwear yung magandang quality, adiddas (the one with good quality and the underwear must be of good quality, addidas) H- [Addidas?] W- Ano bang magandang quality doon? (What’s the good quality there?) H- Lee Cooper W- Ayun, Lee Cooper. Large lang yata sya. Kapag malaki big size. Nakita mo na sya. Baka medium ok na kaysa large. (That’s it, Lee Cooper. It’s only large. You saw him. Maybe medium is ok for him) H- Magandang quality. (Good quality) W- May nakita akong addidas, ung nice quality, di ba? (I saw the addidas with nice quality, right?) H- Ano? (What?) W- Addidas, yung nasa stock. (Addidas that’s in the stock) H- Hmmm. W- Why so many? Big ba? (is it big?) How much is the price? H- Hmmm.
309 W- Nakuha mo yung stock number? Mei Mei, na champion in sports. (Did you get the stock number?Mei Mei was the champion in sports) H- Huh? W- Mei Mei is the champion H- What type? W- Kasi she was then dancing. Makulit din (also naughty) H- [What?] W- Makulit din parang Kingkoy. Tapos nag join kami for one game. Nag join kami ng contest. It‟s game contest. (Naughty also like Kingkoy. Then we joined for one game. We joined the contest) H- With whom? With Mei Mei? W- Yeah, sya nga nag invite at sa akin, join join lang. (She was the one who invited me, join only) H- [uhm] W- Si Mei Mei gusto nya sports. (Mei Mei likes sports) H- Karamihan mga bata? (Majority are children) W- Yeah, kaya nga group nila(their group can do it). Sila yung smallest group sila pa ang nag first (they are the smallest group yet they rank first). Three lang yung team nila (they have only three teams) Yellow, Red, Blue H- Mei Mei knows the game lah. W- Oo, alam nya yung game. Alam nya(she knows the game. She knows) H- [First siya] (she is the first) W-Hindi yung group nila (No, their group). H- Do you think she can follow? W- Oo, syimpre (yes, of course) she can follow the game H- They win W- Yeah, group nila (their group). Six sila yun (they were six). Alam nya yung mga games (she knows all the games). (Silence). Maraming mga tao sa Shah Alam?(are there a lot of people in Shah Alam?) H- Not so many W- You arrange the stock. Maybe later or tomorrow you bring. H- Hmmm. Yeah.
Convesation 5 (Filipino-Chinese)
A husband and wife conversation together with the interviewer at home.
Husband - M Wife - F
W: Si koan hon yung Eurasian. (the Eurasian hon) H: I think, Jeffrey W: yeah H: Mixed ma. (“ma” particle) W: Filipino iyang wife (his wife is a Filipino) H: Yeah, Jo W: Yeah lah (“lah” particle)
310 H: What is the title of his paper? W Interracial communication. H: Oh, is it about interethnic communication. W: Yeah, there you go (( )) R- Ahh yeah. W- Mao ra gud si Diana (not the real name) (it’s the same, Diana) R- Ano ang pangalan? (what’s her name?) H and W- Jocelyn R- I gave them the questionnaire but they did not return. W- Why? R- I don‟t know. W- Maybe you should ask more, you know. R- yeah. W- It will also enlighten and help your data collection H [More better] result. (laugh). What‟s the paper? R- It‟s about language choice of interracial marriages. H- Maybe you can include cross cultural communication. W- [There] you go. H- I‟ve encountered several cross cultural communication. W- The expert is Francis (( )) H-We deal more on foreign relations and some international students. W- sige na, sige na(ok, ok) H- Yeah, they conduct also research. R- My research is a bit related to cross cultural communication W- Yeah, cultural understanding is necessary R- I first thought of inter-ethnic marriages in Sarawak but I don‟t know the various ethnic languages. H and W- [Sabah and Sarawak] R- It‟s quite difficult because I don‟t know the language. W- Oh yeah. Kaon sa saging Dong.(eat the banana Dong) R- Sabi ko wag na pero sige lang, (I said no, but it’s ok) Filipino culture. (( )) H- You‟re going to Taman Connaught? R- No, I‟m going to my friend‟s house in Taman Putra. H- I see.
Convesation 6 (Filipino-Indian)
A husband and wife conversation together with the interviewer and two visitors at home.
Husband - M Wife – F Researcher-R
H:You just go straight to Ampang and you can see the traffic light. R: Ah, yeah W: You can take the LRT and stop in Ampang Station
311 H: Yeah W: That one after Ampang Park, Damai Station. R: I haven‟t been there yet. I reached only Ampang Park. That‟s the last destination I had. W: You don‟t know already. I think you just take one station ahead ah. R: I think I can come here often. W: Sure you are always welcome. H: His place belakang (behind) Giant? W: Yeah, alam mo ba yun? (do you know it?) H: Alam ko (I know) before reaching the place ada (there is) McDonalds, right? W: Yeah lah. Pwede? (can) you drive him later. H: No problem. W: Remember, we passed by several times in that area. H: I think there is a cemetery there. W: Yeah, I think sa kanan o sa kaliwa (right or left) H: Kanan (right) if coming from our place. W: Nakalimutan ko na. (I already forget) H: I saw the accident there before just in front of Giant. W: That was horrible. H: Yeah, I could not believe how it happened. W: I think because some drivers here in KL are not careful. H: Yeah, some but the accident that happened there was really different. W: Sama lah (the same) in other accidents. H: No lah, different. W: What else is new here (( )). H: It was really an accident. W: I could not imagine how it happened when I saw a car inside. H: Yeah, I thought only one car inside. W: Yeah, banyak (many) inside. H: I think four. W: Yeah, dami (many). H: This time even if you are careful in driving accident may still happen because others are crazy. W: Agree. Tama (right). By the way, anong oras mo sila ihatid (what time are you going to send them?) H: Maybe after an hour. W: Ada (Is there) hot water? H: Wala na (no more). W: Sinong nagubos (who consumed) H: Don‟t worry, I‟ll boil again. W: Yeah, I‟ll give them some tea before they leave. H: Ok lah. W: I‟ll tell them that you will send them back after an hour. H: Ok. W: Mamaya ihatid na kayo ng husband ko (later, my husband will send you) R: Ok lang, wag na. (It’s ok, don’t worry) H: It‟s ok your house is just near our place. W: Yeah , it will take only 10 minutes. R: Malu lah. (shy) (( )) W: Wag na kayong mahiya (You should not be ashamed)
312 R: Thank you. W: Why don‟t you try this tea. H: Yeah. This is nice. R: Thanks.
313 Appendix C: List of Participants
Number Couples Ethnicity Nationality Residence
1 FCMA1 Malay Malaysian Kuching, Sarawak 2 FCMB1 Filipino Filipino Kuching, Sarawak 3 FCMA2 Malay Malaysian Kuching, Sarawak 4 FCMB2 Filipino Filipino Kuching, Sarawak 5 FCMA3 Malay Malaysian Kuala Lumpur 6 FCMB3 Filipino Filipino Kuala Lumpur 7 FCMA4 Malay Malaysian Kuching, Sarawak 8 FCMB4 Filipino Filipino Kuching, Sarawak 9 FCMA5 Malay Malaysian Kuala Lumpur 10 FCMB5 Filipino Filipino Kuala Lumpur 11 FCMA6 Malay Malaysian Kuala Lumpur 12 FCMB6 Filipino Filipino Kuala Lumpur 13 FCMA7 Malay Malaysian Kuala Lumpur 14 FCMB7 Filipino Filipino Kuala Lumpur 15 FCMA8 Malay Malaysian Kuala Lumpur 16 FCMB8 Filipino Filipino Kuala Lumpur 17 FCMA9 Malay Malaysian Kuala Lumpur 18 FCMB9 Filipino Filipino Kuala Lumpur 19 FCMA10 Malay Malaysian Kuching, Sarawak 20 FCMB10 Filipino Filipino Kuching, Sarawak 21 FCCA1 Chinese Malaysian Kuching, Sarawak 22 FCCB1 Filipino Filipino Kuching, Sarawak 23 FCCA2 Chinese Malaysian Kuching, Sarawak 24 FCCB2 Filipino Filipino Kuching, Sarawak 25 FCCA3 Chinese Malaysian Kuala Lumpur 26 FCCB3 Filipino Filipino Kuala Lumpur 27 FCCA4 Chinese Malaysian Kuching, Sarawak 28 FCCB4 Filipino Filipino Kuching, Sarawak 29 FCCA5 Chinese Malaysian Kuching, Sarawak 30 FCCB5 Filipino Filipino Kuching, Sarawak 31 FCCA6 Chinese Malaysian Kuala Lumpur 32 FCCB6 Filipino Filipino Kuala Lumpur 33 FCCA7 Chinese Malaysian Kuala Lumpur 34 FCCB7 Filipino Filipino Kuala Lumpur 35 FCCA8 Chinese Malaysian Kuching, Sarawak 36 FCCB8 Filipino Filipino Kuching, Sarawak 37 FCCA9 Chinese Malaysian Kuching, Sarawak 38 FCCB9 Filipino Filipino Kuching, Sarawak 39 FCCA10 Chinese Malaysian Kuching, Sarawak 40 FCCB10 Filipino Filipino Kuching, Sarawak 41 FCIA1 Indian Malaysian Kuala Lumpur 42 FCIB1 Filipino Filipino Kuala Lumpur
314 43 FCIA2 Indian Malaysian Kuala Lumpur 44 FCIB2 Filipino Filipino Kuala Lumpur 45 FCIA3 Indian Malaysian Kuala Lumpur 46 FCIB3 Filipino Filipino Kuala Lumpur 47 FCIA4 Indian Malaysian Kuala Lumpur 48 FCIB4 Filipino Filipino Kuala Lumpur 49 FCIA5 Indian Malaysian Kuala Lumpur 50 FCIB5 Filipino Filipino Kuala Lumpur 51 FCIA6 Indian Malaysian Kuala Lumpur 52 FCIB6 Filipino Filipino Kuala Lumpur 53 FCIA7 Indian Malaysian Kuala Lumpur 54 FCIB7 Filipino Filipino Kuala Lumpur 55 FCIA8 Indian Malaysian Kuala Lumpur 56 FCIB8 Filipino Filipino Kuala Lumpur 57 FCIA9 Indian Malaysian Kuala Lumpur 58 FCIB9 Filipino Filipino Kuala Lumpur 59 FCIA10 Indian Malaysian Kuala Lumpur 60 FCIB10 Filipino Filipino Kuala Lumpur
315 Appendix D: Written Consent
Date:
Dear Participants,
I am Mr. Francisco Perlas Dumanig, a post graduate student at the University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. I am currently conducting a study on “Langauge Choice, Accommodation Strategies and Code Switching in Interracial Couples’ Communication”. Part of this study is to conduct a survey and interview with Filipino-Malaysian couples‟ language choice in verbal communication in the home domain.
In line with this, I would like to ask your participation in the data gathering. All information gathered both in the survey and interview will be considered highly confidential.
If you would be willing to participate in this research please tick below and write a brief information about yourself.
____ Yes ____ No : I will participate in the survey. ____ Yes ____ No : I will participate in the survey.
Name: ______Contact Number: ______Address:______
Thank you very much.
Respectfully yours,
Francisco Perlas Dumanig
316 Appendix E: Sample Interview Questions
Language usage:
1. How many languages do you speak? Which of those is your first language and 2nd language? 2. What language that is widely spoken in your place? Is it Chinese, Malay or English? 3. If you were to choose, which language will you prefer? Why? 4. For how long have you been using such language? 5. Do you encourage your spouse and children to speak your ethnic language? Why? 6. What language do you speak with your spouse? Child/ children? Maid? In-laws? Why? 7. If only the two of you (husband and wife) are talking, what language do you speak with each other? at home and public places like church, market and Department stores. Why? 8. When you are talking with your spouse, do you switch from one language to the other? For instance from English to Malay or Chinese? Why? 9. Does code switching happen most of the time during your conversation (at home, workplace, public places)? Why? 10. How do you code switch from ______to ______? 11. Why do you code switch? 12. Do you speak other languages, like your spouse‟s language? How good are you in speaking each other‟s language? 13. Have you discovered something and created like a “private language” for yourselves?
Marital Schemata: 1. What is your idea about husband and wife relationship? Why? 2. As husband and wife, are you interdependent with one another? Why? 3. Do you avoid conflicts with one another? Why? 4. As a spouse do you prefer to be more independent? Why? 5. Do you have the same interests? Why? 6. Do you have the same group of friends outside the family? Why?
Convergence and Divergence: 1. Were there some instances that you both don‟t understand one another because of your language differences? 2. How did you handle this situation? 3. If your spouse speaks in her own language, do you speak also the same language with her? Why? 4. Were there instances that you responded to your spouse in a different language so he/she could not understand what you say? Why? 5. Were there instances that you really struggle to speak with your spouse‟s language just to make the conversation going?
Identity: 1. Do you sometimes compare your own language with that of your spouse? Why? 2. Are you proud of being a Malaysian Chinese or Filipino?
317 3. How do you show that you are a Chinese, Malay or Filipino when you are talking to your spouse?
318 Appendix F: Transcription conventions
Bold letter First language (Bahasa Malaysia, Filipino, Chinese)
Times New Roman English language
(Italicized) English translation
(.) Short pause
(…) Long pause
[ ] Overlapping in speech
(( )) laughter
(?) Unintelligible
319