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Rhizofiltration for Removal of Inorganic and Organic Pollutants in Groundwater: a Review

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Rhizofiltration for Removal of Inorganic and Organic Pollutants in Groundwater: a Review Review Volume 11, Issue 4, 2021, 12326 - 12347 https://doi.org/10.33263/BRIAC114.1232612347 Rhizofiltration for Removal of Inorganic and Organic Pollutants in Groundwater: a Review Risky Ayu Kristanti 1,* , Wei Jie Ngu 2, Adhi Yuniarto 3 , Tony Hadibarata 2 1 Faculty of Military Engineering, Universitas Pertahanan, Bogor, 16810, Indonesia 2 Department of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Science, Curtin University Malaysia, CDT 250, Miri, Malaysia 3 Department of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Civil, Environmental and Geo-Engineering, Institut Teknologi Sepuluh Nopember, Surabaya, 60111, Indonesia * Correspondence: [email protected]; Scopus Author ID 46861527200 Received: 5.12.2020; Revised: 30.12.2020; Accepted: 2.01.2021; Published: 4.01.2021 Abstract: Groundwater serves as the water recharge of surface water and provides clean water for domestic, industrial, and agricultural usage for human life. However, rapid developments resulted in groundwater contamination by heavy metals, pesticides, waste by-products, cosmetics, pharmaceutics, and biological agents. Groundwater contamination by the percolation of heavy metals (HM) is focused on in this review. Heavy metals known for their persistence, bioaccumulation, and biomagnification properties are hazardous to live organisms. Long-term exposure to heavy metals brings adverse effects on respiratory diseases, cardiovascular disorders, cancer, etc. They are considered toxins, carcinogens, mutagens, and teratogens for humans in low concentrations. Hence, technologies to remediate heavy metals and organic pollutant in groundwater is vital to prevent environmental and health issues. However, current conventional remediation technologies that are expensive, utilize hazardous materials, and produce toxic by-products in effluents are insufficient to alleviate heavy metals' effects in groundwater. Thus, an eco-friendly and cost-effective rhizofiltration method that adsorb, concentrate, and precipitate contaminants in or on plants' rhizosphere is introduced. This review portrays the mechanisms involved in rhizofiltration to remediate heavy metals-contaminated groundwater and describes the gaps for rhizofiltration to be a commercially viable technology. Keywords: groundwater pollution; heavy metals; biomagnification; bioaccumulation; remediation; rhizofiltration. © 2020 by the authors. This article is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). 1. Introduction Freshwater is an important water source for the consumption of living organisms on Earth. The freshwater source on Earth is precious and limited. However, due to the rapid growth of the human population and industrialization, limited fresh surface water has been overexploited and polluted, causing insufficient clean water sources available and disruption to the ecosystem. Currently, groundwater is being harvested as a clean water source to fulfil the clean water demand. Groundwater has gradually become an important fresh surface water source to sustain mankind's life apart from rivers and lakes. Groundwater is groundwater that exists in spaces between sedimentary particles and cracks of solid rocks. Groundwater was estimated to become 20 times more than the total volume of surface water. This is vital to human development because groundwater acts as the greatest reserve of drinking water and https://biointerfaceresearch.com/ 12326 https://doi.org/10.33263/BRIAC114.1232612347 agricultural water [1, 2]. The presence of pollutants in the groundwater reduces the availability of clean groundwater. Consumption of contaminated groundwater, which contains different pollutants, s different effects on living organisms, especially health problems. Some efforts have been made to remediate the contaminants from groundwater to conserve the groundwater and ensure a continuous supply of fresh water. With greater depths as compared to surface waters, groundwater should be less contaminated as contaminants need to percolate through the pores and cracks within soils. However, groundwater pollution comes into view as a major issue in many countries, in particular in countries with high industrialization [1]. Contaminants found in groundwater originated from natural and anthropogenic sources include heavy metals, pesticides, waste by-products, cosmetics, pharmaceutics, and biological agents. Among all, the impacts of non-biodegradable HM laden in groundwater raise concerns [2]. Metals and metalloids with a density of more than 5 g/cm3 are termed as heavy metals [3]. Percolation of pollutant into the groundwater resources generate challenges such as water insecurity due to water quality deterioration and health issues (respiratory diseases, cancers, and cardiovascular malfunctioning) in living organisms [4, 5]. To alleviate pollutant toxicity in groundwater, several measures have been made in the last 20 years include (1) identification of pollutant sources for groundwater pollution, (2) limit pollutant emission at sources, and (3) pollutant mitigation of the polluted groundwater resources [2]. Current conventional technologies implemented soil washing, chemical fixation, filtration, and permeable reactive barriers (PRB) are utilized to reduce pollutant concentration in groundwater. However, issues like non-economical, energy-consuming, membrane fouling, low removal efficiency, and production of secondary toxic effluents require treatment methods that are more sustainable [6, 7]. A method that utilizes pollutant-tolerant plants and associated microbes to remediate polluted sites naturally is that phytoremediation is environmental- friendly and more cost-effective than conventional engineered techniques [8]. Rhizofiltration is a technique that utilizes the root system of plants to remove a range of contaminants (organic and inorganic), one of the phytoremediation methods that able to alleviate groundwater contamination. The pollutants were absorbed and precipitated in the roots system of the plants from the polluted water. With the interaction between the plants’ root system and contaminants in polluted groundwater, the bioavailability of pollutants in the food chain can be significantly diminished [9]. The plants selected for rhizofiltration should have large pollutants accumulation capacity, easily be grown, low cost in maintaining the plants, and produce fewer wastes while the plants are disposed of after the plant’s roots are fully saturated by the pollutants. The efficiency of the rhizofiltration was affected by different factors such as plant species, condition of groundwater (temperature and pH), and chemical characteristics of organic contaminants. The affecting factors had a limit on the performance of the plants in carrying out rhizofiltration. By considering the factors, the efficiency of rhizofiltration could be maximized, so the remediation rate of organic pollutants in groundwater could be increased. 2. Sources of Pollutant in Groundwater The underground water might be polluted by anthropogenic and natural activities. Anthropogenic activities due to the development caused the seepage of organic pollutants into the groundwater. Some organic contaminants cannot be decomposed by the natural decomposer due to the toxicity, and these contaminants will disrupt the natural ecosystem, especially the aquatic ecosystem [10]. Some organic contaminants exist naturally, especially https://biointerfaceresearch.com/ 12327 https://doi.org/10.33263/BRIAC114.1232612347 in petroleum. The migration of organic contaminants from petroleum will result in the contamination of groundwater. Solubilization of heavy metal may be occurred through natural processes such as atmospheric deposition, weathering reactions, gas exchange in oceans, volcanic eruptions, and forest fire or though anthropogenic sources like leachate from landfill and mine tailings, liquid wastes disposal in the deep-well, sewage, and industrial spills [6, 11]. Additionally, heavy metal in groundwater can be traced from point (industries, sewage treatment plant, and ships) and non-point sources (oil spillages, domestic run-off, and agricultural run-off) [12]. HMs, in particular As, Cd, Cr, Hg, and Pb, are well-known toxins, carcinogens, mutagens, and teratogens in low concentrations. The impacts of inhalation, ingestion, or direct contact with these HMs are human physical and mental illnesses, mutations, genetic damage, nervous system damage, as well as cancer [13]. Apart from that, essential elements in biochemical reactions for living organisms like Fe, Zn, Cu, Mn, Ni, and Co are lethal to humans with their xenobiotic nature. Various illnesses and disorders such as kidney failure, neurological disorders, and cancer can be resulted from them [6]. In short, to diminish the potential exposure to heavy metals, specific source apportionment of heavy metals in groundwater is important. Detailed sources and health impacts for each type of heavy metal and organic pollutant are shown in Table 1. Table 1. Source and impacts of some contaminant in groundwater. Contaminant Sources Impacts References Lead (Pb) Mining, metal smelting, fossil Neurological disorders, skeletal, [9,14,15] fuels combustion, sewage, disposal endocrine, immune systems damage, of waste, fertilizers, pesticides, toxicity in the kidney, neurologic and paints, batteries, and metal vascular systems, hypertension and stroke products Chromium (Cr) Timber treatment, dyes, pesticides,
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