Meinmahla Kyun Wildlife Sanctuary Conservation Programme

Assessment of Fisheries Management Needs and Sustainable Livelihood Opportunities in the Villages Surrounding Meinmahla Kyun Wildlife Sanctuary By Donald J Macintosh (FFI Consultant) September 2016

MEINMAHLA KYUN WILDLIFE SANCTUARY CONSERVATION PROGRAMME  ASSESSMENT OF FISHERIES MANAGEMENT NEEDS AND SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOOD OPPORTUNITIES IN THE VILLAGES SURROUNDING MEINMAHLA KYUN WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

DONALD J. MACINTOSH SEPTEMBER 2016

TCP Report No. XX

Name of the project (if necessary) With funding from:

The Meinmahla Kyun Wildlife Sanctuary Conservation Programme is an program initiative of Fauna and Flora International (FFI) Myanmar Programme, implemented in collaboration with the Myanmar Forest Department and a number of local, national and international collaborators and stakeholders. FFI Myanmar operates the programme under a MoU with the Forest Department specifically for marine and terrestrial conservation activities in Meinmahla Kyun Wildlife Sanctuary region.

Funding This document has been produced with the financial assistance of the ASEAN Centre for Biodiversity (ACB).

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Macintosh, D. J. (2016). Assessment of Fisheries Management Suggested Needs and Sustainable Livelihood Opportunities in the Villages citation Surrounding Meinmahla Kyun Wildlife Sanctuary.

Author Donald Macintosh has held the positions of Professor in details Environment and Development at the University of Aarhus, Denmark, Associate Professor at the Asian Institute of Technology in Thailand, and Senior Lecturer in the Institute of Aquaculture at Stirling University, Scotland. Since 2011, he has been Senior Adviser to Mangroves for the Future (MFF), a regional initiative involving Myanmar and nine other Asian member countries.

Copyright Reproduction of this report in full or in part is granted for the purposes of education, research or awareness, with the sole provision that the authors and authoring organisations be properly credited.

Cover Front: Fisheries activities at the villages around Meinmahla Kyun images Back: Non-fisheries based village livelihood activities

Credit: Dr Donald J Macintosh/FFI (2016).

Disclaimer The contents of this document are the sole responsibility of Fauna and Flora International and can under no circumstances be regarded as reflecting the position of the European Union or other donors.

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ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS...... 5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... 6

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ...... 7 1. INTRODUCTION ...... 8 1.1 Background to the Assignment ...... 8 1.2 Methodology ...... 8 2. CURRENT LIVELIHOOD PRACTICES RELATED TO FISHERIES ...... 9 2.1 Background ...... 9 2.2 Description of the Fisheries ...... 12 2.3 Improving the Sustainability of Fisheries-based Livelihoods ...... 14 2.4 Conclusions ...... 15 3. POTENTIAL FISHERIES MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES AROUND MEINMAHLA ...... 16 3.1 Background ...... 16 3.2 Status of the Fisheries around Meinmahla Kyun ...... 16 3.3 Fisheries Regulatory Management ...... 17 3.4 Fisheries Co-management ...... 18 3.5 The Need for Co-management ...... 19 3.6 Fish Marketing Chain ...... 21 4. ZONING MKWS IN RELATION TO FISHERIES MANAGEMENT ...... 23 5. LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT AND DIVERSIFICATION ...... 27 5.1 Background ...... 27 5.2 Fishery-based Livelihood Interventions ...... 28 5.2.1 Fishery product processing and marketing ...... 28 5.2.2 Aquaculture ...... 28 5.2.3 Freshwater Fish Culture ...... 30 5.2.4 Brackishwater Aquaculture ...... 30 5.3 Agriculture-based Livelihood Interventions ...... 31 5.3.1 Improvements in paddy cultivation ...... 31 5.3.2 Livestock rearing (chickens, ducks, pigs) ...... 32 5.3.3 Horticulture and home gardens ...... 33 5.4 Alternative Livelihood Interventions ...... 34 5.4.1 Migrant Labour ...... 34 5.4.2 Shop-keeping and services ...... 34 5.4.3 Tourism ...... 34 Page 4 of 39 MEINMAHLA KYUN WILDLIFE SANCTUARY CONSERVATION PROGRAMME

5.5 One Village-One Product (OVOP) ...... 34 6. OVERALL CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 35 7. REFERENCES ...... 37

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

CBO Community Based Organization cm Centimetre DoF Department of Fisheries EEZ Exclusive Economic Zone FAO Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations FFI Fauna and Flora International g Gramme m Metre kg Kilogramme km Kilometre LIFT Livelihoods and Food Security Trust Fund MKWS Meinmahla Kyun Wildlife Sanctuary mm Millimetre MHDO Myanmar Heart Development Organisation NAG Network Action Group NGO Non-Governmental Organization OTOP One Tambon One Product OVOP One Village One Product SEAFDEC Southeast Asia Fisheries Development Center VDF Village Development Fund VFMC Village Fisheries Management Committee VFS Village Fisheries Society Vizz A Burmese unit of weight (I vizz = 1.62 kg)

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The assistance of the Forest Department, Ministry of Resources and Environmental Conservation, and Fauna and Flora International (FFI), in approving and organizing my visit to Meinmahla Kyun Wildlife Sanctuary is gratefully acknowledged.

The exceptional help and companionship of the team who accompanied me on the field trip to Meinmahla Kyun, and the hospitality and kindness of all the village leaders and villagers we met, contributed much to the success of the visit during six days of travel and interviews.

Special thanks go to Dr. Tint Swe (Mawlamyine University) and Mr Zau Lunn (FFI) who provided invaluable fisheries and local knowledge, respectively, and also interpreted for me during the many interviews conducted in the 15 villages visited.

A wealth of knowledge and experience was shared freely by several government departments and NGOs, and by experts and advisors of international development programs, all of whom went out of their way to be helpful.

Finally, meeting farmers, fishers and odd-jobbers, leaders and elders, women and children, in the villages was an enriching and unforgettable experience.

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY This report assesses the current fishery-based livelihoods of people living in the villages around Meinmahla Kyun Wildlife Sanctuary (MKWS) and the scope to diversify their livelihoods to reduce pressure on aquatic resources. It also outlines potential fisheries management strategies in relation to the zoning plan being prepared for MKWS. Fishing is a main source of livelihood for the majority of households living in the villages around MKWS: about 30% are full-time fishers; but in addition, in some villages as many as 50 to 75% are odd-jobbers who fish part-time, and enter MKWS to trap mud crabs and cut mangrove trees for fuelwood or poles. Virtually all crab-trapping is carried out within MKWS, while other fishers lay harmful barrier nets along the edge of the island. The fishers, crab-trappers and wood-cutters openly pay bribes to the Rangers and Army in order to enter MKWS, a practice which will severely undermine efforts to improve fisheries management in and around MKWS.

Unless the bribe-taking system can be replaced by an incentive-based arrangement that benefits the fishers and wood-cutters, as well as the rangers, conservation management of MKWS cannot be expected to succeed. The most viable approach over the next five years would be to designate several high value mangrove biodiversity sites within MKWS (as identified by FFI’s mangrove expert) as no-take areas, including complete protection from fishing activities.

Bag net fishing in the two rivers and major tributaries provides the other main fisheries-based livelihood support for village households. But the bag-net stations are allocated at auction to the highest bidders, often fish brokers, who then sub-tender them to local fishers on a payback basis that bonds the fishers to the tender-holder. Co-management of the bag net fishery has been introduced by FAO with some success in the eastern villages as a way to improve governance, reduce the indebtedness of fishers and enable them to sell their catches on the open market. Other fisheries management improvement options are also suggested, including the need to limit the overall fishing effort; to introduce more selective fishing gears; and to enforce existing fisheries conservation legislation. None of these fisheries management measures are likely to be successful, however, unless significant alternative income sources can be created for many of the fishers and odd-jobbers.

It is recommended that FFI adopts a village-level approach to livelihood support, including giving careful attention to pro-poor interventions. An initial analysis of potential enhanced or alternative livelihood options is provided in relation to their accessibility to the poorest households living around MKWS. Post-harvest processing of fishery products; fishing gear-making; livestock-rearing (especially pigs); home gardens and services are identified as being most suitable for households without agricultural land.

Longer term, and also at village level, large-scale riverbank protection and the associated development of wood lots will be required to offset the high demand for fuelwood and poles that is currently met by illegal tree-cutting in MKWS.

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1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background to the Assignment A consultancy visit to Myanmar was made from 14 to 26 July 2016 to assess the current fishery- based livelihoods of communities living in the villages around Meinmahla Kyun Wildlife Sanctuary (MKWS) and the potential to diversify their livelihoods to reduce the pressure on aquatic resources.

The assignment also included an assessment of the current fisheries management, licensing and market chain systems, plus consideration of potential fisheries management strategies in relation to the zoning plan being prepared for the sanctuary.

In addition to conducting interviews in the villages around Meinmahla Kyun, meetings were also held in Yangon, Bogale and Pyapon with governmental departments, NGOs and national and international organizations working on issues relevant to livelihood development in Bogale Township

1.2 Methodology Fauna and Flora International (FFI) has surveyed the socio-economic conditions of 22 villages situated around Meinmahla Kyun: 11 villages along the eastern side bordering the Bogale River; and 11 on the western side bordering the Kadonkani River (U Saw Han Shein, 2014). In the time available for the field visit to the Meinmahla area (six days), a rapid assessment of 15 of the 22 villages (70%) was undertaken.

The villages for assessment were selected on the basis that they are a) representative of the physical area around Meinmahla (eight villages on the eastern side and seven on the western side were surveyed); b) they are also representative of the villages in terms of their population size (from “large” to “small”) and economic status (from “very poor” to “relatively prosperous”) based on the report by U Saw Han Shein (2014). Overall, a slight preference was given to the poorest villages and/or those that were most affected by Typhoon Nargis.

Two to three hours were spent in each selected village. A semi-structured interview was conducted with village leaders and elders, followed by observations and supplementary questions posed to people met during a village walkabout. Based on the socio-economic information provided by U Saw Han Shein (2014), the lead interview in each village covered principally the three main categories of livelihood of the villagers: fishing, farming and odd-jobbing.

The following four sections (3-6) of this report address the specific responsibilities of the consultancy as set out in the terms of reference below:

1. Assess current livelihood practices related to fisheries and identify recommendations for improvement such as market chain analysis, making the practice more sustainable and/or environmentally friendly. 2. Identify alternative interventions to diversify current livelihoods and to take pressure of wild aquatic resources and habitats e.g. mari-culture, aquaculture, integrated fish/rice paddy agriculture, including market chain analysis.

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3. Provide recommendations on potential fisheries management strategies for the communities surrounding the wildlife sanctuary, cognizant of other approaches being established by FAO. 4. Provide advice on a zoning plan for the wildlife sanctuary and surrounding waterways in- terms of fisheries management. Include the key aspects of elite fisheries capture and fees/licencing structure in this analysis.

The final section of this report provides more general and holistic observations, conclusions and recommendations from the mission.

Figure 1: Meinmahla Kyun lying within the Bogale and Kadonkani rivers; Bogale Town is marked with a red arrow (image courtesy of Daniel Constable).

2. CURRENT LIVELIHOOD PRACTICES RELATED TO FISHERIES

2.1 Background Fishing is the main source of livelihood for the majority of households living in the villages around the Meinmahla Wildlife Sanctuary (MKWS). Population, household and livelihood data for the 15 villages surveyed are provided in Table 1. These data were verbally communicated and, therefore, are only approximate. As explained above, household livelihoods have been grouped into: farming, fishing and odd-jobbing to make the information compatible with the FFI socio-economic survey of 22 villages around Meinmahla Khun (U Saw Han Shein, 2014). These three categories over-simplify the actual situation, however, because there are various forms of employment within both the fisheries and agricultural sectors, while odd-jobbers by definition depend on various sources of income, including fishing – especially crab trapping. Page 9 of 39 MEINMAHLA KYUN WILDLIFE SANCTUARY CONSERVATION PROGRAMME

Table 1: Data on village population and household livelihoods obtained by interview. EASTERN HOUSE- TOTAL % FULL-TIME % FULL-TIME % ODD- VILLAGES HOLDS POPULATION FISHERS FARMERS JOBBERS Pyin-bo-gyi 193 768 44 10 46 Aung-chann-thar 1 392 ~1900 29 7 64 Sein-ra-ti 160 650 No data provided, but mainly fishers An-se-gyi 170 1200 50 20 30 Shwe-pyi-aye 270 1100 18 17 65 Kone-tann-pauk 140 > 600 36 28 36 Yway-chaung 73 325 27 22 51 Kwinn-thar-yar 82 350 25 30 45 Unweighted average 33 19 48

WESTERN HOUSE- TOTAL % FULL-TIME % FULL-TIME % ODD- VILLAGES HOLDS POPULATION FISHERS FARMERS JOBBERS La-Waing (W) 147 525 27 41 32 Pa-de-gaw 280 1400 30 20 50 Nga-poke-thann-thin 68 258 40 29 31 Ah-pyin-ma-yann ~80 ~250 - 60 40 Gway-chaung-gyi 192 788 25 42 33 Mee-laung-kwinn 87 264 40 50 10 Chaung-bye-gyi 1 178 798 15 10 75 Unweighted average 25 36 39

A more detailed list of vocations and employment categories in the villages around Meinmahla, based on other reports, is provided in Table 2 for reference.

While the livelihoods of around 30% of households overall depend on full time fishing, it is clear that there are many more seasonal or part-time fishers. The latter include odd-jobbers, and even some farmers, who go fishing or crab trapping on a part-time basis when other sources of income are not available to them. For example, in Hteik-chaung Village on the bank of the Bogale River just north of Meinmahla Khun, FAO (2016) reported that nine out of 74 farmers also own fishing gear; while 38 out of 58 casual labourers (odd-jobbers) go fishing on a part-time basis. Thus, fishing is not only the main livelihood of full-time fishers; it is also an important supplementary source of income for odd-jobbers and even some farmers, who fish on a part-time and opportunistic basis.

Fishing is relatively more important to villagers on the eastern side of MKWS, where one-third of households depend on full-time fishing; compared to about one-quarter of households on the western side. There are also relatively more odd-jobbers in the eastern villages (48% of households) compared to 39% of households on the western side. The proportion of odd-job dependent households seems to be quite stable on the western side (reported by U Saw Han

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Shein to be about 37% in 2014), but is rising in the eastern villages - reported to be about 35% in 2014 (U Saw Han Shein, 2014).

Table 2. Categories of Employment of the Villagers Living around Meinmahla Kyun. Employment Sector: Fishing Employment Sector: Farming 1. Fishermen 9. Farmer 2. Fish buyer 10. Rice buyer 3. Dried fish vendor 11. Fertilizer and chemical seller 4. Fisheries tenderer 12. Rice mill owner 5. Boat seller 6. Boat fabricator 7. Net seller 8. Net maker Employment Sector: Workshop Employment Sector: Animal Husbandry Mechanic - boat engines 13. Cattle Mechanic - farming tools/tractor engines 14. Pig 15. Chicken 16. Duck 17. Water buffalo Employment Sector: Odd Jobs – “Bouk” Boat crew member “coolie ” – transports goods from/to passenger boat and village Snack-shop vendor Unofficial lottery selling Wood cutter Catching rats (Adapted from published sources)

An important observation from a livelihood perspective is that most odd-jobbers regard crab trapping to be the most rewarding type of fishing for them because it is simple and low-cost. Crab traps are quite inexpensive compared to fishing nets, and mud crabs fetch very high prices (Kyat 1000 or more per crab for adult crabs; and Kyat 300-400 per crab, or Kyat 1500/kg, for small crabs (Macintosh, 2015). Moreover, in order to safeguard the supply of mud crabs to meet the high demand, primary dealers based in each village commonly advance money to crab trappers to help cover the cost of their gear and fishing trips; and they have to repay the loan by selling the crabs they catch to the same dealer.

Villagers informed that nearly all crab-catching is done within the MKWS. Moreover, it has been reported that if fishers entering the sanctuary cannot trap a sufficient amount of crabs, they will then cut trees for fuelwood or poles to sell, or even kill a wild animal and sell the meat (U Saw Han Shein and Moe Moe Min, 2016).

Fishers entering Meinmahla Kyun may owe money to a fish or crab dealer, and they also must pay a bribe to the Ranger volunteers. Thus, it is clear that their sole objective in entering the sanctuary is to extract whatever natural resources they can to meet their livelihood needs. The payments Page 11 of 39 MEINMAHLA KYUN WILDLIFE SANCTUARY CONSERVATION PROGRAMME made by crab trappers to enter MKWS were informed during village interviews to be Kyat 3,000- 3,500 for access for 15 days, which is the crab trapping period within each month. FFI (2016) reported a similar figure of Kyat 2,500-3,000 as the bribe paid to the rangers, plus Kyat 1,000- 2,000 to army personnel.

Villagers entering MKWS to cut trees for fuelwood or poles, or to harvest Nypa leaves for thatching, pay similar amounts as bribes to the Rangers and Army as the crab-trappers do (U Saw Han Shein and Moe Moe Min, 2016). However, the barrier net fishers have to pay much more – reported to be at least Kyat 15,000 per month.

Fishing is especially important to the landless, and for many landless households it is their only source of livelihood. The landless include migrant fishers who are not recorded in the village population data and whose numbers therefore are not known. Thus, it must be recognized that landless migrants are a particularly difficult group to provide alternative livelihood opportunities for.

2.2 Description of the Fisheries Various kinds of fishing gear are used in the rivers and tributaries around Meinmahla Kyun. Although the island is within a large riverine system, it is also under significant tidal influence, with the result that the fisheries comprise of a mixture of marine, brackishwater and freshwater fish and crustacean species. The diversity of fish species is actually high, with 110 species recorded in the waters around MKWS; and as would be expected due to the changing river salinity conditions, many of these species appear only seasonally in the local fisheries (Tint Swe, 2016). The most important gear types and fish, shrimp and crab species in the fisheries are summarized below, in relation to their importance from a local livelihood perspective.

Bag Nets In terms of their impact on fish stocks, the most damaging are the set gears, especially bag nets (also called stow nets), which are operated at fixed stations (local name “pike chek”) in the main rivers and tributaries. The bag nets used in the main rivers are large, typically 30m wide at the mouth-end and about 30m long. The mesh size of the net becomes progressively smaller towards the cod-end. A bag net like this at Yway Chaung was observed to consist of netting of four sizes from 7cm (stretched mesh diameter) at its mouth, decreasing to 5cm, then 3cm and finally 2cm diameter at the cod end.

The result of this mesh-size configuration is that virtually every organism that enters the bag net is trapped; that is, the bag net fishery is unselective. Several bag nets are placed in parallel at each station so that as much water flows through them as possible and they are operated up to four times per day on both the incoming and outgoing tides. Thus, the bag net fishery is exerting a very high fishing pressure within the main rivers and tributaries around Meinmahla Kyun.

The valuable target species for the bag net fishery are large brackish-water fish like catfish (Mystus and Arius species) and seabass (Lates calcarifer); and large shrimp (Penaeus species), which are caught mainly in the rainy season. However, the catches seen in July consisted almost entirely of small, low value fish like pony fishes and gobies, and very small Acetes shrimp known locally as “krill”. Information provided by the bag net fishers interviewed suggests that their profit comes only from the seasonal catching of large shrimp; whereas what they are able to catch during the rest of the year cover little more than their operating costs. Page 12 of 39 MEINMAHLA KYUN WILDLIFE SANCTUARY CONSERVATION PROGRAMME

Barrier Nets Barrier nets (also called fence nets) are very long nets that are set parallel to the river banks, usually in front of mangrove or Nypa forests. The nets are 4m to 5m high and as long as 250m. The nets are layed out unfurled along the ground at low tide; they are then lifted up using vertical poles when the tide is high. In this way, the nets form a barrier to fish and shrimp moving back into the river with the out-going tide; and because the mesh is very fine every species and size is caught, including juveniles

Barrier net catches include many of the same species as bag nets, but in addition they target larger freshwater species, including catfishes (Clarias, Heteropneustes species) and snakeheads (Ophiocephalus species), which are freshwater swamp and floodplain fishes. Mullets, giant freshwater prawns (Macrobrachium) and marine catfish (Plotosus) are also caught. Barrier net fishing seems to support the livelihoods of the poorer full-time fishermen.

Set Gill Nets These are gill nets about 15 to 25m long which are fixed to the river bed. Due to their small mesh size of 30 to 50mm, they are quite unselective and target many different species of mainly demersal fishes, including shads, croakers and threadfins. These are marine species that are able to tolerate the low salinity conditions in the river system around Meinmahla. Large freshwater catfishes (Pangasius and Wallago) are also caught in gill nets.

Trammel Nets Trammel nets are similar to gill nets, but instead of one layer of netting trammel nets usually have three layers. The inner layer consists of fine mesh like a gill net, but the outer layers have a much larger mesh size to entangle larger fish. Trammel nets target the most valuable fish, including the Indian shad, or “hilsa”, but this valuable species has become rather rare in the rivers around Meinmahla Kyun. As a result, croakers and paradise threadfins are now the main target species.

Drift Nets As their name implies, drift nets float in the rivers attached to buoys. Several net sections, each about 30m long, with a mesh size of 10cm diameter, are joined together to target pelagic fish, especially shads (including hilsa) and herrings, but they also catch some freshwater catfishes (Pangasius). Drift nets are used mainly in winter (January to March).

Long-lines This gear consists of a lead fishing line 150 to 200 metres long with about 200 baited hooks attached to short side lines spaced along its length. The long-line is usually set on the river bottom from a boat, but it can also be deployed as a floating gear. This gear type is quite selective, unlike the fishing nets described above. The target species for long-line fishing are large predatory fish: seabass and catfishes (Pangasius, Wallago). Catches appear to be declining as large river fish become less abundant, but long lines are quite inexpensive and may suit subsistence-level fishing.

A common feature of the fishing gears described above is that they are static; that is, they depend on the target species moving towards the gear. These gears are exploiting the fact that fish move with the ebb and flow of the tides within the river system around Meinmahla Kyun. Except for the long-lines, these are large, expensive gears which are operated mainly by full time fishermen.

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In contrast, the gears described below are hand-operated nets or traps that are relatively inexpensive and are more commonly used by part-time fishers, especially those described as odd- jobbers. Push nets and cast nets are active gears, whereas crab traps and eel traps are passive ones, but they contain bait to attract the target species.

Push Nets Also called a scissor net, this is an active, hand-held gear that is pushed in front of its operator, who walks slowly along the river edge against the tidal current. The mouth of the net is 2 to 2.5 m wide and is held open by two poles operated in scissor-fashion by the fisher. The net has a very fine mesh (10 to 14 mm) and is therefore unselective. The catches from push net mainly consist of small shrimp and juvenile fish; for this reason, push net fishing is very harmful to fish stock recruitment. It is, however, a low-cost method of fishing which makes it suitable for very poor fishers.

Cast Nets This is another active, hand-operated gear, which is thrown from a boat or riverbank onto the water. A cast net is circular (circumference 10 to 17 m) and is weighted around it edge with a chain so that the sinking net will quickly trap any fish and shrimp below it. Cast net fishing requires considerable skill and effort. Cast netting is another low-cost fishing method that very poor fishers can practice, so it probably has less impact on fish stocks than the other common fishing gears

Drag bag nets, beach seine nets These are also active types of fishing gear, which are reported to be in common use in Bogale Township (FAO, 2012), but these gears were not seen or mentioned by fishermen in the villages around Meinmahla. They are presumably used in more seaward locations?

Crab Traps Unlike the fishing nets described above, crab traps are highly selective and target an important group of swimming crabs known as mud crabs (Scylla species). As explained in the report on mud crab resources (Macintosh, 2015), the crab fishery in and around Meinmahla Kyun comprises of a single species, Scylla olivacea, which is being extremely over-fished because mud crabs fetch a high price, but crab-trapping does not require high investment. It is therefore an important livelihood activity among poorer fishers and odd-jobbers.

Eel Traps This is another highly selective type of fishing gear, but unlike the crab trap, it seems to be used only by a few specialist fishermen in some villages e.g. Pyin-bo-gyi. No eels were seen, but it is probably the freshwater swamp eel (Monopterus species), which lives in both fresh and brackishwater, inhabiting holes in riverbanks and swampland. More information is needed about the eel fishery because eels have a high value and they can be reared in cages. Eels from the Ayeyarwady Delta are exported to China via Mandalay.

2.3 Improving the Sustainability of Fisheries-based Livelihoods The obvious measure to increase the income of local fisher households around Meinmahla would be to provide them with more fishing gear - and naturally this is what fishermen usually suggest when asked the question “How could your livelihood be improved?” Large fishing nets are very Page 14 of 39 MEINMAHLA KYUN WILDLIFE SANCTUARY CONSERVATION PROGRAMME expensive, while crab traps must be purchased in increasingly large quantities, because the catch per trap is decreasing and the working life of a trap can be only a few months (Macintosh, 2015).

Since the fish stocks around Meinmahla are already in a state of serious decline, providing more fishing gear would only make this situation worse in the longer term. The goal should actually be to reduce fishing pressure (fewer fishermen, fewer bag nets and crab traps), so that catches per unit effort (and therefore incomes) for the remaining fishers will improve. But this will only be achievable if fisher households can be helped to develop alternative sources of livelihood and therefore it represents the long term, or development objective, of the livelihood strategy.

A more immediate (and therefore achievable) objective would be to request the leaders in the villages around Meinmahla to stop accepting migrant fisher households into their villages. This is reported to be a common practice, because migrant fishers pay the village leader to allow them to settle in the village for a temporary period, usually one or two years.

Another fisheries sustainability improvement option is to introduce less harmful fishing gear. Principally, this would involve increasing the mesh size of bag nets and the netting on crab traps, so that juveniles of commercial species of fish and mud crabs have a better chance of escaping. Since the Department of Fisheries already has a minimum mesh size regulation for bag nets and a minimum size for mud crabs (100g body weight), the enforcement of these regulations would improve the situation without the need to introduce other catch restriction measures. Most of the other fishing gears used around Meinmahla Kyun are also harmful to juvenile fish stocks, but in terms of their scale of impact, the bag nets and crab traps are probably the most damaging ones.

Gear restrictions are very unpopular with fishermen, however, and the Department of Fisheries seems to have no ability to enforce the existing regulations on the mesh size of fishing nets. There is also little point in trying to impose gear restrictions around Meinmahla only, even if this proved to be feasible? This is because the fish stocks in the Bogale and Kadonkani rivers are highly migratory ones and therefore, the restrictions would need to be applied over the entire river system to be truly effective.

2.4 Conclusions The overall conclusion is that the sustainability of the fisheries-based livelihoods of the villagers cannot be improved without fundamental changes to the way in which the fisheries are managed. This will require a move away from ineffective and unfair regulatory management system to a shared governance approach, based on the principles of fisheries co-management (see section 3).

By improving fisheries governance, fishers who are currently “bonded” to the owners of bag net tenders, or to fish or crab dealers, will be free to sell their catches at best market rates; and to invest in value-added processing. This will lead to much-needed improvements in the fish marketing chain (see section 3.6).

In the longer term, a significant decrease in fishing pressure is also required, but this will only be possible as alternative livelihood opportunities are realized for a significant number of the fisher households.

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Unofficial immigration, in the form of migrant fishers taking up temporary residence in some of the villages around MWLS, will also have to be controlled.

3. POTENTIAL FISHERIES MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES AROUND MEINMAHLA

3.1 Background The Fisheries Sector in Myanmar is divided into marine capture fisheries, freshwater fisheries and aquaculture. Two marine fishing zones are designated: Zone 1 from the shore line to 10 nautical miles; and Zone 2 from the seaward limit of Zone 1 to the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) limit.

In terms of their legislation, the fisheries around Meinmahla Kyun come under the category of freshwater fisheries, although marine and brackishwater species also contribute significantly to the volume and value of the catches. As explained in section 3, the main fishing methods operating there are passive ones involving fixed nets for most fish and shrimp, and traps for catching crabs and eels.

The primary legislation governing freshwater fisheries in Myanmar is The Freshwater Fisheries Law 1991. However this law provides only a basic national framework. Responsibility for the management of freshwater fisheries now lies with the States and Regions. This means that the States and Regions must also decide on any legislative changes, but they are regarded by FAO as generally lacking in the expertise and resources to manage freshwater fisheries independently of the Union level of government (Tsamenyi, 2011).

Of particular relevance to conservation management of the sanctuary is the absence of a comprehensive and integrated national policy framework covering freshwater and mangrove forest resources. Three overlapping, and in some aspects conflicting, laws apply: the Freshwater Fisheries Law, the Forest Law and the Protection of Wildlife and Conservation of Natural Areas Law. These sectoral laws have equal standing and there is no mandate or incentive for the departments concerned to initiate reform (Tsamenyi, 2011).

3.2 Status of the Fisheries around Meinmahla Kyun The fisheries associated with Meinmahla Kyun are in a state of near-collapse. A large proportion of the most valuable commercial species being caught are juveniles and the bulk of the bag net catches now consist of low value species like gobies, pony fishes and small shrimp that are either dried or turned into fish or shrimp paste. Similarly, the drift net, gill net and trammel net fishermen all commented that the commercial species they currently catch are smaller compared to even a few years ago. For example, most of the hilsa caught in drift nets five years ago were above 1.6 kg: today their size is generally less than 1kg; and they are much less common and some of the other valuable species are now also quite scarce.

To summarize, the total catches, and the amount and size of the target higher value species are declining in the fisheries around Meinmahla, while the catches of incidental species and juveniles of the target species are showing a relative increase. No part of the fish catch is discarded, however. The number of fishery-dependent households and the fishing effort also seem to be increasing, but there is a lack of data to confirm or quantify these trends. The Department of Fisheries in Bogale Township, which has only seven staff, informed FFI that some fish catch data Page 16 of 39 MEINMAHLA KYUN WILDLIFE SANCTUARY CONSERVATION PROGRAMME by fishing gear type is collected, but there are no complete data for the fisheries in the township as such.

The issue of juveniles of target fish species being caught is not a new one – it has been a long- standing problem in relation to the marine fisheries in Southeast Asia: “…the catch of juveniles is a serious problem in terms of resources and has biodiversity implications in the region…” (Southeast Asia Fisheries Development Center, 2000).

The apparent trends in terms of catch volumes and catch per unit effort are negative, while the fishing effort is increasing. The only mitigating factor helping to sustain the livelihood of fisher households is the fact that the high and rising demand for fish means that the prices for commercial species continue to increase. For example, the price of mud crabs is about 30-40% higher this year compared to the same period in 2015 (personal observation). DoF Bogale also mentioned to FFI that, although fish catches have reduced, the price of fish is high and hence fish trading/marketing remains buoyant.

3.3 Fisheries Regulatory Management The conventional approach in fisheries management is to introduce one or more of the following measures to make a fishery more sustainable:

a) reducing the total fishing pressure by limiting the number of fishermen, or number of boats/fishing gears allowed to operate;

b) restricting the allowable type of fishing gears, or mesh size of nets, to those less harmful to the fish stocks;

c) imposing minimum size restrictions on the fish that can be legally removed in order to protect juveniles;

d) limiting fishing to certain months of the year to protect critical periods for the fish stocks, such as breeding seasons;

e) declaring some important fish habitat areas off limits to fishermen as “no take” zones.

In fact, several of these management measures are already specified in Myanmar’s Fisheries Legislation, but they are not being enforced.

1. Because Meinmahla Kyun is a designated wildlife sanctuary, it is de facto a no take area for fishing (or any other extractive activity). However, fishermen in the surrounding villages openly describe how they pay the Wildlife Rangers to fish inside the sanctuary. 2. There is a Fisheries Regulation in Myanmar specifying that only mud crabs larger than 100g body weight should be sold. This regulation is not followed by any of the crab trappers in the Meinmahla area; in fact, small crabs are actually in high demand for soft- shell crab production. 3. Use of trammel nets is not permitted during the period May to July (FAO, 2016). But no mention was made of this seasonal restriction being applied in the fishing areas around MWLS.

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4. Set bag nets should not be operated for marine fishing during the breeding season from 01 April 1 to 30 May. It is not clear whether this regulation also applies to brackishwater areas like Meinmahla? But even if it does not, this regulation is still has an important bearing on the recruitment of marine fish into the Meinmahla area.

It is considered very unlikely that an entirely regulatory, top-down approach to fisheries management in and around Meinmahla Kyun would be effective.

1. The primary reason is the lack of any presence there by the DoF. 2. A second factor is the sheer numbers of poor households who depend entirely, or substantially, on fishing for their livelihood. 3. Thirdly, fishing within the sanctuary cannot be halted as long as the bribe-taking system operated by the Wildlife Rangers is allowed to continue.

This leaves the option of voluntary controls on the fisheries within and around the sanctuary. However, there is no simple solution and the following are put forward only as suggestions for discussion among the key stakeholders (as identified by FFI). The recommended approach is to work with each village as an administrative unit and to seek voluntary reductions in fishing pressure and the use of the most harmful types of fishing gear by supporting co-management and livelihood diversification activities on a village by village basis.

3.4 Fisheries Co-management Co-management is an approach to natural resources management in which the government shares certain authority, responsibilities and functions for managing fisheries with the resource users as partners. The need for fisheries co-management in Myanmar is obvious: ineffective governmental regulatory management has led to excessive fishing capacity and over-exploitation; use of harmful, unselective fishing gears; conflicts among resource users; and aggravation of poverty among small-scale fishers. Indeed, according to FAO, implementation of co-management systems is “now universally recognized as a necessary prerequisite for a sustainable coastal and inshore fisheries management”.

It has also been recognized that empowering and strengthening coastal communities in Myanmar will be fundamental to social and economic progress (Myanmar Fisheries Partnership). Empowerment can be achieved by giving coastal communities a stronger voice and role in rule- making and in co-management arrangements. Through co-management, community awareness and acceptance of the regulations governing natural resources can, in theory at least, be improved and resources exploitation made more sustainable and equitable. However, from the government side there needs to be less emphasis given to revenue collection and more attention paid to resource management and sustainable development.

Legal reform of the inshore fisheries sector in Myanmar is constrained by current conflict and confusion about the legislation and regulations that apply at Union, regional and state level (Myanmar Fisheries Partnership). And this represents a major impediment to giving co- management recognized legal status at Township to village level. Nonetheless, progress is being made. Last year Rakhine State enacted a new Fisheries Law that explicitly supports community

Page 18 of 39 MEINMAHLA KYUN WILDLIFE SANCTUARY CONSERVATION PROGRAMME fisheries organisations and the development of small-scale fisheries. This law was prepared following extensive consultation involving communities, NGOs and CBOs; and the private sector.

Co-management is a type of management/governance system in which decision-making power, responsibility and accountability must be shared between governmental agencies and local stakeholders, in particular indigenous peoples and/or local communities who depend on natural resources culturally and/or for their livelihoods (Borrini-Feyerabend, 2011). The key feature of co- management actually relates to governance rather than to management: Management is about what to do; Governance is about who decides what to do. Consequently, the term shared governance should be used when referring to co-management. The following key conditions are considered to prerequisites for setting up a co-management process: 1. All stakeholders (from region/district to village level) must support joint governance and adaptive management. 2. All stakeholders should understand that, through the participatory process and an agreement, the co-management group must get the right to manage the target resources jointly with relevant local authorities. 3. Members of the co-management group must depend on the target resources for their livelihood. 4. Local authorities must be willing to play their role in joint governance and therefore cannot delegate their role entirely to the co-management group. 5. A legal option must exist to formally establish a co-management group which is empowered to negotiate with local authorities/state agencies and technical departments.

3.5 The Need for Co-management The need for fisheries co-management is highlighted by the way that the bag net fishery around Meinmahla is currently controlled by elite capture of the bag net stations. The stations, or “lots”, designated for fixed bag nets are allocated by the Ayeyarwady Regional Government through the Regional Fisheries Office. The lots are auctioned on an annual lease basis. These “tender lots” are usually awarded to people in Bogale. The auction system is not transparent, so it can be assumed that the tender lot holders are the wealthy and influential elite. According to FAO, the tender holders may then sub-lease the tender lot to another person, typically a local fish dealer. This sub-tender holder may then further sub-lease the lot to local fishers, who pay an upfront “access fee” to operate the bag nets; they then must pay off the remaining cost of the sub-lease by selling their catches only to the fish dealer (FAO, 2016). In this way, the fishers are “bonded” to the dealer and they have to accept the price the dealer decides on for their fish, even if this is considerably less than the market value. This unfair system locks bag net fishers into the base of the fisheries market chain as “price takers” (see section 3.6). As a practical example, there are two bag net stations at Chaung Bye Gyi (a third one is not operating). The tender owner is a person in Bogale. The fishers in Chaung Bye Gyi do not know what the tender price is, but they are paying the tender holder Kyat 50,000 to 200,000 per bag net, depending on the catch value of its location; they must also sell their catches to him. Page 19 of 39 MEINMAHLA KYUN WILDLIFE SANCTUARY CONSERVATION PROGRAMME

The FAO project “Sustainable small-scale fisheries and aquaculture livelihoods in coastal mangrove ecosystems” introduced a co-management system for the bag net fishery involving 20 villages along the Bogale Riverbank. The co-management process that is recommended by FAO is well document (FAO, 2016). In summary, the key step is to establish a Village Fisheries Society (VFS) in each project village under the direction of the village chief and regulated by a set of by- laws. Members of the VFS then elect a Village Fisheries Management Committee (VFMC) as its governance body. The VFMC must formally register the VFS with the District and Township Fisheries Offices. The VFS can then propose to purchase the bag net tender lot at a price agreed with the Township Fisheries Office. Members of the VFS pay into a fund to cover the cost of the tender. In addition to bringing down the cost of leasing the tender lot, the fisher members of a VFC are also able to sell the bag net catches freely in the open market, thereby ending the price manipulation they suffered from under the tender lot auction and sub-lease system. Despite their obvious benefits, fisheries co-management arrangements are difficult to maintain without accountability on both sides. The key elements required to safeguard the sustainability of this bag net fisheries co-management system are that: a) the VFS must retain part of the income it collects from its members to pay for the tender lot fee in the following year; and b) DoF must continue to offer the tender to the VFS at a fair price and resist pressure from the former private tender lot holders to revert back to the auction system.

Figure 2: Location of the FAO Fisheries Co-management Project on the eastern (Bogale River) border of Meinmahla Kyun. Project villages are marked in yellow; bag net tender lot locations are shown in red (from Oikos, 2015). An additional constraint related to point b) is that it is DoF policy to increase the tender charge by 10% each year, whereas the bag net catches are declining. This is a common complaint among

Page 20 of 39 MEINMAHLA KYUN WILDLIFE SANCTUARY CONSERVATION PROGRAMME the fishers and clearly illustrates the disconnect between government policy and the actual condition of the local fish stocks. FAO implemented the fisheries co-management project in 20 villages along the eastern bank of the Bogale River from 2010 to 2015 (see figure 2). In season 2015-16, FAO purchased the tenders for 27 bag net stations (pike chek), at a total cost of Kyat 3.2 million according to the Head of Yway Chaung Village. Working on behalf of the DoF, the VFMC’s have been accused of charging high rates for leasing bag net sites to their members, while also greatly increasing the number of pike cheks to 72. Part of this income, amounting to Kyat 70,000 per bag net, is set aside in a Village Development Fund (VDF), which is intended to benefit all villagers, not only the bag net fishers. But again, critics have claimed than no village development activities have so far been financed from by the VDF.

The head man in Yway-chaung, which is regarded as the most successful village in the FAO supported co-management project, confirmed during an interview there in July 2016 that more than Kyat three million had been banked in the VDF, but no money had been disbursed to date.

While the FAO co-management project only assisted villages along the Bogale River, fishermen in the villages on the western (Kadunkani River) side of Meinmahla also operate bag nets through a similar sub-tender system controlled by pike chek tender-holders as described on the eastern side of Meinmahla. Typically, there are two or three pike cheks near each village on the western side, and in principle a co-management system for the bag net fishery could also be introduced there.

However, as noted by LIFT (2014), it is difficult to replace the existing pike chek tender system, because it favours the elite and it is a convenient way for regional governments to gain revenue. Thus, unless there are changes in the regulations and policies to promote improved governance in the fisheries sector, the existing inequalities are likely to remain.

Improving the rights of small-scale fishers will require that all stakeholders, especially the government and the private sector elite who monopolize the market chain, support legal and policy changes. This desired situation can only come about through inclusive dialogue, supported by major international agencies and programs like FAO, World Fish and LIFT.

3.6 Fish Marketing Chain The freshwater fisheries sector, including brackishwater species, accounts for about one-third of the total capture fisheries in Myanmar (1.38 million tonnes out of a total of 4.08 million tonnes in 2014 according to the Department of Fisheries). Fishing grounds can be accessed in two ways:

a) Leasable fisheries are fishing areas leased by the DoF through a bidding process, which gives the winning bidder sole control over the site; the lease-holder will usually sell the right to fish there to a sub-tenderer, who may in turn allow fishers to operate there for a fee. Fishers may pay the fee partly in cash and partly in fish sold to the tender/sub-tender holder, or to an affiliated fish collector. b) Open fisheries are fishing areas outside of leasable fisheries. All types of fishing gear require a license fee, which is paid to the DoF. In addition, the valuable bag net fisheries are tendered as “lots” by the DoF in a similar manner to the leasable fisheries, with the

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fishers actually operating the bag nets forced to be “price-takers” under the control of the tenderer or sub-tenderer they are indebted to, as explained below.

The leasable fisheries and bag net tender lot systems mean that the market chain is tightly controlled by fish brokers, who typically have close links to the fish collectors that operate collection stations close to the fishing areas. In some cases the fish brokers are themselves also lease and tender holders (ILO, 2015). The fish brokers consolidate fish supplies from the collection stations for shipment mainly to Yangon; they also supply retail markets in the townships. The degree to which this market chain is controlled by the brokers/consolidators is evident from the fact that there is no fish auction market in Bogale.

A similar, tightly-controlled market chain operates for mud crabs. One to several crab collectors operates in each village around MKWS as representatives of crab dealers in centers like Kadonkani and Bogale. Mud crabs are then transported to Yangon, where they are sold to a small number of brokers, some of whom deal in mud crab shipments to China, as well as supplying the urban domestic market.

By advancing money to fishers for the purchase of fishing gear, and to cover the cost of fishing trips, the buyers of fish, shrimp and mud crabs have built up a strong supplier-buyer relationship, which helps to protect the buyers’ source of supply. This informal credit system also benefits the fishers to some extent, because they can obtain a cash advance from their regular buyer during times of hardship, which is repayable according to the amount of fish they catch. But on the other hand, the financial control that buyers have over fishers means that buyers can determine the price for the fish they receive to repay the debt. Thus, the buyers can offer lower than the market price; in addition, it has also been reported that some buyers cheat when the catches are weighed.

The current situation is well summarized by ILO (2015): “: the holders of the [fishery] lease and tender determine or influence to a significant extent the overall character of the chain. Oftentimes, fishers are “price takers” and have to accept discounted prices for their fish in exchange for access to fishing grounds and, sometimes, gears.”

There is intense competition among buyers for fish supplies and therefore the practice of advancing cash to “bond” fishers to a particular buyer is likely to intensify further. Securing tender lots for bag nets is another way for buyers to protect their supply chain. This will lead to higher prices paid in future to secure tender lots at auction, with the result that fishers will have to pay more for the right to operate bag nets under the unofficial sub-tender system described above. Similarly, the price of mud crabs has increased significantly (by 30-40%) since last year as buyers compete for the increasingly limited supply of this high value species.

Breaking the market chain control exerted by tender lot holders and fish brokers will benefit fisher households, but this is likely to be achievable only with the consent of the brokers themselves. By introducing co-management, FAO has tried to replace the auction-based tender lot system along the Bogale River adjacent to MKWS with a direct fee-based one, in which the right to fish at bag net stations is owned directly by Village Fisheries Societies on behalf of the fishers. While the FAO project seems to have had only limited success, it has pointed in the right direction as far as improving governance over the fisheries around MKWS

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A fisheries co-management approach is also fundamental to giving fishers influence within the market chain. By becoming free from indebtedness to tender lot holders/fish buyers, fishers can sell their catches at market prices. In time, they can also give attention to better handling and processing in order to access higher levels in the market chain. Once free to market their catches directly, it can be expected that fisher households would quickly learn how to improve fish handling and how to develop value-added products.

Women are engaged in artisanal fishery product processing at village level, as well as retail selling of fish in markets like Bogale and Pyapon. Thus, supporting village women’s groups and female fish vendors is regarded as an important approach towards improving the market chain. Village women’s groups can also be assisted to have the roles of women in fishing gear-making and repair better recognized; and to teach them how to produce more selective fishing gears. A recent report by ILO (2015) concludes that “Women have significant influence on the behavior of family members and neighbours and this can be harnessed to promote adoption of eco-friendly gears.”

4. ZONING MKWS IN RELATION TO FISHERIES MANAGEMENT Although Meinmahla Kyun Wildlife Sanctuary (MKWS) is de facto a no take fisheries conservation area, many people from the surrounding villages fish there. In particular, the island is the focal location for trapping mud crabs and for fuel wood collecting: these are subsistence livelihood activities carried out on an almost daily basis by people from every village around Meinmahla Kyun

Even during the daytime, fishing boats loaded with crab traps, and bag net and gill netting fishing were seen in various parts of the sanctuary. Yong (2016) also observed illegal fishing and wood harvesting throughout the sanctuary during his assessment of mangrove resources in MKWS.

Given the high level of poverty and natural resource dependency among the villagers living around Meinmahla Kyun, it is considered unrealistic to attempt to halt all fishing and wood collecting throughout the sanctuary, at least in the short to medium term. Since the villagers who enter Meinmahla Kyun are exploiting both the mangrove forest and aquatic resources within the sanctuary, it seems more advisable to prevent access by fishers to the sanctuary areas identified by Yong (2016) as being the most important for mangrove conservation.

Many shrimp and fish species, as well as mud crabs, make use of different types of mangrove habitat during high tides when the vegetation is submerged. There is no scientific evidence to suggest that they have preferences for particular types of mangrove vegetation; but rather their use of mangrove habitat is strongly related to the prevailing tidal conditions. Research has shown that there can be as many as three banana shrimp per square metre of mangrove forest and shrimp move at least 50 to 75 metres inside the forest with incoming tides (Vance, 1996). In addition to gaining access to feeding habitat, this behavior probably helps them to escape from large predatory fish like seabass and marine catfish, which stay near the mangrove forest edge. Similar behavior is shown by mud crabs and various species of mangrove-associated fish.

Another scientific finding relevant to mangrove rehabilitation in Meinmahla is that banana shrimp are reported to be most abundant in young mangrove plantations (Rönnbäck, et al., 1999). Thus,

Page 23 of 39 MEINMAHLA KYUN WILDLIFE SANCTUARY CONSERVATION PROGRAMME it can be concluded with confidence that mangrove forest restoration activities in the sanctuary will be beneficial to aquatic species. Yong (2016) reaches a similar conclusion in his report on the condition of the mangrove forest in MKWS and its impact of the local fisheries: “The poor state of the associated fisheries at and around MKWS is a good reflection of the current dilapidated state of the mangrove forest at MKWS. Primary production, through photosynthesis, by mangrove trees is vital to sustain the entire mangrove food web.”

The following recommendations on zoning MKWS in relation to fisheries management have been aligned closely with Yong’s recommendations on mangrove rehabilitation and protection. This has been done on the basis that - by fully protecting mangroves in a small number of highest priority sites as “no-take” areas, the aquatic fauna will also benefit via the habitat and food web support (that is, the ecological roles) that mangroves provide.

Yong (2016) proposes seven high priority sites for mangrove regeneration; these are denoted on his map of MKWS as sites A to G (see figure 2). The additional fisheries management need is to also prevent fishing within the waterways giving access to these high priority areas from the Bogale and Kadonkani rivers. The waterways are the routes by which fish, shrimp and crabs will enter these mangrove sites, which they will use primarily as nursery grounds. They will then emigrate from the mangroves into the main river system as adults, and in this manner they will recharge the fisheries – a phenomenon known in fisheries management as the “spill-over” effect. Thus, the mangrove conservation priority sites A to G identified by Yong can also serve as protected nursery areas for aquatic species. But to support fishery stock recruitment, there must also be no fishing of juveniles and adults immigrating and emigrating, respectively, along the main waterways within Meinmahla Kyun that connect these priority mangrove sites to the Bogale or Kadonkani rivers. For the above reason, there should be a complete and well-enforced ban on the operation of bag nets within MKWS. Based on the geography of Meinmahla Kyun, high priority mangrove site A, and the waterways leading to it, could be protected by Kyaung Htauk Station; mangrove sites C, D and E and their associated waterways by Mi Chaung Gaung Poke Station; and site F by either Htaw Paing Station or Poe Laung Lay Station. Mangrove priority site B is easily accessed by boat from a region of the Bogale River where there is no ranger station, so this site would be harder to protect. Similarly, site G in the southern part of MKWS lies along a major waterway which is some distance (more than 2 kms) from the nearest station (Thaung Chaung Station). To further protect the vital role that MKWS is thought to play as fisheries nursery habitat, 200m along the edge of the island on each side of the main water channels providing access into MKWS should be off limits to fishers, especially those operating barrier nets and push nets, which are particularly destructive on the juveniles of aquatic species. This measure is indicated by the red bars around the edge of MKWS shown on the map at figure 2. Mud crab trapping in MKWS cannot be halted in the near term because so many poor fishers and odd-jobbers are dependent on the income that they derive from catching crabs there. However, some degree of management control on the crab fishery is required urgently: Page 24 of 39 MEINMAHLA KYUN WILDLIFE SANCTUARY CONSERVATION PROGRAMME

a) a quota system (whereby an agreed number of crabs fishers per village are registered to be allowed to trap crabs in MKWS, in return for village-level alternative livelihood support, and even compensation for loss of income in the short term); and b) a campaign to increase the minimum size of mud crabs that are sold by increasing the mesh size of the crab traps. Ideally, this measure should simple comply with the existing Fisheries Regulation specifying a minimum size of 100g for mud crabs; but even adhering to a minimum size of 80g would be beneficial. Again, village-level alternative livelihood opportunities will be required to offset the loss of income to crab trappers. The potential mangrove and fisheries conservation measures suggested, including the designation of the high priority mangrove sites identified by Yong (2016) as no-take areas; limits on the catching of mud crabs; and a complete ban on bag net fishing within MKWS, will require a complete transformation in the way that the Ranger Stations and ranger volunteers at MKWS function. Instead of the bribe-taking system that currently operates whereby villagers gain open access to MKWS on payment of a fee to the rangers and army personnel, an entirely new incentive-based system is needed.

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Figure 2: Priority mangrove sites A to G identified by Jean Yong (Map 2 in Yong, 2016). The proposed No Fishing Areas along the edge of Meinmahla Kyun are marked in red. Page 26 of 39 MEINMAHLA KYUN WILDLIFE SANCTUARY CONSERVATION PROGRAMME

5. LIVELIHOOD IMPROVEMENT AND DIVERSIFICATION

5.1 Background Potential interventions to improve and/or diversify current livelihoods in the villages around Meinmahla are suggested below under the headings Fishery-based, Agriculture-based and Alternative livelihoods. The analysis is superficial and simply points out some of the more obvious livelihood options based on the interviews and village walkabouts undertaken over six days. Moreover, it was not possible to investigate financing mechanisms for livelihood development, such as revolving funds. This section actually focusses more on the approach that FFI should take to ensure that the very poor (i.e. those most dependent on taking natural resources from MKWS) are not excluded, or disadvantaged, by efforts to improve or diversify village livelihoods. The villages living around Meinmahla show the characteristics typical of many traditional coastal communities in South and Southeast Asia:  They are heavily dependent on natural resources, especially mangroves for fuelwood and construction materials, and aquatic products for food and income.  For many, livelihoods are multi-occupational and multi-locational, and they include seasonal periods of under-employment because of the impact of climate fluctuations on fishing and farming activities. (Odd-jobbers come under this category.)  Village infrastructure is generally poor and highly vulnerable to storms and flooding (as demonstrated so catastrophically by the losses caused by Typhoon Nargis).  Fisheries are already exploited beyond a maximum sustainable level, while coastal agriculture is constrained by extreme weather conditions that can result in alternate periods of freshwater flooding and drought or saltwater inundation.

While there are opportunities for livelihood improvement, including diversification, such as improved fish handling and marketing, livestock-rearing, and aquaculture development, new economic opportunities can also lead to greater income inequality and more environmental damage.

Consequently, interventions aimed at achieving poverty alleviation have to be very carefully designed and targeted. There is an overwhelming need to assist the villagers around Meinmahla through infrastructure improvements, forest restoration, livelihood demonstration projects, training and credit schemes, but these interventions must be done in a manner that benefits the poorest groups and not just those who are better able or most influential within their community.

Experiences with livelihood development efforts in poor and vulnerable coastal communes in Viet Nam have shown that helping the poorest groups in such communities is extremely challenging (Luttrell et al., 2004). In considering the impact of different livelihood opportunities on poverty reduction and their sustainability, the same study applied four indicators to assess them:

 Accessibility of the livelihood activity to the poorest groups;  the scope for income generation.  risks and vulnerabilities associated with the activity;  the environmental (including health) impact(s) of the activity.

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These indicators have been applied in the present analysis of opportunities to improve livelihoods for the villagers living around Meinmahla. The use of these four indicators is shown in Table 3.

The levels of poverty could not be assessed directly in each village around MKWS, but from the data on categories of employment recorded during meetings with village leaders; and from responses of villagers to questions about alternative livelihoods, plus impressions of the economic status of the majority of households during village walkabouts, it seems clear that the villagers along the eastern (Bogale River) side of MWLS are more fishery-dependent, and have less capacity to diversify their livelihood base, compared to villagers on the western side.

This is an important conclusion, because it suggests that the introduction, testing and demonstration of livelihood interventions is more likely to be successful in some of the western villages. Indeed, it was surprising just how lacking in ideas many of the people interviewed in the eastern villages were regarding any livelihood activities other than fishing or odd-jobbing. The possible livelihood interventions identified below will require considerable further investigation regarding their technical and economic viability. And obtaining the views of villagers regarding the feasibility and attractiveness of each potential additional livelihood activity will be equally important.

5.2 Fishery-based Livelihood Interventions It is usually a sound approach to investigate ways to improve the fisheries-based livelihoods of fisher communities before considering alternative, non-fishery based interventions.

5.2.1 Fishery product processing and marketing Some village women are engaged in artisanal processing of fishery products, mainly dried fish and shrimp, and fish or shrimp paste. If improvements to the market chain can be introduced (see section 3.6), then there is good potential to assist women’s groups to produce higher value products through better handling, processing and packaging methods. And the success of the FAO co-management project in some eastern villages (especially in Yway-chaung) has already demonstrated that fishers able to lease bag net stations (pike chek) through a Village Fisheries Management Committee, rather than as bonded fishers to a private bag net station tender holder, are free to sell their catches directly at market value in Bogale, or even in Yangon.

5.2.2 Aquaculture There is no doubt that aquaculture is going to expand greatly in the delta as the major use of land and water in addition to agriculture and fisheries. However, aquaculture requires capital investment and technical know-how, as well as land in the case of rice-fish or pond culture. These are assets not available to the very poor, while labour opportunities for them in aquaculture are also quite limited. For households that are able to invest in aquaculture, the risks of failure and economic loss are high. This is often caused by an inability to maintain satisfactory water quality conditions for the stock in the face of climatic variability-resulting in stressful changes in water temperature and/or salinity. Lack of water in the dry season, and flooding of ponds during heavy rainfall, are additional problems, unless the water supply to the culture system can be controlled.

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Table 3: Livelihood accessibility, income, risk and environmental impact analysis. Source of Accessibility to Income potential Risks involved Impact on the Livelihood the poorest environment

Bag Net fishing Not accessible Medium Exploitation by bag net High - unselective tender holders fishing gear Trammel Net, Not many poor people Low to Medium High cost of nets, which High – rather Gill Net fishing involved can be lost or damaged unselective due to small mesh size Barrier Net Many poor people Low to Medium Low risk, but nets are High – unselective fishing involved expensive fishing gear Crab trapping Many poor people Medium to High Low risk, but need many High – many poor involved traps people enter MKWS to catch crabs Rearing pigs Many poor involved, Medium Low, occasional Neutral at small but some villages only weather/disease risk scale Rearing chickens Some poor involved Low High risk of mortality from Neutral at small scale weather/disease Rearing ducks A few poor people Low High risk of disease; Neutral to Positive involved at household Crocodiles may eat ducks scale when on water Growing sea Some poor involved Low (previously higher) Little risk, but sensitive to Good for soil fertility sesame export demand and price Home gardens Some poor involved Low to medium Weather dependent; Good for soil fertility Requires dependable freshwater source Rice cultivation Not accessible - Low to Medium (farmers Weather and water Increasing use of requires land can now take dependent chemical fertilizers government loans) Risk of rice pests and pesticides Growing fruit or A few poor households Low Low Positive impact timber trees involved Freshwater No poor people Medium High Low depending on Aquaculture involved scale Brackishwater No poor people High Very High Low to High, Aquaculture involved depending on scale Trading products Some poor people Low to Medium Market chains controlled Little impact involved by others Shops and Some poor people Low Little risk Little impact services involved Tourism sector No poor people Medium - if demand for Tourism will be controlled Low to High involved handicrafts or OVOP by the elite depending on how products develops tourism is manage Local labour Only the poor involved Low to Medium Seasonal demand – mainly Low agricultural labour Migrant labour Only the poor involved Medium to High Social issues Not relevant – off site

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5.2.3 Freshwater Fish Culture Rice-fish culture This is a well-established practice in a number of countries; but it is mainly associated with irrigated rice systems where the water level in the paddy fields can be better managed than in rain- fed systems. However, in its simplest form, a rice farmer can dig a small water sump in the lowest corner of his paddy field. As the water level in the paddy field drops after the rainy season, fish will congregate naturally in the sump, where they are easily harvested. This primitive form of fish rearing is most suited to air-breathing species which can withstand more extreme environmental conditions than other fishes. Fortunately, air-breathing fish are abundant and popular food fishes in the Meinmahla area: they include freshwater catfishes (Clarius, Heteropneustes, Mystus, Pangasius), climbing perch (Anabas), snakeheads (Channa) and various gobies. Many of these air-breathers will enter paddy fields naturally from floodplains during the wet season – catfishes and snakeheads can actually crawl over wet ground, so they have remarkable dispersal capabilities. Some species like Clarias could also be purchased from hatcheries and stocked by the farmers to increase fish production. Pond culture Pond culture is developing rapidly in the freshwater-dominated areas in Bogale Township and neigbouring Pyapon, where Network Activities Group (NAG) is working in 25 villages on fisheries co-management and aquaculture development. Assisted technically by WorldFish in Yangon, pond culture methods for rearing tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus), Indian carps (Labeo rohita, Mrigala) and silver barbs (Puntius), as well as freshwater catfishes and climbing perch, are being developed and promoted.

Rohu carp and tilapia could be stocked in the freshwater reservoirs that have been constructed as dry season water supplies in some of the villages around Meinmahla. However, this would have to be a communally agreed venture, supported by a transparent benefit-sharing system.

5.2.4 Brackishwater Aquaculture There are well established culture methods in ponds or cages for several high-value brackishwater species, including sea bass (Lates calcarifer), Giant Malaysian prawn (Macrobrachium), tiger and white shrimp Penaeus species) and mud crab (Scylla species), which occur naturally in the Meinmahla Kyun area. However the investments involved, and the risks of failure, are also high, especially for shrimp, which have poor tolerance of environmental stress.

The most hardy, and also most abundant brackishwater species around MKWS, is the black mud Scylla olivacea. There are three main culture methods for mud crabs:

Fattening: after being trapped, mud crabs that have recently moulted (known as “thin” or “watery” crabs) are held in bamboo or net cages and fed well until they have gained weight and value. Large males and females with mature ovaries (known as “egg” crabs) are particularly valuable. The holding period for fattening mud crabs is usually only 10 to 20 days and carries low risk because they do not moult during this period. The food given to fatten mud crabs is usually trash fish, sometimes supplemented with mollusc meat; because the latter is believed to be particularly beneficial for the maturation of females into “egg” crabs.

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Although the mud crab fattening trials conducted by FFI in 2014-15 in Gway-chaung-gyi, Chaung- bye-gyi and La-Waing (West) were not successful, it was concluded that this was due primarily to operating the trials in months with extreme weather conditions: either the hot season or wet season when the river salinity was virtually zero (Macintosh, 2015). The same study also concluded, that: “Crab fattening remains one of the most feasible forms of livelihood improvement for local villagers around the MKWS. However, the project should adopt a demonstration approach to future crab fattening trials, in order to better demonstrate its technical and economic viability before asking village groups to invest in crab fattening directly. “

Grow out: small mud crabs of around 100g weight are cultured in small earth ponds or pens, where they grow by moulting and are harvested after three to eight months at a size of about 200 to 500g. This culture method carries higher risks than fattening because mud crabs are highly vulnerable to cannibalism when they are soft and immobile immediately after moulting. The theft of mud crabs from ponds is also a common problem.

Soft-shell crab: juvenile mud crabs of around 50-80g weight are held individually in perforated plastic boxes that float in ponds or tanks until they moult. They are then removed immediately, washed and frozen while they are still soft. Soft-shell crab is a delicacy for export, requiring considerable investment, including for refrigeration equipment and electricity generation. It is also creating a growing demand for juvenile mud crabs, which is further depleting the already over- fished mud crab stocks around MKWS.

Mud crabs are very tolerant of extreme temperature and salinity fluctuations (their tolerance ranges are 12-35oC and 2 to 60ppt, respectively) compared to cultured shrimp and fish, but there are still risks to mud crab rearing from extreme weather conditions during the wet season in the delta, and due to pollution from feed and other wastes in grow out ponds.

Cage culture The rearing of fish in floating cages is a widespread practice in mangrove estuaries and bays throughout Southeast Asia. Cages are used to rear high value species, particularly seabass (Lates calcarifer), which are now available from hatcheries. Conditions in the main rivers and tributaries around MKWS are not suitable for fish cages during the wet season, due to the very strong currents and decrease in water salinity to zero.

There is still a possibility of culturing seabass in some of the smaller river channels at other times of the year; but this would require assessment as to whether there is period of several months in the year when environmental conditions are suitable for siting cages and rearing sea bass? However, even if caged fish culture proves to be technically feasible, it is not a livelihood option suitable for the very poor, as it requires investment and know-how, as well as carrying significant risks from adverse weather, or poor water quality conditions.

5.3 Agriculture-based Livelihood Interventions

5.3.1 Improvements in paddy cultivation The land bordering the riverbanks on both sides of Meinmahla Kyun was, until very recently, designated as Reserve Forest land. But because the land had been converted much earlier from forest (mainly mangrove) to agricultural land, and used to raise one rice crop per year during the Page 31 of 39 MEINMAHLA KYUN WILDLIFE SANCTUARY CONSERVATION PROGRAMME wet season, ownership of this coastal land is currently in the process of being transferred to the land users under a legal enactment known as “Form 7”.

This important recent change in land status also means that the paddy farmers can now access government loans (e.g. to buy fertilizer), which should enable them to increase rice production and thereby bring wider benefits to the local economy. Because the land was formerly mangrove, it suffers from a poor soil condition for agriculture and remains prone to flooding and saltwater intrusion. Soil salinity is a serious constraint on paddy cultivation as yields are low.

While intensification and/or diversification beyond a single annual crop of rice would be an obvious improvement for farmers to make, saline intrusion remains a major constraint, while it is the government’s policy to boost rice production nationally, so other crops are not permitted at the present time. LIFT has made recommendations to improve the production of rice through the use of soil tilling equipment, better irrigation practices, application of fertilizers and double rice cropping using fast-maturing varieties of rice (U Htet Kyu, 2014). LIFT considers that double rice-cropping is feasible in Bogale Township, but in some cases it has proved difficult to convince farmers of its benefits because of past failures with double cropping.

Ironically, despite the high proportion of “odd-jobbers” in many of the villages, farmers are facing a labour shortage when it comes to hiring farm labourers. This is because young people prefer to seek laboring work in Bogale or Yangon, where the daily rate paid is up to Kyat 8,000, compared to only Kyat 4,000-5,000 for on-farm work. One consequence of this farm labour shortage is that most farmers’ simply broad-cast rice seed onto their fields, rather than transplanting rice seedlings from nurseries - a practice which improves yields, but which requires more labour.

5.3.2 Livestock rearing (chickens, ducks, pigs) Livestock, especially pig-rearing, has the greatest near-term potential to benefit poor households, especially those without land. Pig-rearing is already commonplace in the western villages, e.g. in Gway-chaung-gyi, Nga-pok-thin-tan, Pa-de-gaw and Le Waing villages. Simple wooden pig sties for holding one or two pigs are positioned near the family’s house for security. A piglet costing Kyat 30,000 can be reared to a weight of 40 to 50 vizz (about 65-80 kg) in five to seven months, and then sold at a price of Kyat 5,000 per vizz, giving a profit of up to Kyat 220,000 per pig.

A small number of households in some of the eastern villages are also rearing pigs, but many others are not interested in livestock rearing because they cannot visualize beyond livelihood activities that provide a daily income. This short-sighted attitude is most prevalent in the villages where fishing and odd-jobbing are the main sources of income, e.g. Aung-chant-tha 1.

Lack of investment capital is the main limitation on pig-rearing and this could be overcome with external project support. Chicken- and duck-rearing are also possible, but there have been many cases of chickens or ducks dying in the villages around MKWS, with the probable cause being heat stress or disease. The actual cause(s) of mortality need to be confirmed, however. Ducks, for example, can suffer from viral gastroenteritis, or respiratory and nervous problems. Even chickens provided to households in Le Waing by a German-funded project through Myanmar’s Heart Development Organization (MHDO) were reported to have died within a short time.

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Unlike chickens and ducks, pigs in the Ayeyarwady region generally do not suffer from disease, and it is a government requirement that all livestock must be inoculated.

A few ducks can be reared for meat or for eggs on a household scale, but there are very few examples of duck-rearing being practiced as a main source of income. A major limitation for many households is that duck rearing on a commercial scale requires land and water and is therefore only suitable for those with farmland. But, in addition, there is a risk that ducks will be eaten by crocodiles: a farmer in Le Waing informed that 20 birds out his flock of 80 ducks had been taken by crocodiles in just one year!

Ducks in the Ayeyarwady Delta are reared mainly for egg production, the common local breed being a small variety with the local name of “dat be”. The much larger Muscovy duck is also common in the villages around Meinmahla. The Muscovy is well-adapted to household-scale egg and meat production, because it needs much less access to water compared to other breeds. (Note: all domestic breeds of duck, except Muscovy ducks, are descended from the wild Mallard duck; in contrast, the Muscovy duck originates from a group known as “greater wood ducks”). The Muscovy duck is not suitable for duck-rice integrated farming.

Some Mandalay ducks are being reared for meat production in Gway-chaung-gyi Village. This seems to be a new livelihood venture started this year by a single household. The results should be monitored closely as further investigation into the feasibility of duck-rearing is clearly merited.

5.3.3 Horticulture and home gardens The term horticulture covers all aspects of growing plants, including vegetables, fruits, nuts, mushrooms, herbs, flowers, trees and medicinal plants. Diversification in horticulture is already taking place in some of the villages west of Meinmahla and this trend will undoubtedly continue as villagers benefit from improved water supplies, technical training and credit schemes. Innovative home gardens were seen in several villages. Vegetables and other edible plants that are suited to the local conditions include water cress, egg-plant, chillies, water convolvulus, papaya and roselle.

Only one example of a medicinal plant under cultivation was observed – sea sesame (also known as Burma linseed); scientific name Hygrophila phlomoides; local name migyaung-kunbat.

Sea sesame is grown along the edges of rice fields in some of the villages around Meinmahla (e.g. in Yway-chaung). The dried seeds are sold to buyers who then export this product to China. The precise medical use for sea sesame in China could not be identified. And the Myanmar Medical Plant Database (2007 update) states only that the seeds are soaked in water to make a poultice.

There is no doubt that other medicinal or herbal plants could be grown locally and further investigation into potential species is merited. But this is a branch of horticulture that requires expert advice in order to undertake an initial screening of high value species that could be expected to grow well under the conditions found in the target villages.

The main constraint to horticultural diversification is the lack of freshwater and this is a major underlying problem that needs to be addressed in most of the villages. Composting, with or

Page 33 of 39 MEINMAHLA KYUN WILDLIFE SANCTUARY CONSERVATION PROGRAMME without earthworm-rearing, would also be a widely-applicable technical development to improve the organic content and poor water-holding properties of the soil available for home gardens.

5.4 Alternative Livelihood Interventions

5.4.1 Migrant Labour Migration for work has risen significantly in recent years in Myanmar and now involves about one in four households in the Ayeryarwady Delta (LIFT, 2016). Undoubtedly, more and more people from villages around MKWS will migrate to seek work in the towns and cities. The local labouring rate is only Kyat 4,000 to 6,000, compared to Kyat 8,000 in Yangon. In addition, agricultural work, which has the greatest demand for local labour, is only seasonal, offering only around two weeks work for a labourer in the farm off-season (LIFT, 2016).

Labour migration, including immigration into the MKWS area by migrant fishers, is a complex issue, which was beyond this short study to investigate. It will be helpful for FFI to consult with LIFT, which has a programme of support for internal migrants, especially landless fishers. World Vision is also supporting landless people in Bogale Township, including a village-level savings and loan programme.

5.4.2 Shop-keeping and services Vocational training plus financial support to set up small shops and services can be an effective approach to help some poor households to become less dependent on fishing. The development of shops and services is already occurring rapidly in some villages, such as Pa-de-gaw, which is a scheduled stop on the boat service between Bogale and Kadonkani. As the village economies develop, so too will the demand for goods and services. Training in tailoring for women and in mechanics (engine repair) for men are typical examples of vocations that have potential to help poor people gain alternative employment.

5.4.3 Tourism In the near to medium term, tourism development is unlikely to bring significant benefits to the local economy around MKWS, and tourism is not a sector that is easy for poor people to gain access to. However, there is clearly potential to promote ecotourism to MKWS and this could be one means of providing incentives to the Rangers to offset the bribe-taking system that currently operates there. At present, ecotourism is constrained by transportation difficulties and a lack of on-island facilities for visitors; even access to the Myauk Taya (100 Monkeys) Temple, which is a notable attraction on Meinmahla, is in a bad state of disrepair. Moreover, only day visits are possible for foreign tourists because homestay is not yet permitted. However, once overnight accommodation for visitors is available on Meinmahla Kyun, or if homestay in the surrounding villages becomes possible, ecotourism is likely to develop rapidly due to the attraction of the mangroves and wildlife in MKWS. There is an Ecotourism Development Plan for MKWS, which reflects this view that MKWS has excellent potential for ecotourism, provided it is well planned and managed.

5.5 One Village-One Product (OVOP) Although the One Village-One Product (OVOP) concept originated much earlier in Japan, it has become best developed in Thailand in recent years (Nguyen, 2013). Known as the One Tambon – Page 34 of 39 MEINMAHLA KYUN WILDLIFE SANCTUARY CONSERVATION PROGRAMME

One Product (OTOP) initiative (tambon =sub-district in Thai). OTOP promotes local food and craft products by helping village communities to improve the quality of traditional products and to market them more effectively. In the Thailand model, one distinctive product that can be identified with each tambon receives formal branding as a "starred OTOP product”, which is then strongly promoted locally and even nationally/internationally. OTOP products include handicrafts, fabrics, pottery, household items, food stuffs and herbal preparations. Looking to the future, the One Village-One Product (OVOP) concept could be applied in some of the villages around Meinmahla. Indeed, this has already been suggested by Action Aid in relation to livelihood improvement in Labutta Township, especially as an initiative to help village women (U Soe Tun, 2011). Candidate products for OVOP would include food products (e.g. dried shrimp, fish and shrimp paste, shrimp crackers) and locally made fishing gear (e.g. crab traps, pushing nets, cast nets). In Viet Nam, we found that the women in fishing communities were very interested to learn how to improve the quality of traditional dried fish products, including the use of better packaging. This also seems to be the case in Bogale Township. In addition to product quality and marketing promotion, OVOP also has the advantage of scale, in that the cost of raw materials, equipment, transportation costs, etc. can be reduced because an OVOP group of producers has more bargaining power than individual households.

6. OVERALL CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS The mangrove forest that once flourished on Meinmahla Island has become heavily degraded by wood-cutting, to the extent that virtually all the valuable tree species for fuelwood or timber have been removed and secondary vegetation dominated by the mangrove-associated palm Phoenix paludosa has replaced them. Non-mangrove aerial plants have overgrown many of the remaining mangrove trees, which have been left only because their wood has little or no value. However, there are still small pockets of mixed mangrove species that could support restoration of the mangrove forest with local species (Yong, 2016). In addition to wood-cutting, villagers living on the riverbanks adjacent to MKWS also fish in the numerous channels that transect the island.

Crab-trapping, especially, is carried out almost exclusively in MKWS, and this is a key part-time livelihood activity supporting many poor households who are known as odd-jobbers. Full time fishers and odd-jobbers make up around 80% of the households on the eastern riverbank and more than 60% of households on the western riverbank.

The fisheries in the rivers around MKWS are in a state of near-collapse. Although data are lacking, all the evidence points to unsustainable fishing pressure, declining catches and a shift in catch composition - fewer large fish, shrimp and crabs and more incidental species and juveniles of the target species. The bulk of the bag net catches seen in July consisted of low value species like gobies, pony fishes and small shrimp.

The sustainability of the fisheries-based livelihoods of the villagers living around Meinmahla Kyun cannot be improved without fundamental changes to the way in which the fisheries are managed. This will require a move away from the current ineffective and unfair regulatory management system to a shared governance approach, based on the principles of fisheries co-management (see section 3.4). Page 35 of 39 MEINMAHLA KYUN WILDLIFE SANCTUARY CONSERVATION PROGRAMME

By improving fisheries governance, fishers who are currently “bonded” to the owners of bag net tenders, or to fish or crab dealers, will be free to sell their catches at best market rates; and to invest in value-added processing. This will lead to much-needed improvements in the fish marketing chain (see section 3.6).

In the longer term, a significant decrease in fishing pressure is also required, but this will only be possible as alternative livelihood opportunities are realized for a significant number of the fisher and odd-job dependent households. Unofficial immigration, in the form of migrant fishers taking up temporary residence in some of the villages around MWLS should also be controlled.

Villagers enter MKWS on a daily basis to fish, especially crab-trapping, to cut down trees for fuelwood and poles, or to cut Nypa leaves for thatching. Many of the people involved are odd- jobbers and they openly pay bribes to the Rangers and Army in order to enter MKWS. The future of Meinmahla Kyun as a wildlife sanctuary will be severely threatened unless the bribe-taking system can be replaced by an incentive-based one in which the villagers, as well as the rangers and other involved personnel, are beneficiaries.

The scale of the problems affecting MKWS are immense and many of them have poverty as their underlying cause. Thus, conservation of the wildlife sanctuary can only be effective if there is a comprehensive programme of infrastructure development, forest restoration and livelihood support in the surrounding villages.

FFI should, therefore, partner with other organizations and programmes that are potentially able to support fisheries management, aquaculture, water and agriculture, alternative livelihoods, and village development activities on the substantial scale that is required. By working together with partners like LIFT, MHDO, NAG, World Vision and WorldFish, it will be more feasible for FFI to address the very challenging infrastructure, community development and poverty reduction needs in the villages around MKWS. However, in addition to grass-roots programmes in the villages, it is vital that a top-down approach is also applied by FFI in order to achieve positive changes regarding the currently largely ineffective regulatory systems that apply to fisheries and wildlife management in Myanmar.

There is a particular need to establish and manage wood lots in each village to offset the exploitation of mangrove trees in MKWS for fuelwood and poles. Woodlots can be developed in conjunction with the planting of trees (both mangrove and non-mangrove species) for riverbank protection against floods and soil erosion. This represents a major, but vital, undertaking that can be approached through the mechanism of Community Forests. Under a recently revised Forest Department directive, Community Forests have several objectives, including: a) to fulfill the basic needs of the community concerned with timber, pole wood, fire wood and charcoal; and b) to develop forest cover area and sustainability.

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7. REFERENCES Borrini-Feyerabend, G., 2011. Co-management and Shared Governance – the “Effective and Equitable Option” for Natural Resources and Protected Areas? In: Co-management/Shared Governance of Natural Resources and Protected Areas in Viet Nam. Spelchan, D. G., Nicoll, I. A. and Nguyen, T.P. H. (eds.). Deutsche Gessellschaft Fur Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ). pp 5-27. ISBN: 978-604-9801-00-6. FAO, 2012. Field Guide on Common Fishing Gear in Bogale Township, Ayeyarwady Region, Myanmar. . Environmentally Sustainable Food Security Programme (ESFSP) Programme: Sustainable small-scale fisheries and aquaculture livelihoods in coastal mangrove ecosystems project GCP/MYA/010/ITA. Food and Agriculture Organization of United Nations Myanmar. 30pp. FAO, 2016. Implementation of a village-based freshwater fisheries co-management approach for open waters: Field Guide. Environmentally Sustainable Food Security Programme (ESFSP) Programme: Sustainable small-scale fisheries and aquaculture livelihoods in coastal mangrove ecosystems project GCP/MYA/010/ITA. Food and Agriculture Organization of United Nations Myanmar. 45pp. ILO (International Labour Organization), 2015. Value chain analysis and competitive strategy: freshwater capture fisheries: Pyapon, Myanmar. ILO Liaison Office for Myanmar, Yangon. 60pp. LIFT (Livelihoods and Food Security Trust Fund), 2014. Learning Together in the Ayeyarwady Delta: Lessons and good practice from LIFT’s Delta Programme 2011-2014. U Htet Kyu (ed.). UNOPS Management Office, Yangon, Myanmar. 109 pp. LIFT (Livelihoods and Food Security Trust Fund), 2016. A Country on the Move: Domestic Migration in Two Regions of Myanmar. The World Bank, Yangon, Myanmar. 106pp. Luttrell, C., et al., 2004. Sustainable Livelihood Opportunities and Resource Management in Coastline Communes Facing Special Difficulties. Ministry of Planning and Investment, Hanoi, Vietnam. 52 pp. Macintosh, D. J., 2015. Assessment of the local mud crab fishery and crab fattening trials in villages around Meinmahla Kyun Wildlife Sanctuary. August 2015. 17 pp. Nguyen Thi Anh Thu, 2013. One village one product (OVOP) in Japan to one tambon one product (OTOP) in Thailand: lessons from grass root development in developing countries. Journal of Social and Development Sciences. 4: 529-537. Oikos, 2015. Strengthening of Village Fisheries Societies (VCS) for Co-management of Fisheries in 20 Villages in Bogale Township. Environmentally Sustainable Food Security Programme (ESFSP) Project “Sustainable small-scale fisheries and aquaculture livelihoods in coastal mangrove ecosystems”. Final Report of LoA No: MYA/ESFSP/01/2015-005. 14pp. Rönnbäck, P, Troell, M, Kautsky, N and Primavera JH, 1999. Distribution pattern of shrimp and fish among Avicennia and Rhizophora microhabitats in the Pagbilao mangroves, Philippines. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 48: 223-234. Tint Swe, 2016. Preliminary Study on the Fishes of the Meinmahla Kyun and Surrounding Waters. ACB/GIZ. Fauna and Flora International, Myanmar Forestry Department and BANCA. 35pp.

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Tsamenyi, M., 2011. A Review of Myanmar Fisheries Legislation with Particular Reference to Freshwater Fisheries Legislation. Environmentally Sustainable Food Security Programme (ESFSP). FAO Representation, Yangon, Myanmar and FAO regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok, Thailand. 72pp. U Saw Han Shein, 2014. Socio-economic monitoring on the local communities of the villages around Mein-ma-hla Kyun Wildlife Sanctuary, Bo-ga-lay Township, Ayeyarwady Region, Myanmar. ACB/GIZ. Fauna and Flora International, Myanmar Forestry Department and BANCA. 52 pp. U Saw Han Shein and Moe Moe Min, 2016. Report on the Resources Use/Harvest Mapping and Livelihood Assessment Survey on the Local Communities around Meinmahla Kyun Wildlife Sanctuary. ACB/GIZ. Fauna and Flora International, Myanmar Forestry Department and BANCA. 50pp. Vance, D., 1996. How far do juvenile banana prawns and fish move into mangroves? Australian Fisheries Management Authority Publication April 1996, pp. 28-32. Yong, J., W., H., 2016. An Ecological and Plant Biodiversity assessment of the Meinmahla Kyun Wildlife Sanctuary (MKWS) in relation to biodiversity conservation and restoration, and human livelihood. FFI report. 37 pp.

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IF YOU HAVE ANY QUESTIONS OR WOULD LIKE MORE INFORMATION, PLEASE CONTACT:

FANUA & FLORA INTERNATIONAL, MYANMAR PROGRAMME Office: No 35, 3rd Floor, Shan Gone Condo (Corner of Shan Gone Street and Myaynigone Zay Street), San Chaung Township, Yangon. Tel: +95 (0)973 194 749 www.fauna-flora.org

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