Internal Migration in Nigeria: a Positive Contribution to Human Development Bukola Adeyemi Oyeniyi (Ph.D) University of the Free State, South Africa

OBSERVATORY ON MIGRATION OBSERVATOIRE ACP SUR LES MIGRATIONS OBSERVATÓRIO ACP DAS MIGRAÇÕES

Internal Migration in Nigeria: A positive contribution to human development Bukola Adeyemi Oyeniyi (Ph.D) University of the Free State, South Africa

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An Initiative of the ACP Secretariat, ACPOBS/2013/PUB01 Funded by the European Union Implemented by IOM and with the Financial Support of Switzerland, IOM, the IOM Development Fund and UNFPA

International Organization for Migration (IOM) Organisation internationale pour les migrations (OIM) Organização Internacional para as Migrações (OIM) 2013 ACP Observatory on Migration The ACP Observatory on Migration is an initiative of the Secretariat of the African, Caribbean and Pacific (ACP) Group of States, funded by the European Union, implemented by the International Organization for Migration (IOM) in a Consortium with 15 partners and with the financial support of Switzerland, IOM, the IOM Development Fund and UNFPA. Established in 2010, the ACP Observatory is an institution designed to produce data on South–South ACP migration for migrants, civil society and policymakers and enhance research capacities in ACP countries for the improvement of the situation of migrants and the strengthening of the migration– development nexus. The Observatory was established to facilitate the creation of a network of research institutions and experts on migration research. Activities are starting in12pilot countries and will be progressively extended to other interested ACP countries. The 12 pilot countries are: Angola, Cameroon, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Haiti, Kenya, Lesotho, Nigeria, Papua New Guinea, Senegal, Timor‐Leste, Trinidad and Tobago, and the United Republic of Tanzania. The Observatory has launched research and capacity‐building activities on South–South migration and development issues. Through these activities, the ACP Observatory aims to address many issues that are becoming increasingly important for the ACP Group as part of the migration–development nexus. Documents and other research outputs and capacity‐building manuals can be accessed and downloaded free of charge through the Observatory’s website (www.acpmigration‐obs.org). Other upcoming publications and information on the Observatory’s activities will be posted online.

Cover picture: Nigerian Market © IITA Image Library - Licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial 2.0 Generic License. Document prepared by Bukola Adeyemi Oyeniyi (Ph.D), University of the Free State, South Afica. This publication has been produced with the financial assistance of the European Union. The contents of this publication are the sole responsibility of the authors and can in no way be taken to reflect the views of the Secretariat of the African, Caribbean and Pacific (ACP) Group of States, the European Union, the International Organization for Migration (IOM) and other members of the Consortium of the ACP Observatory on Migration, the Swiss Federation or UNFPA Federation. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise without the prior written permission of the publisher. ACPOBS/2013/PUB01 OBSERVATORY ON MIGRATION OBSERVATOI RE ACP SUR LES M I GRATI ONS OBSERVATÓRIOO ACP DAS MIGRAÇÕES

Internal Migration in Nigeria: A positive contribution to human development

Bukola Adeyemi Oyeniyi (Ph.D) University of the Free State, South Africa

Preface

Movement of people, merchandise and ideas from one location to another is a common phenomenon in both developed and developing nations. This study examined the impact of internal migration on human development using three different variables – access to education, life expectancy and living standards. As the study found, internal migration in Nigeria presents a rather curious but complex trajectory, which involved rural-urban, rural-rural, urban-urban and urban-rural dynamics. As in other parts of Africa, internal migration in Nigeria is fuelled by a number of factors; the most notable being economic recession and economic growth, education, marriage, civil service (in-service) transfer and national service. The study also found that two generations of internal migrants exist in Nigeria – first generation and their dependants and second generation migrants. These layers of internal migrants are not specific to Nigerians, but also apply to non-Nigerian migrants from neighbouring West African countries. For the different generations of internal migrants, regional differences in education, socioeconomic and political developments play important roles in how internal migration impacts upon access to education, increases in life expectancy and living standards. Contrary to the general perception (in existing literature) that internal migration mirrors economic and environmental problems, the study concludes that internal migration contributes to development, empowerment and poverty alleviation. Hence, the report favours government interventions in ensuring policies and programmes that are capable of harnessing the benefits of internal migration rather than regarding the phenomenon as a problem affecting economic and environmental spheres.

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Abstract

A combination of the following data sets were examined in this report to assess the impact of internal migration on human development in Nigeria: the 2010 Internal Migration Survey conducted by Nigeria’s National Population Commission, key informant interviews and focus group discussions involving about seven thousand internal migrants spread across twenty-four locations in Nigeria’s six geopolitical zones, participants’ observations and existing literature. As the study found, layers of internal migrants, comprising two different generations: first generation and their dependants and second generation migrants. These internal migrants are originally from within Nigeria and from neighbouring West African nations. They were driven by motivations that occasionally overlapped and, at other times, diverged. Their experiences, like their motivations, are equally different and nuanced. These particular characteristics, combined with the existing regional differences in Nigeria, make internal movements of people, merchandise and ideas an essential component of life in the studied areas. However, contrary to the widely held view that internal migration is an economic and developmental problem, the study found that internal migration increases access to education, prolongs lives and contributes to improved living standards, not only for the internal migrants and their dependants and loved ones in regions of origin, but also of their host communities in destination areas. Owing to its impact on human development, the study favours policy interventions in, among others, internal migration and development, migration facilitation, migration management and migration data collection. Keywords: internal migration; human development; destination area; source area; motivation; migration management; Nigeria; life expectancy; education; standard of living; remittance.

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank the European Union, the ACP Group of States, the ACP Observatory on Migration, IOM and other international agencies for providing resources for this report. From the inception of this project to its very end, the Research Team of the ACP Observatory on Migration was wonderful for their contributions and insights. This report would not have taken shape if not for the invaluable assistance of all these people and institutions. I also thank the National Consultative Committee of the ACP Observatory in Nigeria for the reception and contributions to this report when it was presented in Abuja. Fatimah Diallo called my attention to the advertisement while Akinyoade Akinyinka encouraged me to apply. Akinyoade proved invaluable through his reading and contributions to the drafts of both the interim report and the main report. Teniola Ajilore provided free accommodation to one of our field staff, Grace Abalaka while Doyin Oyeniyi and Josiah Olubowale provided encouragement and understanding, especially when fieldwork activities warranted constant travels across Nigeria. The efforts of the aforementioned people would have been wasted if not for the diligence and enterprise of my research team, which comprises Segun Adegoke, Ariwoola Sheffiq, Hassan Rasheed, Ranti Okesade, Sandra Green, Seriki Kazeem and Abdulateef Abdulrasaq. The research team, other field staffs and the hundreds of people that were interviewed and participated in discussions across Nigeria helped tremendously in getting data for this report. Above all, I thank the management and staff of Joseph Ayo Babalola University, Ikeji-Arakeji, Nigeria for their support and encouragement towards the completion of this project. I appreciate you all.

Oyeniyi Bukola Adeyemi Post Doctoral Fellow Political Studies and Governance Department, Faculty of Humanities, University of the Free State, South Africa.

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Internal migration in Nigeria:A positive contribution to human development

Table of Contents

List of acronyms and abbreviations...... xi List of tables and figures...... xiii Executive summary...... xv Résumé analytique...... xvii Resumo executivo...... xix 1 Introduction and background...... 1 1.1 Introduction...... 1 1.2 Background...... 2 1.3 Research methodology...... 6 1.4 Hypothesis...... 11 1.5 Conclusion...... 11 2. Literature review...... 13 2.1 Introduction...... 13 2.2 Pre-colonial migration trajectories...... 14 2.3 Colonial migration trajectories...... 17 2.4 Post-colonial migration trajectories...... 19 2.5 Contemporary migration trajectories...... 20 2.6 Migration and human development in Nigeria...... 23 2.7 The 2010 Internal migration survey ...... 27 2.8 Conclusion...... 28 3. Data presentation, analysis, findings and results...... 31 3.1 Introduction...... 31 3.2 Data presentation, analysis and discussions...... 31 3.3 Conclusion...... 58 4. Conclusion and policy recommendations...... 59 4.1 Conclusion...... 59 4.2 Policy recommendations...... 62 4.3 Final considerations...... 67 5. Bibliographical references...... 69 6. Annexes/Appendices...... 77

Internal migration in Nigeria:A positive contribution to human development

List of acronyms and abbreviations

ACP African, Caribbean and Pacific Group of States AIAE African Institute for Applied Economics CBN Central Bank of Nigeria DGIS Directorate General for International Cooperation ECOWAS Economic Community of West African States FGD Focus Group Discussion GCIM Global Commission on International Migration GSM Global System for Mobile Communication GDP Gross Domestic Product IDP Internally Displaced Person EM-DAT International Emergency Events Database IMF International Monetary Fund IOM International Organization for Migration KII Key Informant Interview LGA Local Government Area NEEDS National Economic Empowerment and Development Strategy NIMS National Internal Migration Survey NPC National Population Commission NNVS Nigeria National Volunteer Service NYSC National Youth Service Corps NIDO Nigerians in the Diaspora Organization ODA Official Development Aid PRSP Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper SAP Structural Adjustment Programme TAC Technical Aid Corps UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNO United Nations Organization

Internal migration in Nigeria:A positive contribution to human development

List of tables and figures

Tables Table 1: Distribution of household population by migration status and state Table 2: Percentage distribution of the migrant population by sex and state Table 3: Percentage distribution of migrants (weighted) by the nature of their current place of residence and state: Urban-rural dynamics Table 4: Percentage age and sex distribution of internal migrants in selected states and the federal capital territory, Abuja Table 5: Percentage distribution of migrants according to reasons for migration by sex Table 6: Percentage distribution of non-migrants by literacy and sex Table 7: Percentage distribution of migrants by literacy status and sex Table 8: Percentage distribution of migrants by nature of illness by sex and type of residence Table 9: Percentage distribution of respondents according to the availability of health facilities: type, time by sex and sector Table 10: Percentage distribution of respondents according to the availability of health facilities: type, time by gender and sector Table 11: Percentage distribution of respondents according to the time taken to reach a facility Table 12: Percentage distribution of frequency of remittances to the non-migrants

Figures Figure 1: Motivation for internal migration in Nigeria Figure 2: Health care access in the selected states in Northern Nigeria (in %) Figure 3: Health care access in the selected states in Southern Nigeria (in %) Figure 4: Health care access among internal migrants in Nigeria (in %)

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Internal migration in Nigeria:A positive contribution to human development

Executive summary

Although there has been increased Through existing literature, most attention given to migration by the importantly the 2010 Internal Nigerian Government since the Migration Survey (IMS, 2010) country’s return to democracy in 1999, conducted by the National Population there has been very little concern Commission, group discussions and for internal migration. Concerns for in-depth interviews with internal migration, both in governmental migrants in twelve locations spread and academic institutions, have across Nigeria’s six geopolitical weighed heavily on international zones over a one month period (1-30 migration with a focus on issues such June 2012), this research has found as brain drain/gain, remittances and that although internal migration in diaspora organizations. The majority Nigeria may have negative impacts, of information and concerns for it is also a positive contributor to internal migration is anecdotal, and human development. As the study research findings, where they exist, has shown, internal migration in are few and outdated. In Nigeria, Nigeria dates back to the pre-colonial internal migration is discussed in the periods, in which trade and cultural literature in relation to links between practices linked the different peoples internal migration and environmental and communities. Colonial state problems, in particular urban pollution delineation, which fractured Africa and slum and ghetto development. into nation-states, commonly cut Another trend in the literature on groups into two or more. These internal migration is the rural-urban splintered subgroups continue to nexus. However, to justify these retain familial ties with their kin in and other concerns, much empirical Nigeria, and movement across porous evidence is still required. Although borders between the main and a few studies have analysed internal sub-ethnic groups is often carried out migration dynamics and challenged as if no international borders exist. some of the reasons offered in the The study also found that the average literature, one issue that is still age of most internal migrants in missing today is the impact of internal Nigeria is between 14 and 65, migration on human development. and internal migration involves This research report aims to fill the both genders. In addition, internal gap through an investigative analysis migration in Nigeria is not dependent of the impact of internal migration on education and skill, as both the on human development in selected educated and uneducated, the skilled communities in Nigeria. and unskilled migrate. Although the

xv ACP Observatory on Migration states used for this study are evenly transfer, National Youth Service selected to cover Northern and (NYSC), freedom from parents, Southern Nigeria, internal migration human trafficking, among others. in Nigeria has many, different flow As with other sources identified in patterns, and instances of movement this study, the civil service and NYSC between and within ethnic groups offer dependable data on internal exist. migration. Two generations of internal migrants Although various constraints and exist in Nigeria. The first generation peculiarities exist across the country, includes the first movers and their the study found that internal dependants, who may move with migration impacts positively upon them or join them later on. The human development in three second generation of internal key areas: increasing access to migrants includes only those who education, life expectancy and living were born in the places of destination standards. Given these, the study’s to which their parents have migrated. findings suggest that for Nigeria to A wide range of factors lead to harness the full potential of internal internal migration in Nigeria, and migration, four strategic policy- the motivations and expectations development areas are urgently of the different generations of required. These are migration and internal migrants vary and may, development, migration facilitation, sometimes, overlap. Drivers of migration regulation and migration internal migration, include economic management. reasons, educational opportunities, marriage, civil service (in-service)

xvi Internal migration in Nigeria:A positive contribution to human development

Résumé analytique

Bien que le gouvernement nigérian se il convient à présent d’analyser soit montré plus attentif au problème l’impact de la migration interne de la migration depuis le retour du sur le développement humain. Le pays à la démocratie en 1999, la présent rapport de recherche vise à question de la migration interne reste combler cette lacune par l’analyse très peu abordée. Les inquiétudes de l’impact de la migration interne exprimées par les institutions tant sur le développement humain dans gouvernementales qu’universitaires certaines collectivités au Nigeria. vis-à-vis de la migration s’intéressent L’examen de la littérature existante avant tout à la problématique de (principalement de l’Internal la migration internationale et plus Migration Survey (IMS, enquête particulièrement à la fuite / l’afflux des relative aux migrations internes, cerveaux, aux transferts de fonds et 2010) menée par la Commission aux organisations issues de la diaspora. démographique nationale, mais aussi L’essentiel des informations et des des discussions de groupe et des préoccupations liées à la migration entretiens approfondis menés avec interne est de nature anecdotique des migrants internes dans douze et les résultats des travaux de localités réparties dans les six zones recherche, quand ils existent, sont géopolitiques du Nigeria entre le 1er rares et obsolètes. Au Nigeria, la et le 30 juin 2012) a révélé que la migration interne n’est abordée dans migration interne au Nigeria pouvait la littérature qu’en fonction des liens certes avoir un impact négatif, existants entre migration interne et mais qu’elle favorisait également le problèmes environnementaux, plus développement humain. L’enquête particulièrement en rapport avec la a montré que la migration interne pollution urbaine et le développement au Nigeria remontait aux périodes des bidonvilles et des ghettos. La précoloniales, quand le commerce littérature consacrée à la migration et les pratiques culturelles reliaient interne se focalise également sur la entre eux les différents peuples et relation milieu rural/zone urbaine. collectivités. La délimitation coloniale Pour légitimer ces préoccupations, a morcelé l’Afrique en États-nations il convient donc de disposer de plus et, souvent, a fragmenté les groupes de données empiriques. Quelques ethniques ; ces sous-groupes études sur l’analyse de la dynamique maintiennent encore des liens étroits de la migration interne ont bien avec la communauté principale au contesté certaines des raisons Nigeria : les déplacements de part et invoquées dans la littérature, mais xvii ACP Observatory on Migration d’autre des frontières poreuses entre parents ont émigré. La migration groupe principal et sous-groupes interne au Nigeria est caractérisée ethniques se font souvent comme par un large éventail de facteurs ; si aucune frontière internationale pour les différentes catégories, les existait. motivations et les attentes diffèrent et parfois, se chevauchent. La migration L’étude a également révélé que l’âge interne est envisagée pour différentes moyen de la majorité des migrants raisons : motifs économiques, études, internes au Nigeria se situait entre 14 mariage, mutation dans la fonction et 65 ans et que ce type de migration publique, Brigades nationales pour concernait les deux sexes. De plus, la jeunesse (NYSC), pour s’affranchir la migration interne au Nigeria ne des parents ou encore pour le trafic dépend pas du niveau d’éducation, ni d’êtres humain. Comme les autres des qualifications ; certains migrants sources identifiées dans cette étude, sont instruits ou qualifiés, d’autres la fonction publique et les NYSC pas. Bien que les états sélectionnés constituent des sources de données pour cette étude couvrent autant fiables sur la migration interne. le Nord que le Sud du Nigeria, on constate que la migration interne En dépit des différentes contraintes et au Nigeria présente de nombreux particularités propres au pays, l’étude schémas migratoires différents et a révélé que la migration interne que des déplacements ont lieu entre exerçait une influence positive sur différents groupes ethniques ou au le développement humain dans sein d’un même groupe. trois domaines clés : elle assure un meilleur accès à l’éducation, une On distingue deux catégories de augmentation de l’espérance de vie migrants internes au Nigeria : la et l’amélioration du niveau de vie. première se compose des précurseurs, À la lumière de ce constat et afin c’est-à-dire des premiers migrants, d’exploiter pleinement le potentiel de et des personnes à leur charge qui la migration interne au Nigeria, il est se déplacent avec le migrant ou le urgent d’élaborer quatre domaines rejoignent ultérieurement sur le lieu stratégiques de développement : de destination ; la deuxième catégorie migration et développement, de migrants internes concerne facilitation de la migration, régulation uniquement les migrants qui sont nés du phénomène migratoire et gestion dans le lieu de destination où leurs de la migration.

xviii Internal migration in Nigeria:A positive contribution to human development

Resumo executivo

Embora se tenha vindo a verificar um interna no desenvolvimento humano. aumento da atenção prestada pelo O presente relatório de investigação governo nigeriano à migração desde tem por objectivo colmatar essa o regresso do país à democracia lacuna, através de uma análise em 1999, tem havido muito pouca investigatória do impacto da migração preocupação com a migração interna. interna no desenvolvimento humano Preocupações face à migração, em comunidades seleccionadas da tanto em sede de instituições Nigéria. governamentais como académicas, Através da literatura existente, incidiram fortemente na migração com preponderância, o Estudo de internacional, com um enfoque em Migração Interna de 2010 (IMS 2010) questões como a fuga/aquisição de realizado pela Comissão Nacional de cérebros, remessas e organizações na População; discussões de grupo e diáspora. A maioria das informações entrevistas exaustivas com migrantes e preocupações em torno da internos de doze locais espalhados migração interna são esporádicas, pelas seis zonas geopolíticas da e os resultados das investigações Nigéria, ao longo do período de desenvolvidas, sempre que existentes, um mês (1-30 Junho de 2012), este são escassas e desactualizadas. trabalho de investigação apurou que Na Nigéria, a migração interna é embora a migração interna na Nigéria debatida na literatura no âmbito possa ter o seu impacto negativo, é, das ligações entre migração interna no entanto, um contributo positivo e problemas ambientais, mais para o desenvolvimento humano. especificamente, a poluição urbana Tal como o estudo demonstrou, a e o desenvolvimento de bairros migração interna na Nigéria remonta de lata e guetos. Outra tendência aos períodos pré-coloniais, nos quais presente na literatura sobre migração as práticas comerciais e culturais interna é o nexo rural-urbano. No ligavam os diferentes povos e entanto, para justificar estas e outras comunidades. O delineamento do preocupações, são ainda necessárias Estado colonial, que fracturou África muitas evidências empíricas. Apesar em Estados-nação, dividiu na maioria de alguns estudos que analisaram das vezes os grupos em dois ou mais, a dinâmica de migração interna e esses subgrupos desagregados terem desafiado algumas das razões mantêm actualmente laços familiares invocadas na literatura, uma questão com os parentes na Nigéria, sendo que que continua ainda hoje a estar o movimento através de fronteiras ausente é o impacto da migração xix ACP Observatory on Migration permeáveis entre os grupos principal subjacentes à migração interna e sub-étnico frequentemente decorre na Nigéria e, relativamente às como se não existisse uma fronteira distintas categorias, as motivações internacional. e as expectativas são diferentes, podendo, por vezes, sobrepor-se. De O estudo apurou ainda que a média acordo com as conclusões do estudo, de idade da maioria dos migrantes incluem-se entre as motivações da internos na Nigéria se situa entre os migração interna, razões económicas, 14 e os 65 anos, e que a migração educação, casamento, transferência interna abrange ambos os sexos. de serviço civil (serviço interno), Além disso, a migração interna na o National Youth Service (NYSC), Nigéria não depende do grau de vontade de libertação dos pais, instrução e qualificações, já que tráfico humano, entre outros. Tal tanto os indivíduos com instrução e como outras fontes identificadas sem, qualificados ou não, migraram. neste estudo, o serviço civil e o NYSC Embora os estados sobre os quais apresentam-se como fontes de dados este estudo se debruça sejam fiáveis sobre migração interna. uniformemente seleccionados para abranger o norte e o sul da Nigéria, Embora existam diversas limitações a migração interna na Nigéria e peculiaridades em todo o país, o apresenta padrões de fluxo e tipos de estudo constatou, contudo, que a movimento muito diferentes entre e migração interna tem um impacto no interior dos grupos étnicos. positivo no desenvolvimento humano em três áreas fundamentais: aumento O autor defendeu que existem na do acesso à educação, expectativa de Nigéria duas categorias de migrantes vida e padrão de vida. Em virtude internos. A primeira categoria, do mesmo, as conclusões do estudo que incluía os que primeiro se indicam que para que a Nigéria possa deslocaram e seus dependentes, aproveitar plenamente o potencial da que se poderão deslocar com eles migração interna, são urgentemente ou se poderão vir a juntar a eles em necessárias quatro áreas estratégicas determinados destinos, numa data de desenvolvimento de políticas. Estas posterior, e a segunda categoria de são a migração e o desenvolvimento, migrantes internos, que descreve a facilitação da migração, a regulação exclusivamente os que nasceram da migração e a gestão da migração. onde os país tiveram emigraramo. Há toda uma vasta série de factores

xx Internal migration in Nigeria:A positive contribution to human development

1. Introduction and background

1.1 Introduction Given the above conceptualization of internal migration, the movement, Internal migration, defined as ‘a especially of members of sub-ethnic movement of people from one area groups that may have been grouped of a country [especially one local with other ethnic groups to form government area] to another area a nation-state during the colonial of the same country for the purpose rule, into their main ethnic group or with the effect of establishing in another country is considered a new residence’ (IOM, 2011 as to be international migration. This recommended in ACP Observatory is in spite of the fact that to such Research Guide, 2011a) either people, no international migration temporarily or permanently, is a had occurred. Besides familial ties, complex and multidimensional Africa’s porous borders, linguistic process. With more than 140 million and cultural similarities, among people (NPC, 2012c) and a growth others, have ensured that these rate estimated at 2.5 per cent in 2010, splintered subgroups moved across Nigeria has a high urban growth rate borders as if no international (UNPD 2010). This urban growth, borders exist. Given these factors, estimated at 3.84 per cent for the this intra-ethnic migration, on which period 2005–2010 (UNPD, 2009), not much has been written, imposes cannot be dissociated from migration, considerable difficulties in identifying especially internal migration. and distinguishing ‘international Human development defined by migrants’ entering Nigeria to reunite the United Nations Development with familial or ethnic relations from Programme (UNDP) (2010) and Nigerian nationals, including ‘internal adopted by the ACP Observatory migrants’. as a process of enlarging people’s Although this study recognizes choices, entails two important the considerable importance of things: expanding human capabilities intra-ethnic movement – movement and functionings. To attain any of of the aforementioned splintered these, UNDP suggested three steps: sub-ethnic groups from their ‘new leading long and healthy lives, being nation-states’ into Nigeria, where knowledgeable and having a decent their main ethnic group is found, standard of living (UNDP in ACP it focuses exclusively on internal Observatory on Migration, 2011: 10). movement within Nigeria. In order This study, conducted across Nigeria to do this effectively, the internal over a four-week period, showed that migrants interviewed for this report internal migration is vital to attaining were asked about their ethnic origin, these objectives. 1 ACP Observatory on Migration and interviews and discussions were problems. However, as findings from held solely with those who could this study have shown, the histories be recognized and identified as of the different pre-independence Nigerians. groups in what later became known as Nigeria can only be told in The study, divided into four chapters, relation to migration. North-South used the 2010 Internal Migration and South-North internal migration Survey (IMS, 2010) produced by of Nigerians followed colonial Nigeria’s National Population construction of transportation Commission, as a benchmark. It networks, notably road and rail aims primarily at filling gaps noted systems. These developments not just in the IMS 2010, but also in road and rail construction, as in previous studies on internal Coleman (1971) noted, stimulated migration. Common to both the IMS unprecedented socioeconomic and 2010 and existing literature is the political developments in Nigeria, as contention that internal migration well as North-South labour migration, is both an economic planning and as new employment opportunities environmental failure. However, developed in the urban centres findings from this study indicate of Lagos – Abeokuta and Ibadan – otherwise. To do this, the study where colonial administration and examines the impact of internal trading firms set up their offices. migration on human development in The establishment of tin and coal Nigeria. While chapter one outlines mines in Jos and Enugu respectively the major focus of the study, chapter stimulated South-North, North-East two reviews the existing literature. and West-East labour migrations. Chapter three presents, discusses and This opening up of Nigeria’s economy analyses data obtained from the field not only stimulated an intra-Nigerian while chapter four concludes and movement of people, merchandise suggests policy recommendations on and ideas; but also movement of how Nigeria could harness its internal non-Nigerians (Africans, Asians migration potential. and Europeans) into Nigeria and Nigerians into other places. As the literature has shown, although 1.2 Background these migration dynamics were Many policymakers continue to doubt clear enough at this early stage, not that the movement is a good thing, much of their dynamics featured in which is one reason why migration is (national and regional) development still very regulated, while goods and planning. However, as this study has services can cross borders without found, migration, especially internal

2 Internal migration in Nigeria:A positive contribution to human development migration, can be vital to human in the IMS 2010, is nevertheless far development, poverty eradication from being absolute, as most of its and national integration. data are either obsolete or too few From independence in 1960 to the oil to make any appreciable impact on boom of the 1970s, internal migration policy formulation. Consequently, flows were stimulated by economic not much of Nigeria’s internal growth and recession, displacement migration dynamics have featured and ethnic conflicts. Beginning with in policy formulation and national the Civil War, which uprooted Igbo development plans. What then, is traders and other non-Hausa-Fulani the nexus between internal migration people from Northern Nigeria; and human development? civil strife between Ife-Modakeke, As shown in the IMS 2010 and existing Umuleri-Aguleri, Izon-Urhobo, literature, at the base of Nigeria’s Urhobo-Itsekiri and others across population pyramid are 45 per cent of Nigeria have led to population its people aged between 14 and 35. dislocation. Military and democratic This huge number formed a critical rule have also stimulated migration. mass of the country’s unemployed In most cases, people migrated to population. Many Nigerians have areas where economic opportunities emigrated abroad for employment and peaceful living existed. In the opportunities, for example, Yoruba 1980s, as shown in chapter two, traders in Treichville (Abidjan, Côte structural adjustment programmes d’Ivoire), Igbo spare-part dealers and economic recession stimulated in Douala (Cameroun), as well as (labour) migration from rural to urban thousands of travelling cotton pickers and urban to rural areas in Nigeria, in South Sudan. , Many more were as well as migration to and from caught in the midst of social unrest neighbouring West African nations. in South Africa (in 2009), and scores Although rural-urban migration, were trapped in the wave of the Arab urban-urban migration, urban-rural Spring, during which the International and rural-rural migration, as well Organization for Migration (IOM) as the migration of other African had to help repatriate about 6,000 1. However, migration countries’ nationals into Nigeria and Nigerians movements in Nigeria are not solely the emigration of Nigerians to other directed abroad. In fact, considerably African nations, have all featured larger numbers are internal migrants in the literature, no reliable data from different parts of Nigeria and exists on migration flows within and outside Nigeria until fairly recently. 1 Temitayo Famutimi, “IOM Evacuates 326 The recent effort, which culminated Nigerians from Libya”, Punch (Newspaper), 15 July 2012. 3 ACP Observatory on Migration others from different parts of West and rural areas. These hordes of Africa who migrated to different labour migrants, whether Nigerians parts of Nigeria for economic and or inter-ethnic group migrants from other reasons. Many Hausa-Fulani neighbouring West African states, communities are in Southern Nigeria, are pivotal not just to their home just as many Southern Nigerians live communities where, among other in Northern Nigeria. Many Yoruba things, regular remittances are sent, and Igbo are in different cities in but also their host communities Northern and Central Nigeria, just where they ply their trades and as Northerners abound in different market their skills. parts of Southern Nigeria, engaging In its latest reports, Nigeria ranked in various business activities. In 5th among the highest remittance- Sagamu and Ile-Ife (in Ogun and receiving nations in the world with Osun), hundreds of Hausa-Fulani a total of 21 billion US dollars for the daily engage in the kola nut trade year 2012 (World Bank, 2012b). The just as thousands of Yorùbá people nation’s remittance regime for 2012 dominated trade in Jos, Kaduna and therefore doubled the 2008 figure of Kano. In different parts of Nigeria, the USD 10 billion, and is higher than the Hausa-Fulani dominate the irregular total Official Development Aid (ODA) trade in foreign exchange whereas to sub-Saharan Africa for 2010, which the Benin people, among many stood at USD 20.5 billion (World Bank, others from the Edo, Delta and Benue 2011b: 50). These do not include States, dominate the sex trade across monetary inflows through informal cities in Nigeria. In the same vein, and unregulated channels. In fact, thousands from North and Central remittances sent by Nigerian migrants Nigeria live in different parts of are believed to be about five times Southern Nigeria working as domestic higher than the Official Development workers, gatemen (locally called Aid (ODA) directed to the country Mai-Guard) and farm-labourers. (Adepoju, 2004: 17). Undoubtedly, Deregulation and privatization the effect of international migration have also led to the movement of is not limited to remittances and cash skilled manpower across Nigeria. flow alone, as it includes a wide range For instance, the Global System for of development issues – governance Mobile Communication (GSM) and and legal protection, employment banking operations in Nigeria have and social protection, health services brought hundreds of skilled and and education, tertiary education, technical personnel from one part of knowledge and skill development, Nigeria to another. These people are economic growth, financial services negotiating a living in Nigeria’s urban and growth, trade, agriculture and 4 Internal migration in Nigeria:A positive contribution to human development rural development, infrastructure which was proposed in 2010 but is and environment among others yet to take off, among others, signal (IOM, 2010). Also equal to these is a fascination with international migration’s negative impacts – such as migration at the expense of internal prostitution, as the case of Benin girls migration in government circles in in Italy makes clear: the transmission Nigeria. This is rather unfortunate, as of diseases such as HIV/AIDS. From it raises important questions about the above, it can be argued that policymakers’ understanding of the migration, whether international place of migration, notably internal or internal, has both negative and migration, in human, economic and positive impacts. national development. Based on the previous remarks, it can Currently Nigeria lacks any be argued that while data exist on coordinated policy on internal the impact of international migration, mobility that can ensure that the notably in the form of remittance- nation harnesses the potential sending to Nigeria, neither the inherent in internal migration. The existing literature nor the IMS 2010 data collected in the IMS 2010 was could tell us anything about, for an important step. Yet the lack of instance, remittances from internal a coordinated policy framework migrants in Nigeria. This is despite the signifies a serious and pressing danger fact that banks in Nigeria have local for trade, the exchange of ideas products that focus on local fund and intra-ethnic relations among transfers. Can we then adduce this the constituent ethnic groups that lack of data on internal migration’s comprise the nation. It also impacts, impact on human development in albeit negatively, on indigenization Nigeria to a mis-diagnosis or a true and residency, as the ongoing debacle lack of impact on Nigerians? in Plateau State shows, notably in Jos where the native-settler dichotomy As this study aims to show, the has made life brutish and short as impact of internal migration goes contending parties daily maim, burn, beyond remittances, as it also creates destroy and kill one another. It is in employment and the exchange of order to ameliorate these and other skills, ideas and culture, as well as anomalies that this study examines other gains associated with living the impact of migration, especially abroad. However, the establishment internal migration, on human of the Nigeria National Volunteer development in Nigeria. Service (NNVS) in 2002, the Nigerians in the Diaspora Organization (NIDO) in 2000 and the Diaspora Commission,

5 ACP Observatory on Migration

1.3 Research methodology to understand its internal migration The overall objective of this study patterns and to identify its dynamic is to enhance the capability of the characteristics and contribution to Government of Nigeria to understand human development efforts. Overall, and harness the potential of internal a better understanding of the internal migration in Nigeria. Further to this, migration trajectories within the the objective includes the need to country is hoped to assist policymakers provide a better understanding of the in designing development policies internal migration trajectories within and programmes. the nation: their dynamics, patterns This study combines quantitative data and characteristics. sets obtained from the 2010 Internal In addition, the study examines the Migration Survey (IMS, 2010) with contributions of internal migration qualitative data and insights obtained to Nigeria’s sociocultural, economic from focus-group discussions, key and political development. The informant interviews and existing study also examines how existing literature. The IMS 2010 used a policy frameworks and structures systematic sampling procedure, which cater for internal migrants. Like involves household surveys in census their counterparts in the Northern enumeration areas (EAs) for sampling and Southern hemispheres, how the respondents, which covered do we measure internal migration’s all the 36 states of the Federation net contributions to Nigeria’s total and the Federal Capital Territory gross domestic product (GDP)? (FCT). The survey, besides providing Contributions include remittances; baseline data on internal migration employment generation; investment, in Nigeria, focused on migrants, both in places of temporary settlement non-migrants and return migrants in and in home communities; scholarship 30 clusters (15 urban and 15 rural) in schemes and medical/humanitarian each state. These totalled 110 clusters missions, among others, which were nationwide. In both urban and rural set up and/or embarked upon and areas, a total of 11,100 internal executed by various individuals, migrants, 11,100 non-migrants and groups of individuals, associations all return migrants formed the core and organizations. It is believed that of the sample population used for the improved and systematic insight into national survey. Insights from existing Nigeria’s complete internal migration literature, focus-group discussions trajectory would help the nation in (FGDs) and key informant interviews developing a holistic programmatic (KIIs), which were conducted and policy framework on internal among purposively selected migration. It will also help the country internal migrants from the National Population Commission’s (NPC) 6 Internal migration in Nigeria:A positive contribution to human development delineated census enumeration areas through which internal migrants could in Ibadan (Oyo State), Lagos (Lagos be separated from non-migrants State), Yenagoa (Bayelsa State), Port and also because (ii) they lack easily Harcourt (Cross River State), Abuja recognizable physical or geographical (Federal Capital Territory), Ilorin boundaries. For these reasons, the (Kwara State), Kaduna (Kaduna State), NPC enumeration areas have the Kano (Kano State), Gombe (Gombe advantage and, hence, were used for State), Yola (Adamawa State), the focus-group discussions and key Umuahia (Abia State) and Awka informant interviews. (Anambra State) were combined with To generate qualitative data and data sets obtained from the IMS 2010 insights from the FGDs and KIIs, to arrive at the various conclusions internal migrants from enumeration and recommendations in this report. areas in each of the cities and states These enumeration areas are already were selected from areas where carved, easily recognizable areas internal inbound migrants are based. with geographical units having a For instance, in Oyo and Lagos, as in population size of between 400 and other parts of the country, the FGDs 650 people. In Nigeria, there are and KIIs were conducted in the Sabo about 200,000 census enumeration and Ojoo areas of Ibadan (both in Oyo areas. Among many others, the State) and in Sabo, Agege, Oko-Oba Federal Office of Statistics and the and Mile 12 in Lagos State. In these, as Ministry of Health have used these in all enumeration areas used for this enumeration areas for sampling and study, respondents were asked about for conducting national surveys. their ethnicity and residency. In this Quantitative data can be obtained way, respondents are determined by from the questionnaires that their ethnic composition. In addition formed the basis of the surveys. The to this selection method; ethnic, alternative to this are the electoral social and religious associations that wards’ boundaries of the Independent were exclusively set up by internal National Electoral Commission migrants in these enumeration areas (INEC), which, like the enumeration were identified and KIIs and FGDs areas, are also the smallest electoral were carried out among selected units, used to locate polling booths members of these associations and in local government areas. These can groups. In this way, the study was also be used to draw respondents able to sort out internal migrants and make aggregations for, among from among the general population other things, research purposes. In purely along ethnic lines. Responses this study, INEC wards prove to be and respondents for the KIIs and largely unusable because (i) they lack FGDs were solicited after this easily recognizable defining features disaggregation. 7 ACP Observatory on Migration

These two approaches – FGDs and these states, the author concentrated KIIs – were used to complement only on enumeration areas with a high both the IMS 2010 quantitative data internal-migrant population density. and existing literature. In addition to Although this rather small sample the above, this study also combines may not be representative of what personal/participants’ observations goes on in the entire country, it does with the questionnaire methods to give a snapshot view of the situations weave a narrative on the impact of within the different sections of the international migration on human country. This is because the states development in Nigeria. In general, cover the six geopolitical divisions the study focused on the dynamics of the country. In other words, while of internal migration as well as how the sample allows the author to internal migration contributed to cover the entire country and focus human development using three exclusively on internal migrants, the basic variables: education, life sample size for the KIIs and FGDs expectancy and standard of living. is not representative enough for a country such as Nigeria. However, in view of resource availability – 1.3.1 Study areas and research personnel and financial – the author techniques ensured equity in the areas covered Due to its diversities and by focusing on two states in each of heterogeneous nature, it is the six geopolitical zones. impossible to examine Nigeria as a The table below presents household whole. Hence, respondents were distribution by migration status in the purposively drawn from Ibadan (Oyo selected states. State), Lagos (Lagos State), Yenagoa (Bayelsa State), Port Harcourt (Cross River State), Abuja (Federal Capital Territory), Ilorin (Kwara State), Kaduna (Kaduna State), Kano (Kano State), Gombe (Gombe State), Yola (Adamawa State), Umuahia (Abia State) and Awka (Anambra State). In

8 Internal migration in Nigeria:A positive contribution to human development

Table 1: Distribution of household population by migration status and states Migrant Non-migrant Return- Total Total State (in %) (in %) migrant (in %) (in %) Number Abuja (FCT) 30.8 68.4 0.8 100.0 2,356 Abia 44.4 51.3 4.3 100.0 2,178 Adamawa 25.0 73.0 1.9 100.0 1,873 Anambra 38.4 55.6 6.0 100.0 1,307 Bayelsa 42.9 56.9 0.3 100.0 3,010 Cross River 32.0 65.1 2.8 100.0 2,357 Gombe 10.5 88.1 1.4 100.0 4,608 Kaduna 24.4 73.7 1.9 100.0 2,176 Kano 21.3 77.4 1.3 100.0 4,142 Kwara 28.0 71.7 0.3 100.0 2,880 Lagos 36.4 59.9 3.7 100.0 1,455 Oyo 31.0 67.5 1.5 100.0 2,390 Source: Extracted from the National Population Commission, National Internal Migration Survey 2010. From the table above, the numbers internal migration on education, life of internal migrants present in expectancy and standard of living. states across Nigeria differs greatly. Insights generated from the existing Irrespective of the differences in literature, the IMS 2010, KIIs and the numbers of internal migrants FGDs are presented in chapter three in these states, (24) FGDs and over of this final report. 250 KIIs were organized in each of the twelve states. In each of the FGD clusters, there were 10 individuals; 1.3.2 Key variables thereby making a total of 240 internal migrants per FGD in each state and a As a standard measurement and net total of 490 respondents per state as noted by the UNDP and cited in and a total of 5,880 people across IOM’s 2010 Nigeria: Country Profile, Nigeria. Informants for the KIIs were human development is measured randomly selected while for the FGDs, based on three criteria – education, informants were purposively selected life expectancy and standard of among migrant groups and opinion living (UNDP, 2010). Education, as leaders (where such existed). In a variable, is measured, on the one both the KIIs and FGDs, the research hand as a subset of access and school focused primarily on the impact of enrolment and, on the other hand as 9 ACP Observatory on Migration a subset of adult literacy. In this study, of lives and property, (e) a clean the author examined how internal environment, (f) adopting of healthy migration has provided, increased habits and (g) other essentials to life. or otherwise affected access to This study draws out how internal education both in internal migrants’ migration increases or decreases places of origin and their destinations. access to the aforementioned criteria Primary to the above is the need to both for the migrants and their know how migration increased access dependants, whether at destination to education. As the study showed, or source areas. Intrinsic to the above this could entail migrants sending is the need to know if migration money home to fund their wards and increases (or decreases) migrants’ children’s education or contributing life expectancies; whether or not the to the educational development decision to migrate was premised on of others whether in their places the need to live a better and more of origin or places of residence. fulfilling life. In the case of a refugee The development implications of situation, how has internal migration internal mobility could also occur ensured a better life? The questions through community projects such here focused more on how migration as buildings for schools, donating to has either increased or decreased schools, donating to libraries or any longevity. Where migrants come other educational purposes. Here, from areas where there is no access the research paid specific attention to health care, where maternal to the different ways through which mortality is high, where there is migrants contribute to (a) their own educational development; (b) those no access to potable water, where of others; and, on some occasions, sanitary toilets, clean environment (c) if the need for education and so on are lacking, life expectancy underscored migration in the first will be low, as life-threatening place. Also crucial to the above is diseases and conditions capable of whether or not migrants became leading to early death will abound. ‘educated’ (adult literacy) as a How has migration increased access result of migration or in the process to all these essentials of life? It is of migration. Does the need for believed that if all these are present in education play any role in the decision their places of residence or places of to migrate? The same applies to adult temporary residence, then migrants literacy. will live longer.

The standard measurement for Regarding the standard of living, the life expectancy includes access to study is concerned with how internal good and affordable (a) health care, migration contributed to people’s (b) food, (c) shelter, (d) security accumulation of wealth, change in 10 Internal migration in Nigeria:A positive contribution to human development status, contributions to their home migration in Nigeria has followed four communities and places of temporary different trajectories: rural-urban, residences through projects such as urban-rural, urban-urban and personal houses, care for parents rural-rural. Finally, the study contends and loved ones, remittances to that internal migration increases home or source areas for funding and enriches not just the migrants, children’s education, providing but also their dependants and hosts empowerment for younger ones, in three critical areas – access to wives and siblings. How has internal education, increase in life expectancy migration provided jobs for internal and an increase in the standard of migrants? As seen in the chapter on living. the literature review below, studies have shown that remittances from international migration may increase the development of non-farming 1.5 Conclusion activities in rural communities and From the above, internal migration is lead to further migration. How then, in an age-old phenomenon and, as such, the case of internal migration, has this its contributions to human society mobility within borders contributed deserve closer study, especially in to increasing the living standards of a large and populous nation like not just internal migrants but also Nigeria. In the succeeding chapters, their dependants? In general, how we examine migratory trends and does internal migration contribute to, patterns, as well as their impact on more importantly, a better standard human development. of living for Nigerians?

1.4 Hypothesis This study hypothesizes that internal migration in Nigeria was heightened by uneven development in education, economy, and social and infrastructural sectors along its regions. Equally, it presupposes that these lopsided developments caused situations whereby men and women, irrespective of age and region, moved from one area to another where their basic needs of life could be best achieved. Invariably, internal 11

Internal migration in Nigeria:A positive contribution to human development

2. Literature review

2.1 Introduction across local government areas, but also that such movement must have Although no universally accepted lasted for a period of not less than definition of internal migration six months (NPC, 2012b). In some currently exists, the consensual other literature (Bilsborrow, 1987; definition of internal migration is any 1992; Kingsley, 1974), a time frame of temporary or permanent movement between ten days and three months, of people from one area of a country as well as any location whether or to another area of the same country not such location lies within the same for the purpose, or with the effect of, local government area as the place of establishing a new residence (ACP habitual residence or not, have been Observatory on Migration, 2011: 5; suggested. Kok, 1999:19). Defined in this way, an internally displaced person (IDP), a In this study, the author argues that transferred civil servant or a Nigerian internal migration, conceived as it is university graduate who is deployed in the literature, takes no notice of by the National Youth Service Corps Africa’s peculiar history. As shall be (NYSC) to serve the nation in a place shown shortly, a critical component other than his or her place of habitual of colonial rule is the need to define residence is also an internal migrant. and delineate the colonized peoples. Besides a lack of consensus on the In Africa, the European powers definition, controversies also exist on therefore splintered ethnic groups in the length or duration of the migrants’ Africa into subgroups, and some of stay and the distance between the these splintered groups were grouped place of habitual residence and host with others to form new nation-states. location. For instance, a number Because the colonially created of studies maintained that such African states are not successors movement must have occurred within of their pre-colonial counterparts, the last six months and must have sub-ethnic groups still retain familial originated from one local government ties with their kin in their ‘old states,’ area to another (Afolayan et al., 2008: and movement across Africa’s porous 2). Nigeria’s National Population borders between the main and Commission in its 2010 Population sub-ethnic groups is often carried out Estimation Survey on Internal as if no international borders exist. Migration in Nigeria (IMS, 2010) not Any definition of internal migration only defined internal migration as any that takes no notice of this category change of residence that has taken of movement, especially where place within national borders and splintered groups share borders 13 ACP Observatory on Migration with their main groups in other shows the concerns of authors and nation-states, is too generalistic of organizations over the years as well the African situation. as the various achievements and gaps in migration studies. The review ends Although migration studies, as an by drawing out gaps in the literature area of serious study and as a policy as well as setting a new research and field, developed a little late in Nigeria, policy agenda for further migration the literature on migration in Nigeria research, not just in Nigeria but showed that migration is not a new across Africa and beyond. phenomenon, as the histories of the different ethnic groups cannot be told except in relation to migration. 2.2 Pre-colonial migration While this review is not a tour de trajectories horizon of migration literature As studies on Nigeria have shown, in Nigeria and Africa, it must the histories of the different ethnic be admitted that the literature, groups that constitute contemporary generated as it were by academic Nigeria are histories of movements scholars and students in the form of and counter-movements. The theses, dissertations, monographs, Yorùbá people were believed to books and journal articles, as well have ‘dispersed’ from somewhere as by governmental organizations, in the Middle East (Arabia) to Ile-Ife, non-governmental organizations and from where they further migrated development agencies in the form of to other Yorùbá villages, towns and reports, country-specific studies and cities (Johnson, 1920). The Binis were occasional publications, has been believed to be a sub-ethnic group enormous, massive and breathtaking. of the Yorùbá who migrated from However, this avalanche of literature Ile-Ife; while the Itsekiri, Urhobo and focused more on international others around the Niger-Delta have migration than internal migration. To been traced to Edo and Awka, among review internal migration literature, other places (Davidson, 1965). The this review essentially concentrated Bayajjida story, which chronicled on themes rather than chronology, the origin of the Hausa states of the issues rather than authors. In Sudan, is also a story of migration, addition, the review is divided into with Bayajjida described as a Prince three time periods: pre-colonial, from Baghdad who settled in Daura. colonial and post-colonial. Done in His offspring were the founders of this way, the review is able to show, other Hausa states (Davidson, 1965). in sharp relief, that migration has Sarkins and Emirs in these Hausa a long antiquity in Nigeria. It also states were also reputed for sending 14 Internal migration in Nigeria:A positive contribution to human development their wards and children to different peoples enslaving and depopulating centres of Islamic and Arabic training (by killing and selling as slaves) their in Sokoto, Kano and Ilorin, as well Igbo and Ibibio neighbours, thousands as to Mali, Songhai, Istanbul and were forced to flee into the forests. others (Lovejoy, 1980). Evidence also Many of the captured ones were abounds of long-distance merchants sold as slaves and were consequently from Central and Western Nigeria taken to Calabar, Badagry and Elmina who not only traded with others in (in Ghana) before being transported Kano and Sokoto, but also across the across the Atlantic to Europe and Sahara with Libya, Morocco and Egypt the New World (Lovejoy, 1978: (Lovejoy, 1980). The use of cavalry 341-368). The Hausa-Fulani predated in the nineteenth century Yorùbá their neighbours around Central Civil War, for instance, has also been Nigeria and sold scores as slaves to traced to the movements of men, traders from the Maghreb who later merchandise and ideas from Northern transferred their human goods across Nigeria (Ajayi and Smith, 1971: the desert to North Africa, the Middle 124-125). The ignoble trade in slaves, East and Asia (Davidson, 1965). Many especially the predation of the Igbo more escaped enslavement by fleeing and Ibibio areas by Itsekiri, Urhobo into Yorubaland. Attempts to end the and Efik, led to the displacement trade in slaves, which brought Christian of thousands of Igbo and Ibibio missionaries from Sierra Leone and peoples who fled into the forests to Brazil effectively into Badagry, Lagos escape capture and enslavement, and and Abeokuta and ushered in an era also to the forceful (international) of migration-inducing relationships emigration of Igbo and Ibibio peoples between the different groups in (Davidson, 1965). Clapperton, one of Nigeria and between Nigeria and the earliest Europeans to visit Nigeria, Europe, originally led to a new maintained that as early as the 1830s, layer of migration. With the British herders from Sokoto were destroying Navy dominating and preventing farm products in Ancient Oyo and slavers’ ships from sailing across the rather large fights were recorded international waters, enslaved people (Lander, 1830: 46-47). from Northern and central parts of Nigeria were exchanged domestically In addition, contacts between different as slaves in Yorubaland, for instance. Nigerian groups with outsiders, first These men and women served in through trade (including the ignoble their ‘new homes’ until 1893 when trade in slaves), and later through colonial rule outlawed the holding the world religions and colonialism, of domestic slaves anywhere in imposed new layers of migration on Nigerians. With the Niger-Delta Yorubaland (Oyeniyi, 2010a). 15 ACP Observatory on Migration

These pre-colonial polities had no contemporary migration trajectories fixed geographical boundaries, as and the literature noted the the literature has demonstrated. following forms of intragroup and Although lacking physical boundaries, intergroup migrations: temporary cultural borders like languages, and permanent migration, step and customs and ethno-national identities circular migration, displacement of different kinds, did exist. These and the refugee situation as well as cultural borders were, however, permanent return. shared (Oyeniyi, 2010a). Being shared, A cursory look at the histories of ideals such as intergroup marriages, nations in Africa reveals that African intercommunicable languages, trade relations and religions served as states, Balkanized by their erstwhile effective instruments for migration colonial masters into many different (Oyeniyi, 2012b). nations, which were, for the most part, without respect for pre-colonial The relative absence of physical existing cultural complementarities borders in pre-colonial Nigerian that served as demarcations, simply polities makes it difficult to situate confound all existing definitions of pre-colonial migration trajectories migration. Although fractured to between the two migration suit European colonial advantages, dichotomies – internal and groups in Africa have since refused international migrations. However, to relinquish their erstwhile two categories of pre-colonial pre-colonial group dynamics and migration that have been recognized indigenous structures. State and local in the literature are intragroup and government area creation also fall into intergroup migrations (Ikime, 1985: this categorization. For instance, the 1-35). These two categories, although similar to internal and international Igbomina of Kwara are separated from migrations, differ markedly from their folks in Osun; Ibarapa people contemporary understanding of are split between Oyo and Ogun just internal and international migration, as some other Yoruba peoples are as the fluid nature of movements separated from Kogi and Kwara States and interrelationships between and are now regarded as part of Niger pre-colonial groups skewed the lines State. Similarly, the Ketu people in separating internal from international the Republic of Benin are separated migration, as understood in from their Yorùbá kin of Southwest contemporary terms. Nigeria. In addition to artificially created colonial nation-states, Despite the above, the two post-independence states and local categories of migration also government council area creations manifested features associated with

16 Internal migration in Nigeria:A positive contribution to human development are fracturing groups even more and conceptualization, amount to internal these layers of dismemberment are movement of Yorùbá people within drivers for intergroup movements. Yorubaland. This complex societal structure, From the pre-colonial Hausa tradition especially the non-existing border of equalizing growth and manhood system within and among ethnic with having travelled to the coast in groups, is being erroneously Lagos and the sheer fact that by the described as ‘porous borders,’ In 1830s, a strong and vibrant Hausa addition, the refusal by people to community had been established at respect artificially created borders or Iraye Quarters in Ile-Ife, the famed obey laws guiding movements across cradle of the Yoruba race, to the borders is often viewed from outside excavation of Ife art forms in places the context of the specific African like Nupeland and Sokoto and the intra and intergroup relation systems. numerous trips by Itsekiri traders to the shrines of Ibini Ukpabi, the Long Given the above, this study Juju of Arochukwu and numerous proposes one of two things: either other examples, we now know that a re-conceptualization of what migration was not just an important constitutes internal migration in component of pre-colonial Nigerian order to adequately capture the polities, but it also constituted what aforementioned complexities, or an has been called ‘cultures of migration’ introduction of a third category of in pre-colonial Nigeria, as in other migration – intergroup or intragroup parts of Africa (Davidson, 1965, migration. By intergroup migration, Akinjogbin, 1985, Hans Peter Hahn we describe any movement of and Georg Klute, 2007). members of a particular ethnic group to another ethnic group, not minding if this is within a local government 2.3 Colonial migration council area, state or nation. Defined trajectories in this way, the movement of Yorùbá people from Nigeria to Ketuland, As the above has shown, migration another Yorùbá people in the featured prominently in Nigeria’s Republic of Benin, will be separated pre-colonial polities. However, as from the international migration of, a component of social change, the for example, any non-Yorùbá people first official mention of migration of Nigeria to Ketuland or anywhere in in Nigeria’s colonial history was in a the Republic of Benin. For the Yorùbá 1943 memo where Mr. E.A. Miller, people, movement to Ketuland in the Commissioner for Labour, noted that Republic of Benin will, from this new ‘… the move to the cities had begun 17 ACP Observatory on Migration and already is presenting difficulties who settled and opened shops of control and distribution’ (quoted in in and around Lagos, Abeokuta, Oyeniyi, 2010: 57). Serving as impetus Ibadan and other Nigerian cities. to migration during the colonial The development stimulated both period were two world religions (Islam inter- and intragroup migration in and Christianity), colonialism2 and the same way as the introduction of Western education, which was born export crops such as cocoa, coffee, of both Christianity and colonialism. cotton and rubber stimulated trade Through their inherent administrative relations between groups across authorities, the world religions were Nigeria. As Coleman argued, the posting preachers and teachers, developments associated with tin imams and pastors from one location mining in Jos stimulated movements to another, which were in most cases of young, able-bodied men from from urban to rural areas. In this Eastern and Western Nigeria to Jos way, Islam and Christianity, in trying in much the same way as coal mining to create disciples for their religions in Enugu stimulated movement from and educating these disciples, Northern Nigeria to Eastern Nigeria inadvertently introduced a migration (Coleman, 1986). Oyeniyi (2010a) trajectory that oscillated between noted the role played by internal urban-rural and rural-urban areas. migrants’ labour in post-conflict While religions foster urban-rural reconstruction in Yorubaland after movement, western education the nineteenth-century Yorùbá Civil created movement from rural to Wars, while Falola (1985) attributed urban centres, where the earliest the origin and growth of some Yorùbá educational institutions were seated cities, especially Ibadan, to labour of (Coleman, 1986). both intra and intergroup migrants. In general, Oyeniyi and Falola attributed With the establishment of colonial socioeconomic developments in rule in Nigeria came new labour Yorubaland from the last quarter requirements, which opened the of nineteenth century to internal doors for European trading firms migrants’ labour.

2 Colonialism in Nigeria refers to British As roads, railways, harbours and territorial expansion and imperial rule, vital telecommunication networks which started at different times in different parts of Nigeria but effectively between were built and societies were 1860 and 1900. The colonial administrators opened up to commerce and colonial used the Indirect Rule system, which administration during the colonial depended on the native rulers to administer different parts of Nigeria. In 1914, the period, peoples, hitherto confined different parts were administratively joined to their places of habitual residence, and ruled as one country, Nigeria. 18 Internal migration in Nigeria:A positive contribution to human development began to move from one place to infrastructural and developmental another. Collectively and individually, projects in urban centres, which intergroup relations, trade and started in the colonial period, commerce as well as warfare, religion continue to draw migrants, (Islam and Christianity) and (mission) especially young ones, from rural education played fundamental roles areas. Economic boom and decline in stimulating and altering patterns have also stimulated migration in of movements (of men, merchandise post-colonial Nigeria. Nigeria, in the and ideas) across and outside Nigeria. 1970s, witnessed an unprecedented oil boom, which spurned structural In spite of the above, migration was and infrastructural developments erroneously seen during the colonial in urban centres, notably in Lagos period as essentially rural to urban, and other cities across Nigeria and it was also associated with (Adepoju, 1977). An economic delinquent behaviour, especially in decline of immense proportion hit colonial Lagos (Oyeniyi, 2010a). the nation in the 1980s following a fall in crude oil commodity prices, 2.4 Post-colonial migration and exacerbated by the structural 3 trajectories adjustment programmes (SAP) that were orchestrated by the World Bank Despite the fact that internal and IMF (Potts, 1995; Greenberg, migration took a central position 1997: 85-93). Large movements from in Nigeria’s pre-colonial and rural to urban and urban to rural colonial administration, it was (and areas followed this development. still is) seen in negative terms in During the 1970s and, to a sizeable the post-colonial period. While extent, the 1980s, employment colonialism lasted, migration was opportunities, due to developmental seen as primarily rural-urban in projects located in city centres, drew nature. Essentially, it was seen young people from the rural and as tied to urban unemployment, agricultural economy to urban and social and environmental pollution; industrial areas. In most Nigerian with migrants seen as a hungry, unemployed, disorganized and 3 Structural adjustments are the policies inchoate group that was largely implemented by the International Monetary tolerated. Fund (IMF) and the World Bank (the Bretton Woods Institutions) in developing As the literature showed, the countries. These policy changes are location of industries, government conditions for getting new loans from the International Monetary Fund (IMF) or World offices, public and private agencies, Bank, or for obtaining lower interest rates on existing loans. 19 ACP Observatory on Migration cities, infrastructural development of migration literature and the failed to live up to the rapid unreliability of migration data (IOM, immigration and urbanization; urban 2008b). The concerns about data employment, housing and sanitary reliability is generally shared, and this problems of varying magnitude soon is not peculiar to internal migration arose and these became synonymous as a phenomenon. On the paucity of with rural-urban migration, literature, it must be stated that while especially in policy planning and literature on international migration formulation. As economic decline has grown exponentially during the ushered in unprecedented changes last two decades, little attention has in government policies, especially been given to internal migration. This during the military rule, government is striking, as migration, during the spending on social welfare last forty years, has not only become programmes declined precipitously an issue in academic and government and thousands of workers lost their circles, but is also largely internal in jobs. The outsourcing4 of hitherto nature. With an estimated 740 million regular employment became the internal migrants compared with norm in private enterprises and 214 million international migrants, those who could not get placement the United Nations Development in the informal economy were forced Programme (UNDP) estimated that to return to the farms. Essentially, internal migration is three times while economic boom stimulated higher than international migration rural-urban migration; economic (UNDP, 2009). As this review seeks decline, as Potts (1995 and 2012) to show, it can be safely argued that argued, weaned, in some instances, a welter of literature has developed, urban-rural migration, and in others, especially during the last two rural-urban migration. decades. While academic papers have concentrated on theories, 2.5 Contemporary migration methodologies and epistemologies, trajectories policy papers and reports have Two common complaints in served as useful links between contemporary literature on internal theory and practice. Generally, the migration in Africa are a paucity concerns of the literature have been to provide answers to three basic 4 Outsourcing is the process of contracting questions: (a) Who migrates? (b) Why an existing business process, which an do people migrate? (c) What are the organization previously performed internally impacts of migration on the source to an independent organization, where the process is purchased as a service. and destination areas? Attempts to 20 Internal migration in Nigeria:A positive contribution to human development provide nuanced answers to these serving both as proofs and refutations questions have thrown up volumes of Todaro’s claims. Caldwell, in relation of literature, yielded up a number to Africa, punctured Todaro’s model of theories and present us with by asserting that migration decision different approaches and problems. making largely involved the entire Individually and collectively, household and therefore followed a all of these have enriched our different curve than Todaro’s. On the understanding and shed useful light model’s preoccupation with urban on the issue of migration. problems, especially unemployment, Adepoju (1977), Rempel and Lobdell One of the earliest and perhaps (1978), Dike (1982), Babatunde and one of the most enduring theories Mertinetti (2010) enthused that of migration was propounded by a substantial number of African Michael P. Todaro (1967), who migrants were self-employed and answered the three questions above therefore moved into the informal within the rubric of surplus labour sector of urban areas where entry and rural-urban wage differentials. rules were relaxed. As argued, migration is a ‘beneficial’ process by which surplus rural labour Mabogunje’s push-and-pull model, an was withdrawn from the traditional innovative adaptation of Lee’s (1966: agricultural sector and reallocated to 47-57) world systems model, posits the (growing) urban industrial sector. that centrifugal factors at the place Todaro (1967) asserted a shifting of habitual residence and centripetal labour from rural locations where factors at the place of destination their marginal social products were serve as push-and-pull factors, often assumed to be zero to urban drawing migrants from one place industrial complexes where these to another (Mabogunje, 1970). As marginal products were not only argued, centrifugal or push factors positive, but also rapidly growing as such as inadequate health care and a result of capital accumulation and unemployment, primitive conditions technological progress. Migration is and natural disasters (such as thus conceived as a critical reflection desertification, famine or drought), of a society in the process of political fear and persecution, slavery transitioning from an agricultural to and forced labour and the like drive an industrial economy. out-migration while pull factors, which include higher wage rates and From migrants’ identity and job opportunities, social amenities motivation to the decision-making and education, better living conditions process guiding migration, a number and enjoyment, political and religious of other theories have come up freedom, better medical care and 21 ACP Observatory on Migration attractive climates and so on serve special mention. Although languages, as magnets, drawing people from cultural practices and ethno-national areas of lack to these centres (Uneke, identities of different kinds that 1980, Dike, 1982, Mabogunje, 1985). served as cultural borders existed in For Nigeria as well as other African the pre-colonial polities, there were nations, Mabogunje concluded that no fixed geographical boundaries. the effect of selective and unequal As the cultural borders were shared urban development and the growing (Oyeniyi, 2012), they also served as disparity between rural and urban effective instruments for migration. A areas is the reason why people number of studies have also affirmed migrate from the former to the latter the male-dominated dynamics of (Mabogunje, 1970:1-18). In addition, migration. Among others, Coleman the theory divided labour markets (1985), Falola (1985), Mabogunje in urban centres into two segments: (1985) and Oyeniyi (2010) noted a primary segment, which requires that since the colonial period, young highly skilled labour, and a secondary and able-bodied males, more than segment, which is labour-intensive their female counterparts, migrated. and requires low-skilled workers. Adepoju (1977) and Oyeniyi (2010) Since employment opportunities, adduced this gender bias to the better living conditions, political and/ very nature of colonial employment, or religious freedom, enjoyment, especially following track, railway education and better medical care and road construction, which have been concentrated in Africa’s required strength and many days of urban centres since the colonial service outside the homestead. In periods, they therefore served as other studies across Nigeria, it has pull factors, which have turned also been suggested that factors urban centres into magnets drawing such as patrimony administration, migrants from the rural areas. Haas which favours the first male, made (2008) described this migration theory it important for others in the family, as ‘the most comprehensive attempt especially other males, to migrate in at integrating both first (endogenous) search of economic capital with which and second order (contextual) to start their lives (Findley, 1997, migration system feedbacks so far’ Babatunde and Martinetti, 2010). (Hein de Haas, 2007: 13). As this study found, things have changed, as females now migrate just Space constraints, however do not allow us to examine other theories like their male counterparts. of migration. Notwithstanding this, Although the theories are clear on the following points, which have the location of both push-and-pull been raised in other studies, deserve factors, they generalized on the flow of 22 Internal migration in Nigeria:A positive contribution to human development internal migrants as essentially being knowledgeable and having a decent towards the urban centres. While standard of living (UNDP, 2010). In incontrovertible evidence abounds to a study on international migration support a large rural-urban migrant and national development, Hein de flow, Potts (2010), among many Haas noted that forty years after others, has shown that in some places, independence, migration, whether urban-rural migration followed and, internal or international, in Nigeria ‘is in others, rural-rural migration also still primarily seen as a development occurred. This study also found failure rather than a constituent that urban-urban migration is also part of broader social and economic occurring. In addition to these gaps, transformation processes’ (de Haas, the theories, especially those of 2007: 7-8). Internal migration is still Todaro and Mabogunje, also failed seen as necessarily rural-urban in to explain the non-mobility of a large nature and also as ‘a force disrupting section of people in rural areas. social cohesion in village societies and causing urban crises’ (de Haas, Today, migration in Nigeria, like in 2007: 9). So, in most national other parts of Africa, has assumed policy papers, internal migration a considerable measure of diversity is strongly associated with human and continuity. It has also assumed ‘trafficking, forced child labour and rural-rural, rural-urban, urban-rural prostitution’ (de Haas, 2007: 7-8). In and urban-urban patterns. Nigeria’s Poverty Reduction Strategy Furthermore, these movements, Paper (PRSP),5 internal migration is sometimes free and sometimes regarded as a force ‘which potentially forced, were driven by a host of contributes to urban unemployment factors, some of which are not and urban pollution and waste essentially tied to the economy. management problems’ (NNPS, 2004 + xix). Among many other ills, internal migration was blamed for the ageing 2.6 Migration and human of rural populations, deepening development in Nigeria rural poverty, urban insecurity, Human development, as the UNDP social dislocation, the breakdown noted, is a process of enlarging of societal values and community people’s choices through the unrest (NNPS, 2004:43). This view expansion of human capabilities of internal migration, especially as and functionings. To attain these relates to urban population growth, two objectives, the three cardinal measurements suggested are: 5 This is also known as the National leading long and healthy lives, being Economic Empowerment and Development Strategy (NEEDS). 23 ACP Observatory on Migration is erroneous, as most population instance, Shaki in Oyo State, different growth in cities is due to, among other parts of Akwa-Ibom, Cross River, things, fertility and not necessarily Ebonyi, Imo, Benue and Kwara States internal migration. to cities like Lagos, Abeokuta, Ibadan, Kano, Calabar and Port-Harcourt. On the correlation between internal In most cases, these victims were migration, prostitution and human promised employment or care (as trafficking, the received doctrine the case may be) for a certain period was that women and children are at destination areas, but once they vulnerable to trafficking from rural are trafficked, the agreements are areas to the cities, and generally usually dumped, and the victims from one local government and state are forced to stay far longer than to the other. However, studies have expected (or agreed). In many cases, shown that rather than women and victims of trafficking ended up as children, more men and boys are agricultural workers, child beggars actually trafficked (Raymond, 2002; and prostitutes (WAO, 1999) in the Farley and Melissa, 2003; Melde and places of destination. Child begging El Mouaatamid, 2011). In fact, both is especially widespread in northern males and females are victims of Nigeria. These beggars have been prostitution, trafficking and forced discovered to be victims of trafficking labour. Sadly data on the nexus (Olagbegi, 2006: 3). Other reports between internal migration and the have claimed that boys, almajiri, aforementioned are lacking in the case sent to Koranic teachers to receive a of Nigeria. For the most part, these Koranic/Arabic education are often victims were uprooted from their forced by their teachers to beg for places of habitual residence through alms and surrender the money they job placements, migration networks earn (Akinyoade, 2012: 6; Olori, or through family connections. In the 2012; WAO, 1999). Given the above, case of children, what initially began it is understandable why internal as traditional child fostering that had migration was perceived as entailing existed in the cocoon of the extended child abuse, human trafficking and family system has, today, changed prostitution. character and is replaced by a system where middlemen source children International migration, on the other from rural areas and economically hand, was seen as useful only to the disadvantaged households, which extent that it yields remittances and are then supplied to non-relatives also in strong connection with return mostly in urban areas (Akinyoade, migration. As the literature showed, 2012: 6). Women and children (males while the negative view to internal and females) are trafficked from, for migration persists, an appreciable 24 Internal migration in Nigeria:A positive contribution to human development change in perception has come for processes that enhance livelihood, international migration since the but also how remittance accruing return to democracy in 1999. Citing the from international migration has Nigerian National Population Service, stimulated the development of de Haas noted that ‘some momentum non-farming activities in rural areas for change has been building… and and how these activities stimulated increasing numbers of Nigerians in rural-urban migration across the the diaspora are… contributing to region. the economy now’ (de Haas, 2007: The study further asserts that while 6-7). In addition, the Government of rural-urban migration has remained Nigeria has also begun to strengthen predominant, other migratory trends links with international migrants and have also occurred. With more than their respective destination countries 80.3 per cent of the studied population to develop technical assistance and asserting that preceding the decision business ties with a view to ‘attract to migrate and choice of destinations investment from wealthy Nigerians… was economic (pull) factors; the study abroad’ (de Haas, 2007: 10). The however claims, contrary to Deborah presidential dialogue with Nigerians Potts (1995), that the structural abroad in 2002, which culminated in adjustment programme (SAP) led to the establishment of Nigerians in the 100 per cent rural-urban migration Diaspora Organization (NIDO) and the in southeast Nigeria. Contentious as Nigeria National Volunteer Service this may appear, especially given the (NNVS), marked this as shift in policy fact that the whole essence of the and attention to migration. This policy SAP was to adjust the uneven nature shift applies only to international of the economy and that agriculture, migration and internal migration indeed, received considerable continued to be viewed as an attention during the period. The impediment to national development study listed ‘increased interest rates, (de Haas, 2007:13-14). constraints to input purchase and a However, in another study by the fall in real farm gate prices’ (Nwajiuba, Global Commission on International 2005:9), as some of the reasons Migration (GCIM), Nwajiuba (2005) behind the maximum influx of rural demonstrated the dynamic nature of dwellers into the urban centres. migration in his study of international Significantly, a number of studies migration and livelihoods in have challenged if these non-farming southeastern Nigeria. He showed activities can remove the supply how international migration can constraints to improved productivity dramatically impact on internal in agriculture (Nwajiuba, 2005 and migration, not just by setting off 25 ACP Observatory on Migration

Akinsami, 2005). Henry Rempel and have, at different times, stimulated Richard Lobdell’s study of the role in-migration and -out migration in of remittances in rural development different parts of Africa. While the in Nigeria asserts that although Nigerian Civil War of 1967-1970 remittances have followed migration, remained the only large-scale both internal and international, civil conflict in Nigeria, intergroup their impact on agriculture and rural conflicts of different kinds dotted developments is minimal and that Nigerian landscapes stimulating a there is no evidence to show that flux of people who were compelled neither remittances nor the use to to seek refuge elsewhere. Nwajiuba which such remittances were put also noted that land degradation, have been a significant means for insufficient land and/or nutrition- rural economic development (Henry deficient land have stimulated Rempel and Richard Lobdell, 1977). land-related conflicts in southwest, Notwithstanding the contentions southeast, central and northern in the literature on the place of Nigeria, and have forced people to SAP on migration dynamics, a flee in different outward direction. In preliminary study (as part of this Niger Republic, the invasion of locusts study) of international migration in and other pests has displaced many southwestern Nigeria, especially in people, who, in order to satisfy their Ejigbo, Ola, Iwo, Ede and Ogbomoso biosocial needs, have migrated into reveals that international migration Northern Nigeria (Nwajiuba, 2005: 9). creates opportunities for non-farming Chinedu (2011) of the African activities, some of which have Institute for Applied Economics (AIAE) taken many rural dwellers to city affirmed that Nigeria is experiencing centres. While a number of studies increasing incidences of disease, have hinted on this development, declining agricultural productivity, in-depth studies have yet to be done an increasing number of heatwaves, either to validate it or to resolve the unreliable or erratic weather contentious claims. For instance, patterns, flooding and declining what are these non-farming activities rainfall in already desert-prone North and how has this altered the general Nigeria. These developments are perception of rural migrants as stimulating internal -out migration unskilled and jobless people in search as people migrate in droves to areas of employment? where their survival is assured. The Nwajiuba reveals another important International Emergency Events contributor to migration in Nigeria: Database (EM-DAT), as noted by displacement. As Oyeniyi (2007) Chinedu, revealed that about 5,650 argued, conflicts and wars in Africa people were displaced by floods and 26 Internal migration in Nigeria:A positive contribution to human development that flood, pests and waterborne trillion) (World Bank, 2012a). This diseases destroyed crops and does not apply to remittances sent disrupted the planting season in through informal channels. Locally, 2007 alone. In Niger State, more internal migrants send millions of than 200,000 people were already yet-to-be calculated naira from host displaced while more than half a to home communities across Nigeria. million risk displacement through Unfortunately, no study exists to shed flooding around the Niger-Benue light on this. confluence (Ujah, 2011: 37). Enormous population dislocation as a result of intergroup conflicts has been 2.7 The 2010 Internal migration recorded between Ife and Modakeke, survey Urhobo and Itsekiri, Urhobo and Izon, The National Internal Migration Umuleri and Aguleri, Tiva and Jukun, Survey 2010 was conducted by the Jukun and Kuteb and other areas National Population Commission, (Albert, 1999). a statutory body mandated to In its 2009 Country Profile, the collect, collate, analyse, publish and International Organization for disseminate information on migration Migration (IOM) demonstrated that statistics for socioeconomic planning, while Nigeria’s oil sector remains the policies formulation and monitoring nation’s primary engine of growth the development programme in and a magnet for migrant workers, Nigeria. The survey aims at providing other sectors of the economy, most baseline data on internal migration; notably telecommunications and identifying causes and courses and wholesale and retail sectors, have measuring the effects/consequences also grown exponentially and are of internal migration in Nigeria. The now drawing migrants from different survey also aims at advancing best parts of Nigeria and its West African practices in the management of neighbours to both urban and rural internal migration in Nigeria (NPC, areas (IOM, 2009). 2012b). Important to government concerns In addition to identifying the about international migration in disappearance of gender bias in contemporary Nigeria is the issuing of internal migration flows, some major remittances. As amply demonstrated findings from the survey include by the World Bank and Central Bank a higher number of educated and of Nigeria, remittances from the skilled migrants, some of whom are global North to Nigeria in 2010/2011 professionals, technical and related stands at USD 10 billion (about N 1.5 workers as well as a preponderance

27 ACP Observatory on Migration of migration among youths (aged 2.8 Conclusion between 20 and 35), especially from Although the literature focused on North and Western Nigeria (NPC, issues such as who migrates and why, 2012b: 75). In addition, the survey as well as the impact of migration on found that economic-related factors migrants, the sending communities are the main motivation for migration and the receiving ones; most literature and that migration decisions are on internal migration regarded the sometimes taken by migrants’ families. phenomenon as reflecting a society As also noted in the literature, the transitioning from an agricultural survey also found that most migrants to an industrial economy. While are ‘self-employed’ and that although most literature claimed that internal migrants send remittance internal migration is driven by wage and gifts, these are predicated on differentials, especially between rural the volume of resources available to and urban communities, other factors them. Moreover, the survey found also apply. Forced migration, for that access to health care for internal instance, follows no regular pattern. migrants was limited and that most The group migration of tenant farmers lived in an unclean and unsecured and herders is usually not entirely physical environment (NPC, 2012b). economically related. In addition, the Although some of its findings are literature has also shown that internal positive, the survey does concludes migration does not necessarily that internal migration is a draw involve rural-urban dynamics, but on socioeconomic and political also rural-rural, urban-rural and development in Nigeria and, as such, urban-urban migration flows. the Government of Nigeria should The literature is also clear on the put in place measures to discourage primary importance of Africa’s internal migration, as it depopulates sociopolitical and historical evolution rural communities. In addition, in considering internal migration. The the survey also recommended the continuing existence of pre-colonial provision of employment in other ethnic and language groups has areas to discourage the rural-urban ensured that national boundaries drift, as well as the provision of are treated as artificial boundaries health care and other basic amenities and national laws and regulations like water, security and roads, among restricting and guiding inter-state others. movements of people are difficult to enforce.

28 Internal migration in Nigeria:A positive contribution to human development

From the IMS, we gathered that geared towards achieving the internal migration is a harbinger Millennium Development Goals by of rural poverty and dislocation, 2020 emphasize the importance urban (planning) problems and of national statistics, population environmental pollution, housing characteristics and dynamics; they difficulties and urban unemployment. fail to see any linkage between Seen in these ways, the IMS human development and internal argues that internal migration migration. Nevertheless, the policy hinders Nigeria’s socioeconomic framework prides itself as focusing development. In addition, the IMS on human capital development and also submits that internal migration on developing a knowledge-based is solely rural-urban in nature and economy on a four-dimensional scale driven almost entirely by economic – institutional, economic, social and factors. Similar views are expressed in environmental (National Planning the National Population Commission’s Commission, 2012a: 80). First National Implementation Plan for NV20:2020, where policymakers paid no attention whatsoever to (internal) migration. Although government policies and programmes

Internal migration in Nigeria:A positive contribution to human development

3. Data presentation, analysis, findings and results

3.1 Introduction State), Gombe (Gombe State), Yola (Adamawa State), Umuahia (Abia This study found there to be two State), and Awka (Anambra State). generations of internal migrants in Although this is a qualitative study, Nigeria. The first, which describes the the quantitative aspect of the study first or original migrants or movers, is depends on the IMS 2010. As already termed as first-generation migrants. noted, this study focused on three This includes a subgeneration, which specific variables – education, life describes spouses, children and other expectancy and standard of living dependants of these first migrants. – to assess the impact of internal The second generation describes the migration on human development. children of migrants, who were born In this chapter, we present the data, at the place of destination, to which findings from the data and results their parents have migranted. obtained from the FGDs and KIIs It must be noted that motivation for carried out among internal migrants migration differs markedly for these in the above locations. two generations of internal migrants. This is also true for the impact of migration on them. While it is easier 3.2 Data presentation, analysis to capture motivation and measure and discussions the impact of migration among The opinions and insights used in this first-generation migrants, it is difficult study are drawn from respondents to capture motivation for migration from the following locations and for the second generation of internal states: migrants. The data presented in this study covers these two generations of i. Ibadan (Oyo State) and Lagos internal migrants. (Lagos State); Given the nation’s size, the study ii. Yenagoa (Bayelsa State) and Port used twelve locations, spread evenly Harcourt (Cross River State); across the nation’s six geopolitical iii. Umuahia (Abia State) and Awka zones, as representative examples. (Anambra State) These locations are Ibadan (Oyo State), Lagos (Lagos State), Yenagoa iv. Abuja (Federal Capital Territory) (Bayelsa State), Port Harcourt (Cross and Ilorin (Kwara State); River State), Abuja (Federal Capital v. Kaduna (Kaduna State) and Kano Territory), Ilorin (Kwara State), (Kano State); Kaduna (Kaduna State), Kano (Kano 31 ACP Observatory on Migration vi. Gombe (Gombe State) and Yola the aforementioned locations both (Adamawa State). by state and gender, as well as the urban-rural dynamics of internal The presentation focuses primarily migration in Nigeria. on the impact of internal migration on human development measured as Table 3: Percentage distribution of a subset of the three aforementioned migrants (weighted) by the nature variables. Besides presenting the of their current place of residence data according to these variables, and state: Urban-rural dynamics efforts were also made to present Urban Rural Total the studied population’s view of the States (in %) (in %) number studied phenomenon. Abuja (FCT) 85.1 14.9 295 Table 2: Percentage distribution of Abia 48.4 51.6 281 the migrant population by sex and Adamawa 58.3 41.7 300 state Anambra 98.0 2.0 300 Bayelsa 62.4 37.6 319 Fe- States Males Total Cross River 41.5 58.5 289 (of current males Gombe 58.5 41.5 325 residence) (in %) number (in %) Kaduna 68.4 31.6 345 Abuja (FCT) 52.9 47.1 295 Kano 55.1 44.9 294 Abia 45.2 54.8 281 Kwara 69.7 30.3 330 Adamawa 38.0 62.0 300 Lagos 97.0 3.0 300 Anambra 52.0 48.0 300 Oyo 84.0 16.0 300 Bayelsa 45.1 54.9 319 Source: Extracted from the National Population Cross River 44.6 55.4 289 Commission, National Internal Migration Gombe 51.7 48.3 325 Survey 2010. Kaduna 51.3 48.7 345 Given the above internal migrant Kano 45.6 54.4 294 population dynamics, we conducted Kwara 44.5 55.5 330 a total of 24 qualitative FGDs Lagos 44.3 55.7 300 involving 2,880 people and 3,000 KIIs Oyo 56.7 43.3 300 in twelve locations across Nigeria’s six Source: Extracted from the National Population geopolitical zones. In each of these 12 Commission, National Internal Migration Survey 2010. states, we conducted interviews and group discussions in one urban and The tables, which were obtained from one rural area, thereby making a total the National Population Commission’s of twenty-four locations altogether. 2010 National Internal Migration Survey, present the percentage In terms of gender and age distribution of internal migrants in distribution, in Abia, Anambra, Oyo, Lagos, Bayelsa and Cross River, 32 Internal migration in Nigeria:A positive contribution to human development

1,088 respondents (37% of the total internal migrants in these states and respondents) were female whereas the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja. in Adamawa, Kwara, Kaduna, Kano, From the IMS 2010, it could be Gombe and Abuja, 676 respondents deduced that most internal migrants (23% of the total respondents) were are between ages 20 and 34. As female. In total, we examined 1,764 submitted by the IMS 2010, this age females and 4,116 males. The average range constituted over 46 per cent age of the studied population was of internal migrants in Nigeria. On between 14 and 65. The breakdown gender, the IMS 2010 submitted of the respondents by location can be that more females (52%) than males found in the annexes at the end of this (40%) migrated from this middle age report. The author interviewed and group. However, the national survey’s had discussions with 5,880 internal submission on the percentage of migrants across Nigeria. The table females and males negates the below, which is derived from the IMS insights obtained from the KIIs and 2010, gives a quantitative picture FGDs used in this report. of age and gender distribution of Table 4: Percentage age and sex distribution of internal migrants in selected states and the federal capital territory, Abuja Age at arrival Male Female Both sexes Total number 10 to 14 10.9 9.3 10.1 1,130 15 to 19 12.5 12.7 12.6 1,411 20 to 24 12.4 17.8 15.2 1,703 25 to 29 15.7 20.7 18.3 2,052 30 to 34 11.9 13.9 13.0 1,453 35 to 39 10.0 9.0 9.5 1,068 40 to 44 8.8 6.1 7.4 827 45 to 49 6.3 3.5 4.8 543 50 to 54 4.1 2.5 3.3 365 55 to 59 2.7 1.1 1.9 212 60 to 64 2.2 1.4 1.8 199 65 to 69 0.9 0.7 0.8 91 70+ 1.6 1.3 1.4 161 All Ages 100.0 100.0 100.0 11,215 Source: Extracted from the National Population Commission, National Internal Migration Survey 2010.

33 ACP Observatory on Migration

3.2.1 Internal Migrants two generations of internal migrants were encountered across Nigeria. From the data presented above, it These are the first movers and those can be argued that internal migration who were born at destinations. in Nigeria is a complex and dynamic This classification is based on the phenomenon, which involves both length of time of migration and educated and uneducated Nigerians. settlement in the destination areas. There are both internal inter-state These categorizations hold an and intra-state movements. As important place in the discourse on defined in chapter two, internal how internal migration impacts on migration is believed to have occurred human development. As the study when a person moves from one local found, a larger percentage of the government to another where he or first generation of internal migrants she resides for more than six months. were either illiterate or unemployed Given this conceptualization, a larger (or both) prior to migration. For this number of people across Nigeria are generation of internal migrants, it is internal migrants without realizing difficult, if not totally impossible, to it. For instance, most Nigerian cities compare the educational situation and towns have more than one in the destination areas with those local government council. As such, in the source area. The same inhabitants of these cities and towns applies to variables such as access who, as a result of constraints of space to and quality of education, or the or physical development, may be contributions of internal migration to living separately from their extended job creation, or other variables used families in another part of the town, in measuring human development. invariably become internal migrants It is only when a first generation in their hometown. It is noteworthy migrant had worked or was educated however that for an average Nigerian, prior to migration that he or she can internal migration mainly involves compare between places of origin movement from one ethnic group to and places of habitual residence. another that may or may not be within In the case of their dependants, the same administrative region, or irrespective of whether they moved movement from one geopolitical with the first movers or joined them zone to another. at a later date, similar situations exist. Although not explicitly clear in the Where the dependants’ education data in this chapter, but certainly and work experience are limited only noted during the field work, is the to destination areas, they are also not peculiar characteristic of internal in a position to compare situations migrants in Nigeria. As note earlier, between the source and destination 34 Internal migration in Nigeria:A positive contribution to human development areas. It must be admitted that more migrants, irrespective of whether than the first-generation migrants, a they were born in these places of larger percentage of dependants of habitual residence or they joined first movers had education or work their parents after a period, cannot experiences in either places of origin be said to have been driven by or destination areas. Unlike the first, economic factors. Equal to the above second-generation migrants had no are cases of involuntary migration, work experience or prior education especially the migration of displaced and skills from their source areas. So, persons, refugees and trafficked like first-generation migrants, they persons. Although this report are also limited in their knowledge of captures issues surrounding the first situations in source areas. and second generation of migrants, it omits out issues relating to displaced In addition to the above, motivation persons and refugees. In Figure 1 for migration across generations below, we present factors motivating also differs. For first-generation internal migration among the studied migrants, motivation for migration population in Nigeria irrespective of may be economic in nature, while their generation. the children and spouses of such

Figure 1: Motivation for internal migration in Nigeria 4,500 4,000 3,500 3,000 2,500 2,000 1,500 1,000 500 0

Source: Own data based on field survey.

35 ACP Observatory on Migration

As the table above shows, the majority acquisition and training motivated of respondents (3,656) claimed to their migration. The IMS 2010, as have migrated from their places of shown in the table below, however habitual residence to their current reported that about 17.6 per cent (pg. destinations for economic reasons. 17) migrated for economic reasons. Economic motivation, for these Both the IMS 2010 and this report internal migrants, includes higher agreed that economic factors, notably wage-earning jobs, employment labour migration, remained as one of opportunities, skill acquisition, the major push factors for internal training and so on. Only a few migration in Nigeria. respondents (294) claimed that skill

Table 5: Distribution of migrants according to reasons for migration by sex Male Female Total Number of Reason for migration (in %) (in %) (in %) respondents To get a job 24.1 10.6 17.6 2,642 Further Education 15.7 10.9 13.4 2,012 To marry 1.9 11.1 6.4 955 Join spouse 3.8 28.7 15.9 2,385 To be an apprentice 2.1 1.9 2.0 303 To live near relatives 9.2 7.6 8.4 1,264 To be a house-help 1.4 2.0 1.7 254 Move with parents 7.7 7.1 7.5 1,121 To receive medical care 1.2 1.0 1.1 168 Due to work transfer 6.5 3.6 5.1 767 Posting as Youth Corps 0.8 0.5 0.7 99 Member To avoid conflict 1.4 1.2 1.3 199 Retired 1.0 0.6 0.8 124 Adventure 2.6 1.4 2.0 307 Windowed 0.5 1.0 0.8 117 Divorced 0.2 0.3 0.2 34 Other 2.9 3.0 2.9 442 Don’t know 1.2 0.8 1.0 154 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 15,038 Source: Extracted from the National Population Commission, National Internal Migration Survey 2010.

36 Internal migration in Nigeria:A positive contribution to human development

However, some details on motivations Bayelsa and Cross River who for migration, which were also moved from their respective home captured in the national data as the communities to destinations in Oyo, table above showed, did not count Lagos, Adamawa, Kwara, Kaduna, for generating dependable national Kano, Gombe States claimed to have data on internal migration in the migrated to ‘make money’. Similarly, IMS 2010. For instance, dependable migrants who moved from Adamawa, national data can be generated from Kwara, Kaduna, Kano, Gombe and the federal posting of civil servants Abuja to Abia, Anambra, Oyo, Lagos, and members of the National Youth Bayelsa and Cross River expressed Service Corps to different locations. In the same motivation. In Abuja, Lagos addition, no mention was made of the and Port Harcourt, internal migrants two generations of internal migrants represent not only large numbers of in the IMS 2010. As this study has informal economic operators, but also shown, these differences are vital include civil servants and graduates not just in the area of dependable on mandatory one-year national or credible internal migration data service. Of these respondents, it is generation, but also in the areas difficult to say which generation of of motivation for migration as well internal migrants moved for economic as the positive impact of internal motives. migration on human development. As respondents also noted, the In the context of this study, a lack of in-service transfer of civil servants, emphasis on these important issues mandatory National Youth Service contributed to why internal migration for Nigerian university graduates is erroneously perceived as a draw on and marriage are no less important development. reasons for internal migration in Notwithstanding the above gaps in Nigeria. The relocation of Nigeria’s the IMS 2010, this study and the capital from Lagos to Abuja also national survey agreed that a larger entails the relocation of most, if not percentage of internal migrants all, staffers of different ministries. in Nigeria migrated for economic In addition to this, civil service by reasons (to get a job) (17.6%). nature regularly posts and reposts staff from one location to another. In the views and opinions of a large Of the 215 Federal Civil Service staff majority of respondents interviewed interviewed across the country, 162 in the course of this study, a number of claimed to have relocated with their regional variations existed in Nigeria’s entire families to their new locations. migration trajectory. The majority of In addition, except in occasional respondents from the Abia, Anambra, 37 ACP Observatory on Migration reposting, National Youth Service parental holds and influences, as Corps (NYSC) members posted to well as being the victims of human different locations migrated to their trafficking. current locations on account of national service. While civil servants may stay at their destination until 3.2.2 Education retirement or further posting (to The impact of internal migration on another location), NYSC members education is measured in terms of can only remain for one year, unless access to education either by internal retained by their employers at their migrants or by their dependants. destinations or when they have In both cases, this study captures voluntarily stayed. However, it is situations whereby internal migration difficult to capture the number of increases the internal migrants’ NYSC members who have stayed at access to education and skill their destinations after completing development and where migrants, or their one-year national service. their dependants, were able to take Marriage, unlike other motivations advantage of this opportunity. The for migration captured in Table 5 study also covers situations where above, is gender biased, as it involves internal migrants were unable to take more females than males. 85 per the educational advantages available cent of respondents who claimed to them, but remitted money and to have migrated due to marriage other assistance towards increasing were females (see Table 5 of the IMS educational opportunities for their 2010 above). This results from the dependants in source areas. patriarchal nature of Nigerian society. As noted in the national survey, It is customary for females to follow literacy among internal migrants in their husbands everywhere they go. Nigeria leaned towards males rather The same does not apply to males. than their females counterparts. Civil service transfers and national Table 6, which was obtained from service involved both genders. the IMS 2010, reveals that 70.1 An equally important motivation per cent of non-migrant males are for internal migration is education. literate compared to 54.9 per cent of Although almost all people females. One of the implications of interviewed for this study attested this could be that internal migration to internal migration’s potential in is perhaps higher among non-literate increasing access to education, a few than literate Nigerians. claimed to have migrated to their destination areas to be freed from 38 Internal migration in Nigeria:A positive contribution to human development

Table 6: Percentage distribution of non-migrants by literacy and sex Male Female Total Number of Literacy (in %) (in %) (in %) respondents Yes 70.1 54.9 62.7 7,051 No 29.9 45.1 37.3 4,198 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 11,249 Source: Extracted from the National Population Commission, National Internal Migration Survey 2010. Table 7: Percentage distribution of migrants by literacy status and sex Male Female Total Number of Literacy (in %) (in %) (in %) respondents Yes 77.6 64.4 70.8 7,887 No 22.4 35.6 29.2 3,255 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 11,142 Source: Extracted from the National Population Commission, National Internal Migration Survey 2010. The above, which was obtained from by respondents in Abia, Anambra, the national data, also corresponds Oyo, Lagos, Bayelsa and Cross River, with the opinions and views of a and 3,163 respondents agreed that large majority of internal migrants internal migration to Abia, Anambra, interviewed for this study. As this Oyo, Lagos, Bayelsa and Cross River study found, most respondents increased access to better and claimed that although education is qualitative education. However, only relatively free and cheap in Adamawa, 167 respondents are either engaged Kwara, Kaduna, Kano and Gombe, it in educational activities or enrolled cannot compare with education in in schools – government or private. Abia, Anambra, Oyo, Lagos, Bayelsa Respondents identified three factors and Cross River in terms of content as underlying this low interest and personnel. In Abia, Anambra, in education – endemic poverty, Oyo, Lagos, Bayelsa and Cross River, colonial rule and Islam. Endemic internal migrants perceived the poverty, which, in the first place, led quality and cost of education as more to North-South internal migration, qualitative and costly than what could also ensured that migrants are too be obtained in Adamawa, Kwara, concerned with the challenges of Kaduna, Kano and Gombe. ‘making money’ than taking any Despite the high cost, privately owned educational advantage available in schools are considered to be better states such as Abia, Anambra, Oyo, 39 ACP Observatory on Migration

Lagos, Bayelsa, Cross River and others Abuja, free education and the ease across Southern Nigeria. of getting scholarships abound in these states, however a large Of the 2,940 internal migrants majority affirmed that inadequate interviewed in Adamawa, Kwara, teaching, endemic poverty and poor Kaduna, Kano, Gombe and Abuja, educational content ensured that 2,664 respondents claimed that only a few of these internal migrants internal migration increased are currently studying in these states. access to education, but only 173 However, these people claimed to be respondents claimed to have taken remitting money home to fund the full (educational) advantage of education of their dependants. internal migration to these states. All respondents agreed that qualitative In spite of the differences noted, education abounds in Abia, Anambra, internal migrants in these twelve states Oyo, Lagos, Bayelsa and Cross River confirmed that internal migration and other states in Southern Nigeria. increases access to education both To educate their dependants, 2,898 in the migrants’ places of origin and of these respondents claimed to have their destinations. However, different left their wards and children in their circumstances in the different states states in Abia, Anambra, Oyo, Lagos, played fundamental roles in how Bayelsa, Cross River and other states internal migrants benefited from this across Southern Nigeria and remitted opportunity. For internal migrants money and other resources home in Abia, Anambra, Oyo, Lagos, for their educational development. Bayelsa and Cross River regular and Only a few respondents (294 in all) periodic remittances are used to fund sent their dependants to privately dependants’ educations. In addition owned schools while more than 86 to this are also contributions to respondents claimed to have put their community projects like donations for dependants in government-owned school-building, donations of books schools. to school libraries, the provision of scholarships, donations of furniture It is sad to note that the majority of and the like. internal migrants in the twelve states are not engaged in any schooling The following results were obtained and educational activities; they from the both the IMS 2010 data and however claimed that education is an insights from KIIs and FGDs presented investment. above. As noted by respondents in Adamawa, A small number of Nigerians Kwara, Kaduna, Kano, Gombe and migrated from one location (local

40 Internal migration in Nigeria:A positive contribution to human development

government area or group) to Internal migrants remitted money another in Nigeria for educational from destination to source areas to reasons. fund their dependants’ educations. A small number of educated Internal migration increases access people migrated. A large majority to education in all the twelve of internal migrants in Adamawa, states. Disparity in quality and the Kwara, Kaduna, Kano, Gombe high cost of education are two and Abuja had only secondary hindrances preventing internal education while a large number of migrants from taking advantage of internal migrants in Abia, Anambra, this. Oyo, Lagos, Bayelsa and Cross Internal migration increases access River are either uneducated or had to job opportunities in the twelve just primary school education. A states. Highly qualified graduates cross-section of internal migrants from Abia, Anambra, Oyo, Lagos, in Abia, Anambra, Oyo, Lagos, Bayelsa and Cross River found Bayelsa and Cross River also had opportunities in Adamawa, Kwara, Koranic/Arabic education while Kaduna, Kano, Gombe and Abuja a very small number of internal while uneducated and unskilled migrants in Adamawa, Kwara, migrants from these states found Kaduna, Kano, Gombe and Abuja jobs for which little or no skill is had tertiary education. required in Abia, Anambra, Oyo, There is relative ease in getting Lagos, Bayelsa and Cross River. a scholarship for education in The more educated internal Adamawa, Kwara, Kaduna, Kano, migrants are, the more internal Gombe and Abuja than in Abia, migration contributes to their Anambra, Oyo, Lagos, Bayelsa and (human) development. Cross River. Despite free education and the ease of obtaining a The points above demonstrate that scholarship, migrants from although education plays a marginal Adamawa, Kwara, Kaduna, Kano, role in most migrants’ decisions to Gombe and Abuja, for reasons migrate, or their decisions to prolong discussed below, cannot take their stays at destination areas, only advantage either in the origin or a few respondents from the twelve destination areas. states claimed to have migrated for educational reasons; however, For all Nigerians, education education contributes to internal is regarded as the greatest migrants’ (human) development investment. both at origin and at destination. In

41 ACP Observatory on Migration addition to hastening the assimilation sophistication that cannot compare processes of the migrants, it also to what is obtained in Adamawa, facilitates migrants’ attainments Kwara, Kaduna, Kano, Gombe and of set objectives or purposes/ other states in Northern Nigeria. It motivations for migration. Although however breeds unemployment, more uneducated people migrated especially since job creation has than educated, we found that for the not been on a par with the number studied population, experience and of school leavers and graduates, exposure are equated with education notably in Abia, Anambra, Oyo, Lagos, and these played important roles Bayelsa, Cross River and other states in how internal migration impacts in Southern Nigeria. Unemployment human development. For the and a glut of qualified individuals in uneducated and unskilled internal Abia, Anambra, Oyo, Lagos, Bayelsa, migrants, internal migration bestows Cross River and other states in some level of exposure, which was Southern Nigeria inexorably leads regarded as an asset and tantamount to an increasing wave of migration to education in itself. So, even where from these states to Adamawa, expectations were not met at the Kwara, Kaduna, Kano, Gombe and destination, internal migrants across other states in Northern Nigeria Nigeria considered migration itself where there were perceived or real as a school, a training ground and employment opportunities. considered non-migrants (even if In addition to the above, the study they are educated) as less privileged found that a large majority of internal and uneducated people. migrants across the twelve states As also noted above, differences in affirmed that the majority of internal educational development between migrants from Adamawa, Kwara, Abia, Anambra, Oyo, Lagos, Bayelsa, Kaduna, Kano, Gombe and other Cross River and other states in states in Northern Nigeria knew that Southern Nigeria and Adamawa, a Western/secular education will Kwara, Kaduna, Kano, Gombe and enhance their statuses, but endemic other states in Northern Nigeria poverty and the Islamic religion have important implications for ensured that only the rich few could internal migrant’s roles in enhancing take advantage of such opportunities, human development. While in Abia, as government-owned schools, which Anambra, Oyo, Lagos, Bayelsa, Cross offer free or cheaper education is River and other states in Southern content-deficient and suffers from Nigeria, content-rich education leads chronic personnel problems. For to skill acquisition, ‘civilization’ and internal migrants from Adamawa,

42 Internal migration in Nigeria:A positive contribution to human development

Kwara, Kaduna, Kano, Gombe and Abuja still prefer a Koranic/Arabic other states in Northern Nigeria to education to a Western education. Abia, Anambra, Oyo, Lagos, Bayelsa, In addition to the above is the Cross River and other states in erstwhile British colonial policy of Southern Nigeria, a Koranic/Arabic curtailing the spread of Christianity education, which they claimed to only Southern Nigeria. This allowed poor people to educate their policy, for which much literature is dependants while these dependants available, played a fundamental role also earn little income through in creating a wider educational gap begging, offers no alternative to a between Northern and Southern Western (secular) education. Nigeria. Endemic poverty and fundamental Islamicism, especially Only a negligible few in Abia, in post-independence Nigeria, have Anambra, Oyo, Lagos, Bayelsa, and compounded this problem. The Cross River admitted to reaping the majority of internal migrants in Abia, educational advantages that internal Anambra, Oyo, Lagos, Bayelsa and migration to these states bestowed. Cross River believed that religious The study found that three factors are crises and the ongoing Boko Haram the underlying causes for this apathy terrorist acts derived from this gap in – endemic poverty, colonial rule and educational development of the two Islam. Endemic poverty, which, in sections of the country. the first place, led to North-South internal migration, also ensured that In summary, differences in educational migrants are too concerned with development between these states challenges of ‘making money’ than would mean that internal migration, taking any educational advantage for people from Adamawa, Kwara, available in Abia, Anambra, Oyo, Kaduna, Kano, Gombe and Abuja, to Lagos, Bayelsa, Cross River and other Abia, Anambra, Oyo, Lagos, Bayelsa states in Southern Nigeria. The role and Cross River would enhance of Islam in this process is a little access to better-quality education. complex and should be treated with However for internal migrants from caution. As most respondents in Abia, Anambra, Oyo, Lagos, Bayelsa Abia, Anambra, Oyo, Lagos, Bayelsa and Cross River to Adamawa, Kwara, and Cross River claimed, Western Kaduna, Kano, Gombe and Abuja, education is perceived as anti-Islam, internal migration to Adamawa, and as harbouring Christianity and Kwara, Kaduna, Kano, Gombe and capitalism; hence deeply religious Abuja simply translates to leaving a internal migrants from Adamawa, high-cost but content-rich education Kwara, Kaduna, Kano, Gombe and for a cheap, second-rate education.

43 ACP Observatory on Migration

A large majority of internal migrants have kept both government and from Adamawa, Kwara, Kaduna, privately owned schools in Anambra, Kano, Gombe and Abuja in Abia, Oyo, Lagos, Bayelsa and Cross River Anambra, Oyo, Lagos, Bayelsa and serviced while ensuring little or no Cross River affirmed that the cost resources to schools in Adamawa, of education in these states is too Kwara, Kaduna, Kano, Gombe and high and therefore ensures that they Abuja. remain unable to take the educational advantages that migration presents them. Although there exists an ease 3.2.3 Life expectancy of non-farming, begging and other The standard measurements for life menial job opportunities in Abia, expectancy include, among other Anambra, Oyo, Lagos, Bayelsa and things, access to good and affordable Cross River, the cost of living in these health care, food and shelter, states is higher than in Adamawa, security of lives and property, a clean Kwara, Kaduna, Kano, Gombe and environment and the teaching of Abuja. By implication, internal healthy habits. In this study, we find migrants from Adamawa, Kwara, out how internal migration increases Kaduna, Kano, Gombe and Abuja to or decreases access to these Anambra, Oyo, Lagos, Bayelsa and aforementioned criteria both for the Cross River may have moved to a migrants and their dependants. In the region where a better educational first place, we seek to know whether system is available, but they cannot or not the migration decision is afford the costs associated with this premised on the desire to increase educational opportunity. life expectancy. As the study found, As for their counterparts in Adamawa, access to health care, potable water Kwara, Kaduna, Kano, Gombe and and a clean environment is not Abuja, issues associated with the uniform across Nigeria, so rates of quality of education and costs in diseases, maternal mortality and privately owned schools ensured other life-threatening situations that the majority of internal migrants that may result from these abound from Anambra, Oyo, Lagos, Bayelsa in varying degrees. In areas where and Cross River in Adamawa, Kwara, there is little or no access to all these Kaduna, Kano, Gombe and Abuja, variables, life expectancy is low. For kept their wards and children in brevity and resource management, Anambra, Oyo, Lagos, Bayelsa and this study limits its scope of what to Cross River and remitted money home examine here to access to health care for their education. Such remittances and security of life and property. To

44 Internal migration in Nigeria:A positive contribution to human development this end, the study focused on access an individual’s risk exposure through to hospitals (primary, secondary living habits like cigarette smoking, or tertiary), treatment and the alcoholism and other unhealthy affordability of drugs and other habits. While these habits are prescriptions. not peculiar to migrants, they are however indicative of comfort and Security, which can be viewed how much value individuals place on parochially as the protection of life their own lives. In addition to this, and property from real or perceived we also focused on migrants’ access danger, is an all-encompassing to the state security infrastructure, phenomenon. Besides that this is not especially in terms of protection from given to easy measurement, there danger. In comparison with what was are also various ways through which offered in their places of origin, how security can be measured. Among has migration to destination areas others, security can be measured across Nigeria fostered the security from two major perspectives: of life and property? institutional and individual levels. At the institutional level, the emphasis is This study believes that increased on a state’s security architecture and access to health care, healthy food its ability to ensure the protection of and quality water, security of life and the lives and property of its citizens. property and so forth, shall increase At the individual level, the emphasis life expectancy. It is also believed is on how an individual exposes that people prefer areas where all him or herself to circumstances these are assured to areas where that compromise his or her life and they are not. Therefore, how much property. Just as the state’s inability of these are factored into either to provide adequate security can migration decisions or the migrants’ compromise citizens’ lives, so also an continued stay at destinations? All individual’s lifestyle can compromise the internal migrants encountered his or her security. In relation to this in the twelve states claimed to have study, the state’s ability or inability to migrated to another place to achieve provide security impacts negatively a long, better and more fulfilled life. or positively on both migrants and However, these internal migrants also non-migrants alike; however, an claimed that only God can give a long, individual’s exposure to risks differs better and fulfilled life. The same greatly and this places individuals religious sentiment was expressed on at different levels of security risk. In security of life and property. order to test for security of life and Like schools, hospitals in Nigeria property, we therefore focused on are either government-owned or 45 ACP Observatory on Migration they are private businesses, owned internal migrants interviewed in Abia, by individuals and organizations, Anambra, Oyo, Lagos, Bayelsa and especially religious organizations. Cross River claimed to have access In most parts of Nigeria, free health to hospitals while more than half of care, which is mostly limited only these internal migrants claimed not to consultation, abounds in public to have access to hospitals. A small hospitals. Although more than half minority claimed to have preferred of internal migrants interviewed in traditional cures. In Adamawa, the twelve states claimed to have had Kwara, Kaduna, Kano, Gombe and access to hospitals and treatment in Abuja, a large majority of internal either public or in private hospitals, migrants interviewed claimed to a small number claimed to have had have access to hospitals while a small limited or no access to hospital. The number claimed not to have access to views and opinions of the internal hospitals. A small number, only 331 migrants in the twelve states are respondents, in these states claimed captured in the charts below. From to have preferred traditional cures. the charts below, almost half of Figure 2: Health care access in the selected states in Northern Nigeria (in %)

10 Access to health care 23 Traditional cure 67 No access to health care

Source: Own data based on field survey.

Figure 3: Health care access in the selected states in Southern Nigeria (in %)

Access to health care 44 36 Traditional cure

No access to health care 20

Source: Own data based on field survey.

46 Internal migration in Nigeria:A positive contribution to human development

Figure 4: Health care access among internal migrants in Nigeria (in %)

80 70 60 50 40 Health care access in the selected 30 20 states in Northern Nigeria 10 0 Health care access in the selected states in Southern Nigeria

Source: Own data based on field survey. Compared to Adamawa, Kwara, militating against access to health Kaduna, Kano, Gombe and Abuja, care by migrants. The table below, where almost half of the internal which was obtained from the national migrants claimed that the cost of survey on internal migration, presents health care is affordable, a very the different types of illnesses to large majority of internal migrants in which internal migrants in Nigeria are Abia, Anambra, Oyo, Lagos, Bayelsa exposed. and Cross River claimed that the As noted earlier, illnesses are blind cost of health care is prohibitive in to gender and residence. As such these states. However, on quality of the tables below, obtained from the health care – measured in terms of national survey, present the type the availability of medical personnel, of health care, the availability of drugs and other prescriptions – more health care services, access to health than half of the total number of care and other dynamics impacting internal migrants from the twelve on access to health care both for states claimed that quality health migrants and non-migrants across care abounds in Abia, Anambra, Oyo, Nigeria. Lagos, Bayelsa and Cross River than in Adamawa, Kwara, Kaduna, Kano, In Table 9, more females than males Gombe and Abuja. claimed to have access to health facilities in their locality while As shown in the national data, more (84.5% claimed that access to illnesses are common to both hospital occurs more in urban areas migrants and non-migrants alike. than in rural areas. On the percentage However, different reasons abound

47 ACP Observatory on Migration distribution of respondents according take more males (42.6%) less than 30 to the availability of health facilities, minutes to get to health facility than Table 10 showed that more males females in urban centres, as shown in than females attend health centres. Table 11. A similar trend was recorded As the table also showed, more rural by for rural dwellers. dwellers (68.2%) have access to a These tables present not only the health centre than urban dwellers. gender dynamics, time and sector, However, more urban dwellers have but also rural-urban dynamics relating access to a chemist/pharmacy (75%) to health care among migrants and than rural dwellers. In terms of time non-migrants in Nigeria. taken to reach a health facility, it

Table 8: Percentage distribution of migrants by nature of illness by sex and type of residence Male Female Total Number of Nature of Illness (in %) (in %) (in %) respondents Malaria 56.7 56.2 56.4 4,346 Diarrhoea 8.3 9.1 8.7 673 Intestinal worms 7.0 6.4 6.7 513 Typhoid 17.4 17.2 17.3 1,333 Cholera 9.5 8.4 8.9 688 Meningitis 2.3 2.0 2.2 166 Poliomyelitis 1.0 1.3 1.1 88 Tuberculosis 4.7 3.9 4.3 328 Fever 36.3 37.7 37.0 2,853 Cough 15.8 17.0 16.4 1,265 Gonorrhea 1.8 1.6 1.7 130 Syphilis 1.6 1.4 1.5 113 Hepatitis 3.3 3.3 3.3 255 HIV-AIDS 2.3 2.4 2.4 181 Others 4.9 5.9 5.4 417 Total number 7,701 Source: Extracted from the National Population Commission, National Internal Migration Survey 2010.

48 Internal migration in Nigeria:A positive contribution to human development

Table 9: Percentage distribution of respondents according to the availability of health facilities: type, time by sex and sector Are there any Male Female Urban Rural Total Number of health facilities (in %) (in %) (in %) (in %) respondents in your locality? Yes 72.9 73.3 Yes 84.5 60.3 73.1 No 27.1 26.7 No 15.5 39.7 26.9 Total 100.0 100.0 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 Source: Extracted from the National Population Commission, National Internal Migration Survey 2010. Table 10: Percentage distribution of respondents according to the availability of health facilities: type, time by gender and sector Type of health Male Female Urban Rural Total Number of facilities (in %) (in %) (in %) (in %) (in %) respondents Health centre 65.0 61.6 60.7 68.2 63.6 833 Private health 37.8 40.2 43.8 30.8 38.7 507 centre Hospitals 41.1 48.4 57.1 23.3 43.9 575 Chemist/ 63.2 67.6 75.0 49.2 64.9 850 Pharmacy Traditional 28.9 31.4 31.0 28.0 29.9 391 Medicine Other 4.4 5.3 4.6 4.9 4.7 62 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 1,309 Source: Extracted from the National Population Commission, National Internal Migration Survey 2010.

49 ACP Observatory on Migration

Table 11: Percentage distribution of respondents according to the time taken to reach a facility Time taken to Male Female Urban Rural Total Number of reach a facility (in %) (in %) (in %) (in %) (in %) respondents Less than 30 42.6 35.4 40.4 38.8 39.8 522 minutes 30 minutes - Less than 1 36.9 42.5 41.0 35.9 39.1 512 hour 1 hour but less 16.1 16.5 14.7 18.7 16.2 213 than 2 hours 2 hours but less 2.8 3.2 2.5 3.8 3.0 39 than 5 hours 5 hours and 0.9 1.8 0.7 2.0 1.2 16 above Don’t know 0.7 0.6 0.6 0.8 0.7 9 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 1,311

Source: Extracted from the National Population Commission, National Internal Migration Survey 2010.

Regarding access to quality food Gombe and Abuja. Only 37 per cent and water, a large majority of of respondents (1,232) in Adamawa, internal migrants interviewed Kwara, Kaduna, Kano, Gombe and across the twelve states claimed Abuja claimed that quality food and that better-quality food and water water abound in these states. abound in Abia, Anambra, Oyo, As noted earlier, for almost all Lagos, Bayelsa and Cross River respondents across the twelve states, than in Adamawa, Kwara, Kaduna, they believe that only God can provide Kano, Gombe and Abuja. Although or give security of life and property. most internal migrants in Abia, Notwithstanding this strong religious Anambra, Oyo, Lagos, Bayelsa and sentiment, this study focused on Cross River claimed that quality food risk exposure both at home and at also abounds in Adamawa, Kwara, work. In addition to this, the study Kaduna, Kano, Gombe and Abuja, also focused on the migrants’ access they admitted that better-quality to a state security infrastructure, water abounds in Anambra, Oyo, especially in the face of any threat. Lagos, Bayelsa and Cross River than In comparison with what was offered in Adamawa, Kwara, Kaduna, Kano, 50 Internal migration in Nigeria:A positive contribution to human development in their places of origin, how has health risks associated with cigarette migration to the destination area smoking, alcoholism and living in an across Nigeria fostered security of life unclean environment while more and property? than half in Adamawa, Kwara, Kaduna, Kano, Gombe and Abuja claimed such Although all internal migrants knowledge. Few numbers of internal interviewed across the twelve states migrant respondents (1,299) in Abia, expressed concerns over the recent Anambra, Oyo, Lagos, Bayelsa and spate of bombing in Northern Nigeria, Cross River admitted to having toilets nearly all internal migrants claimed in their homes while others admitted that Adamawa, Kwara, Kaduna, Kano, to either using public toilets or open Gombe and Abuja are the safest and spaces around their neighbourhoods. most life-prolonging places in Nigeria. For the majority of internal migrants In addition to the above, we captured in Abia, Anambra, Oyo, Lagos, Bayelsa the migrants’ exposure to danger, and Cross River life and property (in especially from their non-migrant the pre-Boko Haram period) were hosts and also their access to a state more secure in Adamawa, Kwara, security infrastructure, especially Kaduna, Kano, Gombe and Abuja in terms of protection from danger. than in Abia, Anambra, Oyo, Lagos, Almost half of the internal migrants Bayelsa and Cross River. interviewed in Abia, Anambra, Oyo, Lagos, Bayelsa and Cross River On risk exposure, the study focused claimed to have suffered attacks on migrants’ living habits like from their non-migrant hosts while cigarette smoking, alcoholism and a few claimed to have suffered living in unclean environments. police brutality and extortion. A few A large majority of respondents preferred not to comment, while (2,331) in Abia, Anambra, Oyo, Lagos, about one third of the internal Bayelsa and Cross River admitted to migrants in Adamawa, Kwara, Kaduna, cigarette smoking, alcoholism and Kano, Gombe and Abuja claimed also living (at home) in an unclean to have suffered attacks from their environment while less than half of hosts while a relatively small number the internal migrants in Adamawa, opined that they have been victims of Kwara, Kaduna, Kano, Gombe and police brutality. More than half of all Abuja admitted to smoking cigarette, internal migrants in the twelve states alcoholism and living in an unclean claimed not to have been attacked environment. A little less than half of either by their hosts or by the police the internal migrants encountered in while a handful of individuals decided Abia, Anambra, Oyo, Lagos, Bayelsa not to comment. and Cross River claimed to know the 51 ACP Observatory on Migration

The majority of internal migrants fulfilled life. The same religious interviewed in the twelve states sentiment was expressed on agreed that access to police services security of life and property. is easier in Adamawa, Kwara, Kaduna, Internal migration facilitates access Kano, Gombe and Abuja than in Abia, to qualitative health care. Although Anambra, Oyo, Lagos, Bayelsa and differences exist in the states, Cross River. About half of the internal movements from one location to migrants in Abia, Anambra, Oyo, another made available a wide Lagos, Bayelsa and Cross River would range of health care facilities to rather secure themselves in whatever Nigerians. way possible than enlist the services of state security while just a handful Internal migration provides access in Adamawa, Kwara, Kaduna, Kano, to hospitals whether these are Gombe and Abuja would do same. government-owned or privately About a half of the internal migrants owned. in Abia, Anambra, Oyo, Lagos, Although for many internal Bayelsa and Cross River would rather migrants, improved health care negotiate with their attackers than call abounds in Abia, Anambra, Oyo, the police while a handful of internal Lagos, Bayelsa and Cross River migrants in these states preferred not internal migration to any of these to give an opinion. More than half twelve states assures improved of the internal migrants interviewed health care. in Adamawa, Kwara, Kaduna, Kano, Gombe and Abuja would rather Although life expectancy is a subset negotiate with their attackers than of many other factors, access to involve the police while those who hospitals is fundamental to health would rather not comment are few. care delivery. Divided into three, hospitals, like schools, are owned The following results were obtained either by government or by private from the both the IMS 2010 data individuals and organizations. From and insights from the KIIs and FGDs the IMS 2010 data, the opinions and presented above: views gathered from FGDs and KIIs A larger number of internal presented in the previous chapter, migrants in Nigeria migrated to hospitals in Nigeria, like the country’s enhance and prolong their lives. educational system, also suffer Although disagreement exists from government neglect, a lack on how this is achieved, many of qualified personnel, inadequate Nigerians believed that only God supplies and so on. To ameliorate can give a long, better and more these deficiencies, privately owned 52 Internal migration in Nigeria:A positive contribution to human development hospitals that charge higher costs Nigeria, especially in urban centres abound across Nigeria. As the are worrisome. Where people data showed, access to hospitals is are crammed together in smaller widespread across the country. But shanties, where toilets, potable quality health care is more pervasive water, goods roads and other basic in Abia, Anambra, Oyo, Lagos, Bayelsa amenities are luxuries, living a quality, and Cross River than in Adamawa, better and more fulfilled life will Kwara, Kaduna, Kano, Gombe and remain a dream. Food, as the study Abuja. As earlier noted, endemic found, is cultural and quality food of poverty, which ensured that internal different kinds abounds in different migrants from these Nigerian states parts of Nigeria. The general opinion cannot take educational advantages, of the internal migrants interviewed internal migration from one in the course of this report shows that location to another, also prevented water quality is believed to be more the majority of internal migrants abundant in Abia, Anambra, Oyo, from these states, especially from Lagos, Bayelsa and Cross River than Adamawa, Kwara, Kaduna, Kano, in Adamawa, Kwara, Kaduna, Kano, Gombe and Abuja, from accessing Gombe and Abuja,. quality health care. Although Nigerians expressed serious As the data showed, unhealthy habits concerns over the incessant crises of different kinds abound in Nigeria. in Northern Nigeria, the internal These range from alcoholism and migrants interviewed believed that of cigarette smoking to prostitution. the twelve states visited in the course In addition, many Nigerians live of this report, Adamawa, Kwara, in unclean environments. These Kaduna, Kano, Gombe and Abuja are situations impact negatively on regarded as the safest parts of Nigeria. life expectancy, as they expose the In addition, access to state security people to terminal diseases and other services is open and better in these life-threatening illnesses. For the states than in Abia, Anambra, Oyo, majority of Nigerians, irrespective of Lagos, Bayelsa and Cross River. These state (either of residency or descent, internal migrants also expressed the ignorance of the impact of unhealthy view that internal migrants in Abia, living on human development has led Anambra, Oyo, Lagos, Bayelsa and to the widespread belief that only Cross River are more exposed to God can provide or give long life and xenophobic treatment and police security (of life and property). brutality than those in Adamawa, Kwara, Kaduna, Kano, Gombe and Risk exposure is not limited to the Abuja. above alone; housing standards in 53 ACP Observatory on Migration

From the data presented and does internal migration contribute to opinions and views collated above, Nigerians’ standard of living? access to health care is checked by Living standards, as defined in poverty and a lack of quality health this study, refer to amount of care. Unwholesome practices and wealth, comfort, material goods unhygienic environments, coupled and necessities available to a with poor housing conditions person, group of persons or certain ultimately ensured that internal socioeconomic class within a specific migrants’ need or quest for a long location. This, as the study finds, can and quality life at destination areas mean many things. Based on the is never achieved. As a result, most opinions and views expressed by the internal migrants in these twelve internal migrants interviewed across states expressed the religious the twelve states used for this report, sentiment that only God can provide living standards can be measured in or give a long life and security (of life terms of the acquisition or possession and property). of material goods such as houses and cars, provision for dependants 3.2.4 Standard of living and care for parents and loved ones, remittances to home for funding On the last variable, the study children’s education, as well as focused on how internal migration providing empowerment for younger contributed to the internal migrants’ ones, wives, siblings and others. living standards, measured in terms of job creation and employment, Given the number of things that can the accumulation of wealth and be grouped under living standards, change in status, contributions to the study focused on three objective home communities and/or places of material possessions – owned cars temporary residence, and so on. How and houses, remittances and gifts to has internal migration provided jobs source areas and ‘other development for the internal migrants? As shown in projects’ in which migrants may be the literature review, remittances, for involved. A large majority of internal instance, increase the development migrants interviewed across the of non-farming activities in rural twelve states affirmed that internal communities and lead to further migration contributed positively to migration. How, has internal migration their living standards. contributed to increasing the living Beginning with owning houses standards of not just migrants but also and cars, about half of the internal their dependants? In general, how migrants interviewed across Nigeria

54 Internal migration in Nigeria:A positive contribution to human development claimed to own their houses, while Kano, Gombe and Abuja, over one a few across these states claimed thousand five hundred internal to have at least one house each in migrants interviewed claimed to have both source and destination areas. In their own cars. In all, about half of the addition, a handful across these states total internal migrants interviewed claimed to have more than one house across the twelve states claimed to in both the source and destination have their own cars. areas. In all, more than half of the A large majority of internal migrants internal migrants interviewed across interviewed across the twelve states the twelve states claimed to be living claimed to be sending remittances in rented houses while a quarter of home to fund dependants’ education these internal migrants claimed to be while a handful, (1,066) across these squatting with others. twelve states claimed to be sending On personal cars, about half of the remittances home to care for their interviewed internal migrants across parents. Only 1,132 internal migrants the twelve states claimed to own across the twelve states claimed to be personal cars. In Abia, Anambra, sending remittances home to either Oyo, Lagos, Bayelsa and Cross River start or complete new projects while just over one thousand internal approximately 100 internal migrants migrants claimed to have their own across these states claimed not to be cars. In Adamawa, Kwara, Kaduna, sending remittances home.

Table 12: Percentage distribution of frequency of remittances to the non- migrants Frequency of Male Female Total Number of remittances (in %) (in %) (in %) respondents Irregular 14.2 16 15.1 1,706 Monthly 3.5 4.3 3.9 439 Yearly 3.1 2.8 2.9 332 Other 0.5 0.4 0.4 47 No response 78.7 76.6 77.7 8,771 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 11,295 Source: Extracted from the National Population Commission, National Internal Migration Survey 2010.

55 ACP Observatory on Migration

In the national survey on internal earnings in these states while 500 migration in Nigeria, the author internal migrants in Abia, Anambra, obtained, as shown in the table Oyo, Lagos, Bayelsa and Cross River below, that remittances were sent claimed to be investing part of their regularly and periodically by internal earnings in these states. migrants across Nigeria. This study, Sending gifts such as clothes and as shown in the discussion below, jewellery, animals and food items, also shares similar findings with the building and household materials national data on regular and periodic (such as corrugated iron or roofing remittances. A major issue, which is sheets), radios, mobile phones, also noted in the national study, is the televisions and so on, annually and/ migrants’ refusal to make available or periodically is commonplace any information about the individual among Nigerians. As the study nature of their remittances. The fear, found, a larger number of internal as expressed by internal migrants, migrants interviewed in the twelve was that the government may use states claimed to have sent home such information for tax-collection gifts worth more than fifty thousand purposes. naira annually. In Abia, Anambra, More than half of the internal migrants Oyo, Lagos, Bayelsa and Cross River, interviewed in Adamawa, Kwara, almost half of the internal migrants Kaduna, Kano, Gombe and Abuja interviewed claimed to have sent claimed to have sent remittances gifts worth more than fifty thousand home while a little below half in Abia, naira home annually as did those in Anambra, Oyo, Lagos, Bayelsa and Adamawa, Kwara, Kaduna, Kano, Cross River claimed to be sending Gombe and Abuja. remittances home. In Adamawa, On other development projects, 28 Kwara, Kaduna, Kano, Gombe and per cent of respondents (932) in Abia, Abuja, a paltry 366 internal migrants Anambra, Oyo, Lagos, Bayelsa and interviewed claimed to be sending Cross River claimed to have remitted about half of their annual earnings money home which their parents and home while 1066 internal migrants in loved ones invested in animal rearing. Abia, Anambra, Oyo, Lagos, Bayelsa Such animals were later brought and Cross River claimed to be sending down to Abia, Anambra, Oyo, Lagos, about half of their annual earnings Bayelsa and Cross River for sale during home. In Adamawa, Kwara, Kaduna, festive periods. For this generation Kano, Gombe and Abuja, only of internal migrants, a practice such 400 internal migrants interviewed as this afforded them not only the claimed to be investing part of their opportunity to plough their income 56 Internal migration in Nigeria:A positive contribution to human development into another money-yielding venture, expressed by internal migrants during but also into a venture that provided the KIIs and FGDs: employment opportunities for their Internal migration in the states parents and loved ones. 12.5 per examined is driven by the quest for cent of the respondents (412) in improved living standards through Abia, Anambra, Oyo, Lagos, Bayelsa employment, wealth generation, and Cross River also claimed to have change in status and so forth. invested in shares and bonds while 21.5 per cent of the respondents (716 Internal migration contributed respondents) in Abia, Anambra, Oyo, immensely to Nigerians’ standards Lagos, Bayelsa and Cross River claimed of living. to have invested in real estate. Four Internal migration contributed per cent of respondents (133) in Abia, positively to migrants’ living Anambra, Oyo, Lagos, Bayelsa and standards in the areas of job and Cross River claimed to have invested employment creation. in children and ward education while 34 per cent of the respondents Internal migration increases (1,132) in Abia, Anambra, Oyo, Lagos, migrants’ wealth accumulation Bayelsa and Cross River claimed not and change in status. to have invested into anything either Through the regular, seasonal and at home or at destination. periodic sending of remittances, About 1,265 internal migrants source areas receive financial interviewed from Adamawa, Kwara, and non-financial resources with Kaduna, Kano, Gombe and Abuja which they carry out physical claimed to have invested in real development and expand their estate while a paltry 400 internal economic bases. migrants interviewed in these states Through remittances, internal claimed to have invested in shares migration encourages the and bonds. In these states, less than development of non-farming half of the interviewed internal employment outlooks in source migrants claimed to have invested in areas. their children and wards’ education As the data and opinions expressed while a paltry 67 internal migrants above by internal migrants showed, in these states claimed not to have internal migration enhances invested in anything. migrants’ living standards. With The following results were obtained many internal migrants in the twelve from both the IMS 2010 data and states possessing their own houses the insights, opinions and views and about half of the total internal 57 ACP Observatory on Migration migrants interviewed across these With a large number of internal states owning their own cars, there migrants interviewed across the is no doubt that internal migration twelve states claiming to be sending contributes positively to their sense remittances home to fund their of fulfilment. In addition to the above, dependants’ education and an internal migration also contributes to appreciable number claiming to be the nation’s standard of living through sending remittances home for caring job creation and employment for their parents for either their generation. It provides employment upkeep or to start or complete new opportunities not only to migrants, projects with remittances, it goes but also to their dependants in source without saying that school enrolment, areas who, owing to the remittances, physical development in housing and were able to either continue their economic growth in general must traditional economic activities or have benefitted substantially from diversify into other areas. internal migration. In addition to the above, internal migration stimulates the 3.3 Conclusion accumulation of wealth and a change in status not just for migrants and In most of the literature and policy their dependants, but also for the papers, internal migration was seen as host or destination communities an economic and development failure, who depend on the migrants’ as internal migrants were regarded services. In terms of contributions as environmental and development to home communities and/or places problems, notably for urban planning of temporary residence; internal purposes. However, if the impact migration provides a large swath of the of internal migration is measured in population with ready engagement terms of its contributions to internal and thereby lessens pressure on migrants and their dependants’ areas where jobs or employment are education, life expectancy and not readily available. As the migrants standard of living, nternal migration claimed, making money is easier at can be a major contributor to human most destinations. development. It therefore cannot be solely a symptom of economic and Furthermore, migration plays an developmental planning problems important role in the educational and should be approached in a lot development of not just the internal more delicate way. migrants, but also their dependants.

58 Internal migration in Nigeria:A positive contribution to human development

4. Conclusion and policy recommendations

4.1 Conclusion three standard variables, proposed by the United Nations Development This study is as exploratory as it Programme (UNDP) and adopted by is investigative in nature. It sheds the ACP Observatory on Migration, useful light on the dynamics of among selected numbers of internal internal migration and its impacts migrants in twelve states spread on human development in Nigeria. equally across Nigeria’s six geopolitical Internal migration can be analysed zones. These variables are education, from many different perspectives life expectancy and standard of living. such as motivations, impacts, and The author examined how internal other socioeconomic variables. migration impacted on each of Although this study, which focused these variables by engaging internal on the impact of internal migration migrants in the studied areas through on human development, found discussions and interviews. rural-urban migration flows to be the most predominant, other migration This study has further found that flows are equally important and internal migration occurs due to ongoing. For the most part, economic a complex array of interacting factors drive internal migration across economic, social, cultural, and Nigeria. psychosocial factors. Some of these factors are directly related to and/ International migration is the topic or contingent upon prior migration, of some significant studies either as while others are related to the theses/academic papers or as policy wider socioeconomic and political papers. Internal migration, however, circumstances in the source areas, is less studied despite being three which necessitates and drives layers times as important in numbers. This of migrants. These layers of migration gap in the literature has led to a involved first and second generation situation whereby internal migration of internal migrants. For these is seen essentially as a planning and generations of internal migrants, developmental problem. As this study motivation differs and so does the shows, however, internal migration internal migration impact on them. can contribute positively to human While first-generation migrants (and national) development. may have prior education or work Given Nigeria’s diversity and experience before migration, second- heterogeneous nature, this study generation migrants may not have. measured human development using The sheer fact that dependants and

59 ACP Observatory on Migration spouses of first-generation migrants the literature also showed, internal migrate to join their spouses, fathers migration, especially in government or brothers also makes their cases and policy circles, is still regarded different in terms of motivation and as an economic and policy planning thus impact. For these dependants, failure rather than a contributor to prior education or work experience human development that should be means that they are able to compare properly harnessed. source and destination areas and Through an analysis of findings therefore assess the impact of internal from the existing literature, the IMS migration in terms of contribution to 2010, and the opinions and views their lives. The situation of second- expressed by a selected number generation migrants is different and more complex. Being born in the of internal migrants across twelve destination areas and therefore lacking states, this study has thus found that any prior experience or education, a broad range of causal factors exist they may as well be considered as for internal migration, factors which native to these destination areas. frequently intersect in complex ways. While an understanding of the Indeed, several factors combine to impact of internal migration on stimulate internal migration in the human development can assist cases herein discussed. In some cases, migrants, irrespective of generations, internal migration occurs where to better utilize internal migration socioeconomic progress abounds. In to their advantage, the study found others, socioeconomic backwardness that government policies and drives migration. Consequently, programmes capable of harnessing there are lessons to be learnt. internal migration’s potential are Internal migration has potential lacking. A good example of this is the negative consequences for migrants indigenization laws, which prescribe if the circumstances necessitating that only natives of particular areas migration in the first place persist. As can hold political positions. It is the discussed, internal migration may not considered view of this study that always sufficiently fulfil the migrants’ residency rather than indigenization aims and objectives. However, policies should be the rule. With emphasis on and programmes aimed at harnessing indigenization, internal migrants, as internal migration’s potential need the study has found, are often placed at to address the immediate factors a disadvantage and therefore cannot necessitating migration in the short challenge the wider socioeconomic term, but also, fundamentally, the and political circumstances within broader socioeconomic contexts which internal migration occurs. As in which migration occurs. This 60 Internal migration in Nigeria:A positive contribution to human development includes the development of policies which cuts across gender, ethnic and programmes that deliberately and religious divides, and urban and facilitate migration for those who, rural divide and other state-specific due to socioeconomic push factors, circumstances in Nigeria. Perceiving need to migrate in order to secure internal migration from any other employment. It also includes the view-point is like allowing a head of development of local economies and steam to pass without harnessing infrastructure to make migration a its horse-power. It is a sheer vacuity choice, through the establishment of from which nothing is gained. As the local employment opportunities for study has shown, the flow of gains communities that may be vulnerable from internal migration depends on to migration as a necessity. the circumstances in both the source Sometimes, internal migration may and destination areas. In other words, occur because people are not able to the ramifications of the internal access the necessary social, economic, migration experience are far-reaching educational and other resources in and the effects on migrants, source their communities of origin. Where and destination areas often continue people are unable to achieve their and, for the most part, foster the goals, migration becomes a necessity migration of others. and where, even in destination areas, Migration, as this study has also migrants are unable to attain their shown, also occurs where there goals; further migration becomes is poverty, a severe shortage of inevitable. This may also hinder the viable employment and educational chances of return. opportunities, or where there is It is clear from the existing literature, uneven development. Undoubtedly, the IMS 2010, and the interviews the consequences of internal and discussions used in this study migration can be complex and that internal migration has links far-reaching. In general, the with the socioeconomic and political solution lies in addressing those situations of the destination areas circumstances that made migration and as well as ease of movement attractive. It is subsequently between source and destination necessary to concentrate policies and areas. There is also the need to programmes on finding sustainable change the perspective that internal ways to challenge wider global, migration is a reducer and not a local, gender and ethnic inequalities, contributor to development. As this which underpin most migratory study has found, internal migration phenomena. At the same time, it is a poverty alleviation strategy, is important to ensure safe, legal 61 ACP Observatory on Migration and humane migration practices in By intragroup migration, the study both source and destination areas. describes any movement of members There is also the need for up-to-date of a particular group between two or migration monitoring, evaluation and more local government council areas, data collection. states or nations. In addition to the above, the study also recommends that the ACP Observatory should add 4.2 Policy recommendations this new categorization and definition 4.2.1 Re-conceptualizing internal to its Research Guide. migration Given Nigeria and Africa’s 4.2.2 Developing internal migration colonial history, it is important to policies and programmes re-conceptualize internal migration, It is high time that Nigeria had a especially as the different pre-colonial national policy (and programmes) ethnic groups that were divided on internal migration. Until fairly by colonial administration and recently, migration – both internal placed into the new nation-states, and international – received little still continue to regard movements or no attention from the Nigerian from their new nation-states to Government. However, increasing their pre-colonial (original) homes attention to mobility, especially as a regular movement and not as since the year 2000, has been international migration. This coupled limited to international migration, with circumstances whereby multiple with concerns on brain-drain/ local government councils can exist in gain, diaspora organizations and a single town, makes it important not remittances. Internal migration, just for academia, but also for policy contrary to what the 2010 National formulation to re-conceptualize Internal Migration Survey showed, internal migration as far as Nigeria has both a positive and negative and Africa are concerned. impact and to focus exclusively on Given the above, this study one at the expense of the other is a recommends one of two things: misdiagnosis. In the 2010 National either a re-conceptualization of Internal Migration Survey, internal what constitutes internal migration migration was still regarded as a to adequately capture Nigeria challenge to development and an and Africa’s complexities or an economic as well as planning failure. introduction of a third generation This view of internal migration of migration – intragroup migration. excludes its positive potentiality such

62 Internal migration in Nigeria:A positive contribution to human development as cash flow, skills, training and other these groups. In addition, efforts must forms of capacity building which it be made to ensure that the protocols affords not only to the migrants, but of ECOWAS on cross-regional also their dependants at the places of migration are respected. At the origin. These positive contributions moment, the ACP Observatory on of internal migration should, at the Migration is conducting a study on very least, be incorporated into the ECOWAS Protocol, studies like the nation’s poverty alleviation this are not only necessary, but must and empowerment scheme while also be intensified. efforts are geared towards reducing its negative impact. In addition, government at all levels should 4.2.3 Providing awareness and develop programmes to harness and education on internal enhance internal migration both in migration the source and destination areas. The official perception of internal As the study has found, owing to migration as a challenge to Africa’s colonial experience, especially development has a colonial root. the Balkanization of Africa into various This root has to be addressed and nation-states, which, in most cases, changed. In addition, policymakers divided many ethnic groups between need to be made aware that internal two or more nation-states, two migration is a positive contributor generations of internal migrants have to human development. Nigerians, emerged in Nigeria. On the one hand in general, also need education on is the movement of Nigerians from internal migration. Internal migration one part of Nigeria to another and, gives access to education, increases on the other hand, is the movement life expectancy and contributes to of non-Nigerians, a larger majority living standards. Therefore neglecting of whom were part of ethnic groups internal migrants is a disservice to the split by colonial nation-state creation, nation. from different (but neighbouring) Moreover, Nigeria needs to revamp West African states, to Nigeria. At its indigenization laws. Internal the ECOWAS level, efforts must migrants, especially second-gener‐ be made to ensure that ECOWAS ation migrants, should be allowed member states are made aware of the rights and privileges due to all the negative impact of the colonial citizens, irrespective of their origin/ delineation of states on - pre colonial place of birth. This is important for ethnic groups and the current trends property ownership, qualifications for in interregional migration between elective positions and the like. Above

63 ACP Observatory on Migration all, this will help in breaking down 4.2.5 Dynamics, motivation and the ethnic and religious divides that patterns of internal migration militate against national integration. As this study has found, internal migration is not essentially 4.2.4 Needs for internal migration rural-urban in nature. It is rural-rural, data urban-urban, rural-urban and urban-rural in nature. It involves both Commendable as the 2010 Internal genders, although more males than Migration Survey is, there is still a females migrated. However, where dearth of internal migration data in Nigeria. As the study has found, migration is motivated by factors of there are a number of areas where marriage or the need to join spouses, detailed and dependable internal more females than males migrated. migration data could be collected in According to this research, a number Nigeria. Based on the conceptual‐ of factors influence internal migration ization of internal migration as the in Nigeria. These include economic, movement of people from one local social, education, marriage, government to another, where such compulsory national service, internal movement has lasted for above six job transfers and human trafficking. months, sources of internal migration For the most part, educational, data could therefore include but not be limited to the various government physical and social developmental ministries, National Youth Service differences between the different Corps, health institutions, banks, states in Nigeria play an important GSM service providers and so on. role in stimulating the internal Although the 2010 Internal Migration movement of people, ideas and Survey also mentioned one or two of goods. For instance, people from Abia, these sources, no effort was made to Anambra, Oyo, Lagos, Bayelsa, Cross generate any data from these sources. River and other states in Southern Data collection also must be regular Nigeria, armed with different skills and constantly updated for planning and knowledge, find it easier to ply purposes. In addition, a data bank their trades and market their skills or data centre is also urgently in Abuja, Adamawa, Kwara, Kaduna, needed. It is the considered view of Kano, Gombe and other states in this study that a lack of dependable Northern Nigeria than in Southern data informed the skewed concep‐ Nigeria, where there is a glut of such tualization of internal migration and skills and knowledge. its potential by the Government of In addition, especially for people from Nigeria. Northern Nigeria, migration provides

64 Internal migration in Nigeria:A positive contribution to human development resources, especially financial increasing waste-curtailing measures resources, which they deployed on can hazards associated with the new and often non-farming activities, environment be reduced. which invariably increases their financial and social powers. 4.2.6 Developing local economies Arising from the above, state and local governments, especially in Northern One of the prominent push factors Nigeria, can deliberately encourage for internal migration was the lack internal migration to and from the of employment opportunities in South for developmental purposes source areas. Therefore, local and in education, health care and so on. state government across Nigeria NYSC members from the South can should work together with local and be deployed into teaching and health international agencies in developing care services in Northern Nigeria local economies and businesses. and incentives can be provided to This would positively impact internal encourage them to stay, even after the migration policies and programmes one-year national service. In the same by creating local employment vein, internal migrants to the South opportunities for communities that who are desirous of learning can be may be vulnerable to emigration. encouraged to do so at the expense Notwithstanding the above of the Northern local government recommendation, it must be noted and states who would rebate such that both economic development costs directly to the destination local and economic stagnation stimulates government and states in the South. immigration. Economic development Movements, in most cases, have is a multidimensional phenomenon. also involved migrating from less On the one hand, it ensures that environmentally hazardous areas to more people have the means areas where environmental security to emigrate while, on the other is less guaranteed. This exposed hand, it encourages immigration migrants to diseases and other from other communities where no life-threatening situations. Migrants such development exists. For the should be made aware of this danger most part, economic stagnation and, above all, the Nigerian State ensures that migration becomes needs to ramp up environmental a means to alleviate poverty and awareness campaigns, as increases in emigration to other communities population, even where migrants are becomes an important livelihood not concerned, necessarily increase strategy and way to improve one’s waste generation. Only by equally opportunities. Notwithstanding the 65 ACP Observatory on Migration above, migration that is borne out of migration, it must be noted that economic development undoubtedly internal migration in Nigeria is yields more to human development not solely a survival or livelihood than where the reverse is the case. strategy. Its gains include access to education, training and skills as well as access to health care. 4.2.7 Providing longer-term Notwithstanding the government assistance to internal migrants perception of the phenomenon, the locally and nationally general perception, whether real or Longer-term assistance for internal imagined, keeps fuelling North-South migrants is necessary. While movements of Nigerians within the immediate goals of internal Nigeria and also movements into migrants are often met, longer-term Nigeria from other West African monitoring and assistance is needed neighbours. This lack of synergy to ensure that, in the long run, the between government and the people circumstances leading to migration has led to a situation whereby, except are controlled or improved and the for migrants’ families, no official gains accruing from migration are assistance is provided to internal transferred to source areas.. This, migrants irrespective of whether they of course, requires resources that originated from within Nigeria or are beyond migrants and their host neighbouring West African nations. communities, and it is incumbent on As this study has shown, the gains policymakers to enable longer-term from internal migration would remain policies and programmes that target local and family-based if the official migrants’ motivations. perception prevails. For instance, local and state governments may Presently at the level of government, use internal migration to bridge the migration is wrongly perceived as an educational gap between Northern obstacle to development. However, and Southern Nigeria by providing as this study found, there is a general assistance, which include free tuition perception among Nigerians that and scholarships, to migrants who internal migration leads to better elect to educate their wards and economic freedom. Internal migrants children in Southern Nigeria. Also believe that ‘money is easier to as a way to re-equip its educational make’ at their different destinations. system, local and state government Although avoidable constraints often in Northern Nigeria could develop a hinder internal migrants from fully scheme that allows members of the utilized accessing new education National Youth Service Corps, who and health care afforded by internal may elect to stay after the one-year 66 Internal migration in Nigeria:A positive contribution to human development national service rather than returning 4.3 Final considerations to joblessness in Southern Nigeria, From the foregoing, it is into key sectors, such as education incontrovertible that internal and health care. Besides national migration can contribute positively integration, such a scheme would also to human development. As some of enhance the collation of dependable the findings in this study have clearly migration data. shown, the IMS 2010’s submission that internal migration hinders socioeconomic development and 4.2.8 Training needs for therefore should be discouraged is government agencies erroneous. A situation whereby government In addition, the findings of this survey departments and agencies, such as are not entirely representative given the National Agency for Prohibition of the limited number of respondents Traffic in Persons and Other Related compared to Nigeria’s overall Matters (NAPTIP), the Nigeria Police population. Contrary to the NPC’s Force and so on, summarily dismissed contention that the government migrants as victims of human should discourage internal migration, trafficking is unacceptable. This, this study advocates that the among other things, indicates a huge Government of Nigeria should rather need for training and skill acquisition, put measures in place to maximize especially in screening and profiling, the positive impacts of internal for these officials in government migration. agencies and departments. This would not only ensure citizens’ trust and respect and help to ensure that both internal migrants and trafficked persons receive assistance specific to their particular needs, but would also impact positively on data collection.

Internal migration in Nigeria:A positive contribution to human development

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76 Internal migration in Nigeria:A positive contribution to human development

6. Annexes/Appendices

Table 14: Nigerian internal migrants by location Location FGDs KIIs Total Ibadan 260 250 510 Lagos 260 250 510 Ilorin 260 250 510 Yenagoa 260 250 510 Port Harcourt 260 250 510 Umuahia 260 250 510 Awka 260 250 510 Abuja 260 250 510 Kaduna 260 250 510 Kano 260 250 510 Gombe 260 250 510 Yola 260 250 510 Total 3,129 3,000 6,120

Table 15: Non-Nigerian internal migrants by location Location FGDs KIIs Total Ibadan 20 25 45 Lagos 20 25 45 Ilorin 20 25 45 Yenagoa 20 25 45 Port Harcourt 20 25 45 Umuahia 20 25 45 Awka 20 25 45 Abuja 20 25 45 Kaduna 20 25 45 Kano 20 25 45 Gombe 20 25 45 Yola 20 25 45 Total 240 300 540

77 ACP Observatory on Migration

Table 16: Motivation for internal migration in Nigeria Motivation Nos. in Studied Population Economic reasons 4,129 Education 333 Marriage 669 In-service transfer 667 National youth service 670 Freedom from parents 133 Human trafficking 67

Internal migration is a fundamental feature of ACP societies. Based on the review of available literature, existing research and interviews with key stakeholders, this study highlights the positive contribution of internal migration for development in Nigeria. The recommendations call for an increased attention to the positive potential of this phenomenon and for the development of adequate policies and programmes. The complex realities of ACP countries also call into question the separation between internal and international migration. Through the analysis of local realities in Nigeria, this study proposes new concepts that may engage the debate on the specificities of South-South migration. EastAfrica

Central database Africa

Caribbean

Senegal

health

labour

Haiti

Nigeria diasporas environment

Southern integration Africa training Timor-Leste

South-South Kenya

return development internal Democratic

migration Republic ObservatoryAngola of the Congo rights Cameroon

displacement trafficking Pacific Tanzania Lesotho statistics gender West Africa remittances urbanization Trinidad and Tobago Papua New Guinea

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