Anna GIUST Institute for Russian and Eurasian Studies Uppsala University Sweden ORIENTAL INSPIRATIONS IN RUSSIAN OPERA AT THE TIME OF CATHERINE THE GREAT Abstract: During the reign of Catherine the Great (1762–1796) the problem of the Turkish threat over Europe had become an excuse for ne- gotiations aiming at stabilizing the geopolitical balance between the Euro- pean countries . This preoccupation was present in the diplomatic discourse, where after its ‘decline’, the Ottoman Empire was evaluated as a fake giant, incapable of representing a serious military menace . However, the presence of ‘The Turk’ in the mind of Western audiences is attested by the diffusion of Oriental themes in different works of art . In the field of musical theatre, these can be found, among others, in such operatic performances as the opéra comique La rencontre imprévue, ou Les pèlerins de la Mecque by Christoph Willibald Gluck (1763), and Mozart’s Singspiel Die Entführung aus dem Serail (1782) . In Russia, the response to the Eastern Question was the ‘Greek project’ – a series of geopolitical plans that the Empress developed with her counsellors Alek- sandr Bezborodko and Grigory Potyomkin, which foresaw the occupation of the Ottoman Empire, and its subsequent passing over to the rule of Catherine’s grand- son Konstantin Pavlovich . According to those plans, in 1781 Catherine signed a secret alliance with the Austrian emperor Joseph II, which was to be confirmed by the subsequent journey of her son Pavel Petrovich to the Habsburg Court . While creating secret coalitions at international level, Catherine under- took a propagandistic campaign putting an emphasis on her policy . Musical 156 ANNA GIUST theatre was involved in such initiatives, according to the traditional role of opera as a vehicle for the so-called ‘scenario of power’ (Wortman) . The following paper addresses the impact of the ‘Greek project’ on the Rus- sian culture by examining some cases taken from the opera theatre, in which early oriental inspirations emerge . References to the East are understood in terms of subject, provenance of the characters, collocation of the action and the consequent coleur locale evoked with set costumes and music . Four Rus- sian titles will be considered in various ways: Fevej and Načal’noe upravlenie Olega [The Beginnings of the Reign of Oleg] on librettos by Catherine II, Tomyris, reine des Massagets [Tomyris, queen of the Massageteans] by Louis Dancourt, and Zel’mira i Smelon by Pavel Potyomkin . Apart from these, two Italian works will be addressed briefly: the cantata Atene edificata by Domen- ico Cimarosa and the opera Alessandro e Timoteo by Giuseppe Sarti . Keywords: Russian opera, Eastern question, Greek project, Music orientalism . During the reign of Catherine the Great (1762–1796) the Turkish threat over Europe became an excuse for negotiations aiming at stabilizing the geopolitical balance between the European countries . This preoccupa- tion was present in the diplomatic discourse, where after its ‘decline’, the Ottoman Empire was evaluated as a fake giant, incapable of representing a serious military menace1 . However, the presence of ‘The Turk’ in the mind of Western audiences is attested by the diffusion of Oriental themes in different works of art . In the field of musical theatre, these can be found, among others, in such operatic performances as the opéra comique La rencontre imprévue, ou Les pèlerins de la Mecque by Christoph Willibald Gluck (1763), and Mozart’s Singspiel Die Entführung aus dem Serail (1782)2 . In Russia, the response to the ‘Eastern question’ was the ‘Greek project’ – a series of geopolitical plans that foresaw the occupation of the Ottoman 1 See, for instance, K . A . Jr . Roider, Kaunitz, Joseph II and the Turkish War, “The Slavonic and East-European Review” 1974, vol . 54, no . 4, pp . 538–556 . 2 The numerous sources for the subject of Mozart’s Entführung are discussed in W . Daniel Wilson, Turks on the Eighteenth-Century Operatic Stage and European Political, Military and Cultural History, “Eighteenth-Century Life” 1985, no . 9, pp . 79–92 . On the ‘Turkishness’ of Mozart’s music see W . Osthoff, Comicità alla turca, musica classica, opera nazionale: osservazioni sulla ‘Entführung aus dem Serail’, in: Opera & Libretto, ed . by G . Folena, M . T . Muraro and G . Morelli, vol . 2, Firenze: Ol- schki, 1993, pp . 157–174 . ORIENTAL INSPIRATIONS IN RUSSIAN OPERA AT THE TIME ... 157 Empire and the restoration of the Byzantine Empire, which according to the plans of the Russian rulers was to be subsequently governed by Catherine II’s grandson Konstantin Pavlovich . The political background related to this project – which will be detailed further in the present paper – exerted its influence on many aspects of the Russian culture . In spite of this, yet in 2005 the historian Andrey Zorin underlined the fact that “research into the ques- tion [had] usually been confined to the sphere of diplomacy and court poli- tics, paying almost no attention to its cultural dimension”3, in spite of the very important role played by the project in the intellectual life of Russia . The present paper addresses the impact of the Greek project on the Russian culture by examining some cases taken from the opera theatre, in which early oriental inspirations can be noted . References to the East will be understood in terms of subjects, provenance of the characters, colloca- tion of the action and the consequent coleur locale evoked by means of set costumes and music . Four Russian titles will be considered in various ways: Fevej and Načal’noe upravlenie Olega [The Beginnings of the Reign of Oleg] on librettos by Catherine II, Tomyris, reine des Massagets [Tomyris, queen of the Massageteans] by Louis Dancourt and Zel’mira i Smelon by Pavel Ser- geyevich Potyomkin . Aside from these, a quick look will be addressed to two Italian works: the cantata Atene edificata by Domenico Cimarosa and the opera Alessandro e Timoteo by Giuseppe Sarti . While being conceived in different contexts and by different authors, these operas show elements ascribable to the political trend inaugurated by Catherine II in her campaigns against Turkey, notably at the moment when Russian foreign-policy was shifting from the “Northern System” supported by Nikita Panin to the “Eastern System” fostered on initiative of Potyomkin and Bezborodko4 . These examples will also serve as a further demonstration of the essential role opera had in the Russian culture as a mean of propaganda of the ruling class, representing the point of view of the Russian Crown on the stage . 3 A . Zorin, Eden in Taurus: Catherine II’s Journey to Crimea in 1787. Political and Cultural Intentions, in: Unravelling Civilisation: European Travel and Travel Writing, ed . by . H . Schulz-Forberg, Bruxelles: Peter Lang, 2005, p . 225 . 4 This deviation took place in the mid-1770s, and followed the conclusion of the first Russo-Turkish war with the Treaty of Küçük-Kaynarca (1774) . Subsequently, it was confirmed by the dismissal, in May 1781, of the minister of foreign affairs Nikita Panin, whose position was covered by Prince Bezborodko . 158 ANNA GIUST The Empress developed the ‘Greek project’ together with her coun- sellor Aleksandr Andreyevich Bezborodko (1747–1799) and her former favourite and secret husband Grigory Aleksandrovich Potyomkin (1739– 1791) . According to their plans, the Ottoman Empire was to be replaced by the establishment of a new empire in the East, the identity of which was ascribed alternatively to a restored Byzantine Empire and to ancient Greece . The throne of the new empire was to go to Catherine’s grand- son Konstantin Pavlovich (1779–1831) – Pavel Petrovich’s son – on the only condition that he and his descendants would forever abandon all claims to the Russian crown5 . In such way, two state entities were to co- exist, ruled by two Russian brothers – Alexander and Constantine . The creation of a further, allegedly independent state – Dacia, incorporating Moldavia, Wallachia and Bessarabia, – was also envisaged . Dacia would act as a buffer state between Russia and Austria, which the Empress was trying to involve in the dismantling of the Ottoman Empire . Potyomkin himself strived for ruling the territory . The idea never assumed the form of a public formulation, but it was fully expressed by Catherine in a memorandum addressed to the Aus- trian emperor Joseph II on 10 September 17826 . The letter followed a secret alliance Catherine signed in 1781 with Joseph II, which was to be confirmed by the journey of her son Pavel Petrovich to the Habsburg Court . A few months after the alliance was contracted (in the form of letters between the two sovereigns), the Grand Duke was received in Vi- enna – the main stopover of his European grand tour – with the staging of Gluck’s operas Iphigénie en Tauride and Alceste . Both these works are based on subjects connected with ancient Greece . For the reception of the grand duke they were associated to the staging of his La rencontre imprévue, où Les pèlerins de la Mecque based on a libretto by the French playwright Louis Hurtaut D’Ancourt (also spelled as Dancourt, 1725– 1801), the plot of which takes place in the capital city of modern Egypt . During their second stay in Vienna, Pavel Petrovich and his spouse 5 A . Zorin, op . cit ., p . 226 . 6 The text of Catherine’s letter to Joseph II can be found in Joseph II. und Katharina von Russland, Ihr Briefwechsel, ed . by A . R . von Arneth, Wien: Wilhelm Braumüller, 1869, pp . 153–155 . The correspondence between the Empress and Potyomkin is collec- ted in Ekaterina II i G.A. Potëmkin. Ličnaâ perepiska (1769–1791), ed . by V . S . Lopatin, Moskva: RAN, 1997 . ORIENTAL INSPIRATIONS IN RUSSIAN OPERA AT THE TIME ... 159 Mariya Fedorovna were invited to the premiere of Mozart’s Entführung aus dem Serail on October 16th 1782, in which the composer represented the ‘Turkish music’ by including a ‘batterie turque’ as a loose approxima- tion of the janissary band .