Death in Small Doses: Cambodia's Pesticides Problems and Solutions

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DEATH IN SMALL DOSES Cambodia’s pesticide problems and solutions

A report by the Environmental Justice Foundation Contents Acronyms used in this report  APCPA Asia-Pacific Crop Protection Association Executive Summary ASEAN Association of South-East Asian Nations CEDAC Centre d’Etude et de Developpement Introduction - Agricole Cambodgien CIAP Cambodia-IRRI-Australia Project Global Pesticide Production and Use - CSIRO Commonwealth Scientific & Industrial Research Organisation CTBS Community Trap Barrier System An Overview of Cambodian Agriculture - DDT Dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane, a persistent organic insecticide Pesticide Use in Cambodia - FAO The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organisation  FFS Farmer Field Schools Pesticides and Cambodian Law GDP Gross Domestic Product IPM Integrated Pest Management Cambodia’s Pesticide Problem: Causes - IRRI International Rice Research Institute IUCN International Union for the Conservation Cambodia’s Pesticide Problem: Dangers - of Nature LD50 Lethal Dose 50 - NGO Non-Governmental Organisation Alternatives & Solutions in Cambodian Agriculture PIC The Prior Informed Consent procedure of the Rotterdam Convention Conclusions and Recommendations - POPs Persistent Organic Pollutants RGC Royal Government of Cambodia Glossary  UNEP The United Nations Environment Programme WHO World Health Organisation References  WFP World Food Programme

Acknowledgements This report was written, edited and produced by the Environmental Justice Environmental Justice Foundation is Foundation (Sylviane Nguyen-Vaucheret, Dr Mike Shanahan, Juliette a London-based non-governmental Williams and Steve Trent). Printed on % post-consumer waste paper. organisation. More information about EJF’s work and pdf versions of this Design by Dan Brown ([email protected]). report can be found at We wish to thank the following individuals who allowed us to use their images to www.ejfoundation.org. Comments on illustrate the report, provided critical reviews of earlier drafts, or assisted in other the report, requests for further copies or ways: Andrew Bartlett, David Glover, Yech Polo, Nop Poeuv, Colin Poole, specific queries about EJF should be William Murray, Bert van Durren, Em Sorany, Ngin Chhay, Merle Shepard, directed to [email protected]. Jim Puckett, Barbara Dinham, Rob Nugent, Rosie Sharpe, The This document should be cited as: Traveladdicts, Jan Suszkiw, Ariel Javellana, Gary Jahn, Mark Bell, Eugene EJF. . Death in Small Doses: Hettel, Devlin Kuyek, Roopa Mathew, Diane Young, Ivor Greer, John Heard, Cambodia’s Pesticides Problems and Mike Meaney, Vicki Parsons, Brain Taylor, Terry Whittaker, Peter Schrock, Solutions. Environmental Justice Kit Whitney, James Skaptason, Grant Singleton, Frank Spangler, Bruce Foundation, London, UK. Sharp, Mike Hooper, Pierre Mineau, Brad Scholz.

Special thanks go to Dr Yang Saing Koma and the staff of CEDAC whose pioneering studies’ findings on Cambodia’s pesticide problems and sustainable alternatives have been central to this report.

In thanking these individuals, we in no way imply that they or their organisations fully endorse the report’s content.

PESTICIDE TOXICITY CLASSIFICATION The World Health Organisation classifies pesticides according to acute toxicity, using the LD50 (Lethal Dose 50%) benchmark. LD50 denotes the amount of a chemical required to kill 50% of an exposed population of laboratory rats. There are two measures for each product, oral LD50 (the product is given orally) and dermal LD50 (the product is given through the skin).

Oral LD50 Dermal LD50 mg per kg body weight required to kill 50% of rat population WHO category solids liquids solids liquids Ia Extremely hazardous 5 or below 20 or below 10 or below 40 or below Ib Highly hazardous 5-50 20-200 10-100 40-400 II Moderately hazardous 50-500 200-2000 100-1000 400-4000 III Slightly hazardous Over 500 Over 2000 Over 1000 Over 4000 N.B. The terms “solids” and “liquids” refer to the physical state of the active ingredient being classified

    executive summary

Pesticides have played a role in increasing crop Much of Cambodian pesticide use is non- yields and food security but, in contrast to essential, especially in rice cultivation for modern products marketed in the developed which experts conclude that insecticides are world, many pesticides used in developing frequently not needed. Safer alternatives countries like Cambodia fail to meet include Integrated Pest Management (IPM), international quality standards. rice-fish culture and organic farming. Elsewhere in Asia, IPM has realised -% Agriculture, rice production in particular, is of reductions in pesticide use without impacting major importance to Cambodian food security yield. Cambodian interest in organic farming and society, and pesticide use in this sector has was recently measured at % of interviewed accelerated in recent years. Unregulated farmers. imports have resulted in many chemicals banned by the Cambodian Government being The Royal Government of Cambodia’s readily available on the domestic market. demonstration of political will to tackle the pesticide issue by banning hazardous Cambodia faces human and environmental compounds, and the findings of this report, pesticide-related problems. Farmers and their show that genuine solutions and alternatives families are being poisoned and food, water are available. supplies and ecosystems are being polluted. % of  pesticide-using farmers This report recommends the adoption of the interviewed recently had experienced precautionary principle based on reduced use, symptoms of poisoning.The ultimate reduced risk and reduced dependence. Central consequences of the inappropriate use of such requirements are increased education and dangerous chemicals include human research into alternatives and stronger mortalities and illness, and long-term damage enforcement of Cambodian law.The to natural ecosystems and their productivity. Cambodian Government, donor community, NGOs, agrochemical industry and Inappropriate pesticide use, including the Cambodia’s neighbours,Thailand and timing, frequency, concentration and type of Vietnam, all have roles to play in ameliorating products used, is widespread. Safety measures the current situation. are often ignored or misunderstood.This situation is exacerbated by a lack of Cambodia’s economy, environment and food appreciation of risks associated with pesticides security would benefit in the long-term from and inadequate labelling that is usually in Thai the development of large-scale active or Vietnamese and is incomprehensible to even programmes to promote alternatives to current the minority of rural users who are literate. pesticide uses. The direct cost of Cambodian pesticide use has been estimated at US$- million per year. Dangerous pesticides, unwanted by the rest of the world, are posing serious threats to Cambodian development targets. Indirect costs of Cambodians’ inappropriate pesticide use include negative impacts on food security, on public health, on the export market, and on the burgeoning tourism industry. Current practice can encourage pests’ resistance to pesticides. Cambodian farmers are becoming trapped on the ‘pesticide treadmill’, using increasing volumes in order to control perceived threats. Western agrochemical companies’ product stewardship programmes fall short of pledges to promote safe use.The continued supply of chemicals severely restricted in the West to countries unable to ensure safe use is ethically questionable. © EJF

     A small price to pay for environmental jus�ce

£5 / $6 per month could help kids get out of the cotton ﬁelds, end pirate ﬁshing, protect farmers from deadly pesticide exposure, guarantee a place for climate refugees

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EJF have provided training to grassroots groups in Cambodia, Vietnam, Guatemala, Indonesia and Brazil to help them stop the exploita�on of their natural environment. Through our work EJF has learnt that even a small amount of training can make a massive diﬀerence to the capacity and a�tudes of local campaigners and thus the eﬀec�veness of their campaigns for change. Protecting People and Planet introduction

  spend tourism industry. Perhaps the greatest US$ billion annually on tragedy is that Cambodia does not pesticides. However, even need to use such great volumes of approximately one-third of these pesticides. these pesticides (US$ In this report we provide a Dmillion in value) do not meet background to global pesticide internationally accepted quality production and Cambodian standards. Poor countries lacking in agriculture.We highlight the extent of infrastructure and human resources dangerous pesticide use in Cambodia are being used as dumping grounds for and summarise the detrimental effects such hazardous pesticides, many of this practice has on humans and which are banned throughout much of wildlife.We demonstrate that the rest of the world because of the pesticides are often an unnecessary serious threats they pose to human component of agricultural production health and the natural environment. and that safer alternatives exist. Cambodia is one such country. Finally, we make recommendations for Cambodia has emerged from the Cambodian Government, NGOs, decades of war and internal turmoil as the donor community and the one of the world’s poorest countries agrochemical industry.We propose and remains heavily reliant on reductions in pesticide use, agriculture.The largely rural dependence and risk centred on the population has embraced pesticide adoption of sustainable alternatives use, yet the chemicals available are (such as Integrated Pest Management) among the most dangerous in the in collaboration with increased world and are being applied with little enforcement of existing legislation and regard for suitability or safety. Rather a wide-reaching education than contributing to Cambodia’s programme.Thus, we suggest a development, current patterns of strategic framework by which pesticide use have grave implications Cambodia and other relevant parties for the country’s future, posing risks to can work to safeguard the population public health, ecosystem functioning, and natural environment without food security, small and large-scale compromising agricultural output, economies, export markets, and the food security or development targets.

Cambodia remains heavily reliant on rice production for food security. Pesticide use has increased rapidly in the past two decades endangering the sustainability of rice production itself as well as threatening public health, the environment, and, indirectly, the future of Cambodian rice export markets and the burgeoning tourism industry. © EJF      104° 106° LAO THAILAND P.D.R.

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     global pesticide production and use

Natural products to synthetic organic  compounds: the evolution of insect control are poisonous substances used to kill animals or plants considered pests by humans. The most traditional method of protecting crops Classes of pesticides and their targets include: from insect pests was – and remains – hand picking. insecticides (insects), herbicides (weeds), Being labour intensive and tedious, farmers sought fungicides (fungi) and rodenticides (rodents). alternatives from a very early date. PSince the early s, pesticides have been an important The first recorded pesticide use is the Sumerians’ component of agriculture in industrialised countries, use of sulphur compounds to protect their crops from increasing yields and contributing to food security. mites and ticks around 2500 BC8. Today, pesticides are increasingly used in developing nations hoping to achieve their own ‘green revolution’ to By 1200 BC, botanical insecticides were used in feed growing populations and produce surpluses for export. China8. Although industrialised countries dominate the global Regular insecticide use began c.1850 with the USA pesticide market, sales in developing countries have tended and Western Europe’s ‘first agricultural revolution’. to increase year by year. By some estimates, developing  International trade of mineral or botanical insecticides countries’ pesticide use doubled each decade from to  (e.g. arsenic, fluor compounds, nicotine and .    rotenone) began and commercial spraying machines In , global pesticide consumption reached . appeared in 18808. million tonnes in several hundred chemical formulations and with estimated annual sales in agriculture of US$ In 1939, with the recognition of DDT’s insecticidal billion,. Despite sales downturns in  and , the qualities, the first synthetic organic insecticides were value of trade is expected to reach US$. billion by marketed and have since become the most commonly . Crop prices, weather conditions, exchange rates and used. Currently, four classes of synthetic organic pest outbreaks govern regional variations in demand. In pesticides are used: , sales rose -% in North and Latin America, whilst   Organochlorines (OCs) dominated Western the Asia-Pacific region experienced an increase of . %,    markets from the 1950s to 1965. The most famous, with total sales amounting to US$ . billion . DDT, was first produced in 1873, though its insecticide properties were not discovered until Global pesticide market share in 20005. 19399. Most OCs have moderate acute toxicity to Region Share of Market mammals10 and are highly persistent in the N. America 29.6% environment. They concentrate in fat tissues, Asia-Pacific 25.4% accumulating and becoming more toxic as they move Western Europe 21.9% up the food chain, thus posing a threat to species, Latin America 12.8% including humans, at the top11. Rest of the World 10.3% Organophosphates (OPs) were discovered during World War II by German scientists researching new toxic gases12. This diverse group (less persistent in the     environment than OCs) includes compounds ranging in toxicity from highly hazardous to mammals to some Synthetic organic pesticides are largely made by of the least toxic pesticides known10. Examples transnational agrochemical companies. An unprecedented include parathion and malathion. period of merger and corporate consolidation during the   Carbamates are more recently developed products last decade has reduced their number and, by , % of (discovered in 1955), including aldicarb and pesticides sales were being made by only seven companies   pyrimicarb. Together with organophosphates they are (see table) , . All are based in the USA or Europe and potential endocrine disruptors (they affect the operate through local subsidiaries elsewhere. hormonal system – see pages 21-22)13. As well as pesticides, these companies produce fertilisers and seeds and are increasingly involved in biotechnology, Pyrethroids are synthesised by copying a natural e.g. genetic modification of crops. For example, Monsanto’s molecule (a Chrysanthemum pyrethrin), are active at sales increase in  was primarily due to its herbicide very small doses and usually have broad-spectrum Roundup (active ingredient: glyphosate), which accounted effects. Also termed ‘fourth-generation’ insecticides, for % of total sales. Roundup sales rose % in the US pyrethroids are usually less toxic than earlier and Argentina and % worldwide due to increased sales of insecticides and are allegedly more biodegradable14. ‘Roundup Ready’ (glyphosate-tolerant) genetically The latest products are Insect Growth Regulators, engineered crops and glyphosate-based no-till farming  few of which are presently available. These mimic practices . insect hormones active in moulting and are specific Monsanto reports that Roundup Ready soybean sales   (active on some insects, e.g. caterpillars, but not rose by %, to comprise % of US soybean acreage   others), so present reduced risk to non-target whilst in Argentina the rise was %, with % of the species10. country’s soy genetically modified to be glyphosate tolerant. Roundup Ready corn is currently grown in . million

     Case study: banana production in Latin America Bananas are the fifth most valuable agricultural commodity in world trade after cereals, sugar, coffee and cocoa15. Most of the world’s bananas are grown for local consumption with little external inputs (e.g. pesticides). However, 14% of world production is traded on the global market and utilises increasing levels of inputs in order to meet the high quality standards of this competitive market15. Banana exports represent an important source of income for many Latin American countries16. Ecuador, Costa Rica and Colombia alone account for 64% of world exports15. In these countries bananas are grown in large monoculture plantations of up to 2000 hectares16. Thanks to intensive production methods and massive use of external inputs (pesticides and fertilisers), these banana plantations achieve high yields (50-80 tonnes/ha)16. In particular, these © EJF crops require increased amounts of fungicide to By some estimates developing countries’ pesticide use combat Mycosphaerella fijiensis, a fungal disease doubled every ten years from 1945 to 1995. In 2000, global that has become resistant to some fungicides17. pesticide consumption reached 2.5 million tonnes in several hundred chemical formulations. The expansion of Costa Rican banana production caused an increase in pesticide import cost of 50% between 1990 and 1994 (from US$56.2 million to $84.3 million)17. In 1993, the banana sector Sales of the top seven agrochemical companies in 20006,7 accounted for 57% of all pesticide sales in Costa Company (HQ base) 2000 sales (US$ millions) % change from 1999 Rica, despite occupying under 10% of the Syngenta (Switzerland) 5,888 -2.6% agricultural area17. In 1995, IUCN calculated the Monsanto (USA) 3,885 +8.3% average amount of pesticides used on bananas Aventis (France) 3,701 -0.6% annually to be 44kg per hectare18. DuPont (USA) 2,511 -3.1% Dow AgroSciences (USA) 2,271 -0.1% In large plantations, pesticides are sometimes Bayer (Germany) 2,252 +12.8% sprayed by plane, an imprecise method capable BASF (Germany) 2,228 +39.1% of affecting neighbouring interests (the Escuela N.B. Aventis sold Aventis CropScience to Bayer in October 2001 de Agricultura de la Region Tropical Humeda estimates that up to 15% of plane-sprayed fungicide is lost to wind drift and falls outside of plantations15). hectares ( million acres), but Monsanto envisages a potential global market of  million hectares ( million High pesticide concentrations used are also acres). harmful to workers handling the fruit19. Between In an increasingly globalised economy, agrochemical 1980 and 1994, the number of poisoning cases companies have been able to access and develop markets due to pesticides registered by Costa Rica’s world-wide. Market saturation and increased regulation of National Centre for Poisoning Control steadily chemical manufacture and use in the developed world have increased from 593 to 1144. In 1994, 34% of both factored in the expansion of new developing world registered cases were classified as ‘occupational’, markets. 43% ‘accidental’ and 19% ‘suicide attempts’17. As well as increasing exports (US pesticides exports Studies by the National University of Heredia alone rose by % between  and ), agrochemical reveal that rates of pesticide poisoning are three companies have developed networks of local subsidiaries times higher in banana regions than in the rest of that manufacture or import agrochemicals. In the Asia- the country16. Pacific region alone, Monsanto has offices in China, Instead of improving work conditions or reducing Malaysia, Singapore, India, Indonesia, Japan, South Korea, the use of pesticides, the international companies Thailand,Vietnam,Taiwan and the Philippines. Several that own plantations usually circulate the labour chemicals are seemingly ubiquitous. Since its introduction force, hiring sprayers on 3 or 6 month by Monsanto in , glyphosate has been registered for contracts15,20. use in  countries.

     Case study: the Indian pesticide market  -    Pesticide production in India began in 1952 with production Like most innovations, new pesticides are protected in most of BHC, an organochlorine insecticide. countries by patents. Patents have two consequences. India is now the second largest pesticide manufacturer in Firstly, they protect inventions by legally excluding Asia (after China), ranking 12th globally33. unauthorised manufacture, use or sale. Secondly, patents are technical documents fully describing how to make and The Pesticide Manufacturers and Formulators Association of use the invention, thus stimulating further innovation. India states that India has “one of the most dynamic generic Patents have limited  year life-spans (which, for pesticides industries in the world”, which has formed the pesticides, can be extended by  years), after which the basis of an export sector that grew 20-25% in two to three invention becomes public property. Products whose patents years3,34. have expired can be made and sold by any company and are Importers of Indian pesticides include the USA, UK, France, termed ‘generic products’. Germany, Netherlands, and Middle Eastern, Latin American The agrochemical business demands long-term, very and African countries35. high investments; to bring a new agricultural product to market costs US$- million and takes - years,. Until recently, lacking finances to develop and market new Thus, it is in the companies’ interests to maximise a chemicals, Indian companies waited for patents to expire. product’s sales before its patent expires, and to continue They now produce more than 30 generic compounds selling it for as long as possible afterwards. including (with WHO hazard classifications in parentheses): In developing countries, patent protection does not monocrotophos (Ib), endosulfan (II), dichlorvos (Ib), always exist and demand is higher for cheaper generic zinc phosphide (Ib), aluminium phosphide (Ia), products. So, new pesticides are usually developed for paraquat (II), permethrin (II) and glyphosate (U)3. Western markets whilst older, broad-spectrum products are According to Greenpeace, India is also one of four countries targeted towards the developing world. By , off-patent still manufacturing DDT (with Italy, Mexico and China)36. pesticides are expected to account for % of the global Currently, many companies, encouraged by the Indian market, with countries such as China, India and Brazil Government, have begun developing infrastructure and (with technical capacity and cheap labour) becoming establishing laboratories and research and development centres of production. centres. The Indian pesticides industry predicts the development of new molecules within the next decade34.    

Recently, production of restricted substances has shifted to the developing world. Currently, about  companies make or supply agrochemicals in South-East Asia.These are transnational companies with branded products or generic Over 30 years since this Cambodian producers of patent expired chemicals. Among the former, stamp was produced, pesticides are still - companies dominate and, in , just three – Bayer, applied in a dangerous manner, without Aventis and Novartis (now part of Syngenta) – had a % protective gloves or masks. Although DDT market share. Revenues are expected to rise % between use is presently prohibited or severely  and  to US$. million. restricted in most countries, it is still easily Since , China has become the world’s second largest available in some developing countries agrochemical producer,, with an estimated total with weak law enforcement. Worryingly, in production that nearly doubled between  and  Cambodia, DDT is illegally sprayed on from , to , tonnes.The Shandong Huayang crops. Pesticide Group, for instance, claims to be the leading manufacturer of methyl-parathion in China and to be the only producer of aldicarb in Asia.This reflects a general trend of increased production of pesticides (especially generics) in Asia. In order to maintain some degree of control over the burgeoning generics trade, transnational agrochemical companies have obtained interests in local businesses. For example, Aventis (with a % market share in India) recently obtained a % stake in the Indian joint venture, Bilag Industries, one of the leading producers and exporters of pyrethroids in India.

  

The FAO and WHO recently warned that % of pesticides marketed in developing countries do not meet © James Skaptason / www.bugstamps.com © James

     internationally accepted quality standards and “frequently contain hazardous substances and impurities that have already been banned or severely restricted elsewhere”. As legislation concerning hazardous products and pollutants is becoming increasingly restrictive in developed countries, many pesticides used in the past are now prohibited or severely restricted. In developing countries, however, such laws are absent or more permissive, and dangerous pesticides can persist on the market. For example, in , the Indian Government noted that the import and use of  pesticides banned in some other countries are permitted. Consequently, concerns have been raised that the developing world is becoming a ‘dumping ground’ for obsolete or hazardous products,. In March , the US Environmental Protection Agency issued a conditional registration aimed at reducing use of the pesticide – and suspected carcinogen – alachlor. In the subsequent months US exports of alachlor almost trebled. Legal loopholes facilitate Western companies’ exploitation of developing world markets. For example, European legislation prohibits the export of end products banned in Europe but permits export of active ingredients, which can then be formulated into end products in developing countries. Alternatively, corporate acquisitions enable patterns of pesticide production and export that are unfeasible from bases in the West. For example, the Indian RPG Life Science (formerly Searle (India) Ltd) recently sold its agrochemical business to Italian giant ISAGRO, itself a subsidiary of Isagro Sp.A, a partial partner of both Dow AgroSciences and Aventis CropScience. Industry observers noted that ISAGRO “may consider using the Indian unit as a manufacturing base for certain products and to service the Far Eastern and South Asian markets”. RPG’s existing portfolio

includes the widely-restricted monocrotophos and © EJF flucythrinate, both WHO Class Ib chemicals, and Use of Azodrin, (active fenvalerate, a Class II chemical whose authorisation has ingredient: monocrotophos), is been withdrawn in the EU. prohibited in the USA; In , Novartis (now Syngenta) was congratulated however exports from US ports upon announcing that it was phasing out production of totalled over 500 tonnes in monocrotophos in response to mass poisoning of hawks in 1995 and 1996. Although Argentina (see page ).The motivation for this move is banned, Azodrin is commonly unclear in light of the subsequently reported opening of a found in Cambodian markets, plant in China capable of producing  tonnes of labelled in Vietnamese. monocrotophos per year. In June , it was reported that all of the largest transnational corporations had opened or bought major facilities for production of hazardous chemicals in developing nations in the previous decade. Trade in restricted and banned pesticides is difficult to track but US shipments of monocrotophos alone (most shipped under the trade name Azodrin) totalled over  tonnes in  and . Use of monocrotophos, an organophospate classified by the WHO as ‘highly hazardous’, is prohibited in the USA. Close ties with importing purchasers, which may indeed be subsidiaries, can allow exporters to bypass the commercial offices of consulates and embassies – as reflected by this comment from the commercial consul in Sao Paolo, Brazil, the largest importer of pesticides in Latin America: “I’ve never had a request for assistance from a US exporter of pesticides in the three years I’ve been here”.

     an overview of cambodian agriculture

 has emerged from decades of war and internal conflict and now faces the challenge of rebuilding. However, the country remains one of the poorest in the world, ranked in  by the CHuman Development Index as th of  countries and with a per capita GDP of US$. Over one-third of the population lives below the poverty line, % of them in rural areas, and % have no access to safe drinking water,. Food security is of prime importance and rice, in particular, sustains the country. For these reasons, although pesticides are also used in Cambodia to combat vectors of human disease

(e.g. malarial mosquitoes), agricultural © SAO-UK applications of pesticides are of special interest in Rice is the cornerstone of Cambodian food security, this report.This section, therefore, serves as an utilising 90% of arable land in its production and overview of current agricultural practices in providing 75% of daily calorie intake. Cambodia. Agriculture is a mainstay of Cambodia’s been eaten by starving people.The re-building of economy, contributing c.% of the GDP ( agricultural activities was hindered by the estimate) and employing % of the labour force absence of researchers and technicians, who had in , when there were an estimated .-. fled the country or been killed. Consequently, million farming households among a  million Cambodia was forced in  to import , population,. Other growth areas are tourism (in tonnes of rice to help feed the six million , the service sector employed % of the survivors. labour force and contributed % of the GDP) Between  and , the International Rice and the garment industry (employing % of the Research Institute (IRRI) re-introduced  labour force yet accounting for % of exports in traditional Cambodian rice varieties to ),. Key agricultural products are rice, Cambodia. Rice production steadily increased livestock, rubber, corn and vegetables, with rice from the early s due to increases in and livestock alone accounting for % of cultivated area (in part through deforestation) Cambodia’s GDP. and use of high yielding IRRI varieties and Indeed, rice is the cornerstone of Cambodian methods. Food security remained a serious food security, utilising % of arable land in its problem until , when the country achieved production and providing % of daily calorie self-sufficiency for the first time in  years, even intake-.The remainder of typical Cambodian producing a surplus , tonnes of milled diets is comprised of fish, meat, tubers, rice. In , a record . million tonnes of vegetables and fruit. paddy rice were produced (with a surplus of Rice production, together with political , tonnes). stability, is central to the country’s recovery from Rice is cultivated largely in the central the Khmer Rouge period. Agriculture is a Mekong basin and delta and in the Tonle Sap priority in national development policy, aimed at floodplain, with  of the  Cambodian increasing food security, economic growth, rural provinces accounting for % of total incomes, and developing export industries. production.The main rice harvest consists of However, agricultural development is constrained the wet season (May-December) paddy rice, by Cambodia’s poor infrastructure and the which is entirely rain dependent and accounts for presence of an estimated  to  million -% of annual production. Although landmines, which limit access to approximately occupying only % of the planted area, dry % of arable land. Cambodia has benefited season irrigated rice accounts for the remaining from economic stimulation since joining ASEAN -%. Irrigated dry season rice yields and in . cultivated areas depend on rainfall levels during Before , Cambodia was self-sufficient for the previous wet season and on floods in the food and wood, and exported rice, rubber, fish Mekong basin. and wood. In , when the Vietnamese army In , other crops accounted for about % entered Cambodia, the country’s rice production of the total area harvested. In areas with high had shrunk to barely % of the . million population densities, farmers tend to grow crops tonnes harvested in .The Khmer Rouge more profitable than rice. Consequently, such regime had left the country with badly-damaged provinces are deficient in rice. Conversely, infrastructure, a drastically reduced labour force, surpluses are produced in lower density areas. and seed stocks of traditional rice varieties had Typically, Kampong Cham province is the main

     cambodian rice pests

Rice pests18-23 vary depending on the Below from top to bottom: Green midges; whereas new varieties IR36 and nature of rice cultivation but include rats, Leafhopper, Stemborer feeding, IR42 are resistant. birds, arthropods (mostly insects) and over Rattus argentiventer Varietal control is also a good option 60 weed species. Although over 200 against stem borers (Scirpophaga arthropod species occur in Cambodian incertulas, Chilo auricilius, C. suppressalis, rice fields, the majority, as in any Sesamia inferens) as some locally available agricultural system, do not eat plants and varieties are partially resistant, e.g. IR36, are not pests. On the contrary, some IR42, IR66, IR72. No totally resistant benefit crops through predation or variety is yet available. parasitism of true pest species. Diseases Weeds Tungro virus causes a rice disease the Weeds are problematic and difficult to symptoms of which are commonly eradicate in rain-fed rice systems since reported, but its vector, the green field water levels cannot be controlled. leafhopper (Nephotettix spp.), is rare, Presently, removal by hand is the most suggesting misdiagnosis of nutrient efficient option. Competition between rice deficiencies, which also cause leaf plants and weeds is especially strong in yellowing. Green leafhopper is a potential upland rice systems that regularly suffer pest itself but predation and parasitism dry conditions. Conversely, in irrigated (12-60%) keep populations at non- rice, water control allows a large reduction damaging levels. of weed problems. In any case the Fungal diseases can occur but their levelling of fields could greatly improve frequency is very low, so it appears that no weed-control and thus help increase control method is necessary. yields. Rodents

Insects © IRRI Three main rat species have been The main pests of rain-fed rice are leaf- identified in or near Cambodian rice-fields eating insects, the most common of which (Rattus argentiventer, R. exulans and are green semilooper caterpillars Bandicota indica). Rat outbreaks occur in (Noctuidae: Naranga spp.). Although rain-fed as well as in irrigated rice systems abundant, they usually have little impact and, in the 1990s, caused an average on rice yields – rice plants can lose 50% of annual loss of 3000 tonnes, enough to their leaf area during the first month after feed 12,000 people each year. While 34% transplanting without any consequence for of farmers report rat problems, only 13% yield. Moreover, predators of green attempt control. A CIAP (Cambodia-IRRI- semilooper exist in Cambodia: mainly Australia Project) study in 1999 showed semi-aquatic bugs (e.g Microvelia that traps and baits do not seem to provide douglasi; Veliidae) and spiders. adequate control (and baits are also Another well-known rice-pest is the poisonous for cattle). Plastic barriers tend brown planthopper (Nilaparvata lugens). not to be used as they are too expensive However, natural control by its predators compared to the losses caused by rats. As is usually enough to keep it at non- a result, hunting and digging up burrows damaging levels. Outbreaks occur when (especially when done during daytime) still this balance is disrupted by pesticide use remain the safest, cheapest and most or dry weather conditions (many effective rat-control method in common predators are semi-aquatic). Slender rice use. bugs (Leptocorisa spp.) attack rice grains and in outbreak years damage can be A new pest: the Golden Apple Snail substantial. Introduced to Asia from South America for © IRRI Similarly, grasshoppers become pests food, the Golden Apple Snail (Pomacea only after prolonged periods of dryness spp.) escaped from cultivation and arrived have prevailed in the fields. in Cambodia in 1995. It is now a pest of Conversely, gall midge (Orseolia both dry season irrigation and wet season oryzae) populations build up under humid rain-fed rice, feeding on seedlings. Control weather conditions, but natural control by is by hand-picking or rearing of fish or wasp parasitism typically reaches 90% of a ducks to feed on snail eggs – the snails can given population – if a previous pesticide be used as pig or duck food, or for human spray has not killed the parasitoids. Some consumption when cooked. Pesticide Cambodian rice varieties (Kaun Trei and (molluscicide) applications are also used in Changkom Kreal) are more sensitive to gall some provinces. © G. Singleton / CSIRO

     Right: Four to six million landmines limit access to approximately 40% of Cambodian arable land. They are also responsible for further depleting a labour force already drastically reduced by Khmer Rouge regime: one in 236 Cambodians has been seriously disabled by landmines.

Far right: Agricultural development is constrained by Cambodia’s poor infrastructure. After the wet season in particular many roads are unusable, preventing farmers from selling rice outside their commune. © Bruce Sharp © Bruce Sharp

producer of soybean, maize, vegetables, mung Cambodian rice production trends bean, groundnut and sesame, accounting for (data from FAOSTAT)25 % of the non-rice cultivated area, while being deficient in rice by around , tonnes.

2.5    

2 Since most rice production (-%) is rain-fed, 1.5 yields are highly dependent on rainfall, which, in Cambodia, can vary widely year to year.The 1 FAO/WFP estimates that major crop losses (of rice and other crops) occur every - years due 0.5 to droughts or floods, the latter being Yield (tonnes per hectare) exacerbated by soil erosion associated with 0 deforestation. In , one of the worst floods 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 in recent history hit Cambodia first in July and Year again, more significantly, in September, causing  3 an estimated deaths (largely of children) and destroying crops and infrastructure – an 2.5 estimated , hectares of wet season rice were affected. 2 In recent years, crop destruction due to 1.5 adverse weather or pest outbreaks occurred early in the season, allowing replanting with early 1 maturing rice varieties or recovery of the late 0.5 maturing varieties during the end of the season (September-December). However, at a time Production area (million hectares) 0 when most families’ income from the previous 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 harvest has already been spent, replanting is only Year an option for farmers wealthy enough to buy new  4.5 seeds or those receiving international aid . Poverty and indebtedness compel farmers to 4 sell large parts of their rice production as soon as 3.5 harvests are finished, inducing a reduction of 3 national rice prices at this time of year and 2.5 preventing them from keeping staple stocks. 2 Debts accrue as farmers borrow to hire labour or 1.5 buy agricultural inputs, as well as clothes, tools, 1 etc. Debt may even force farmers to sell their 0.5

Rice production (million tonnes) land – their only source of income – thus 0 contributing further to rural landlessness and 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 poverty. Year

     Despite recent success in reaching rice self- sufficiency according to recorded figures, food security is a serious issue in parts of the country, mainly due to variations in per capita production between provinces (or even communes); of  main rice-producing provinces, five are rice- deficient.With less than % of the rice growing communes (just % of the population) producing % of the national rice surplus, food distribution is a major issue and is hampered by a transport infrastructure that remains rudimentary following years of strife. Most rural roads are unusable during the wet season and, following the  floods, food insecurity increased in spite of total rice production being on a par with that of  (c.  million tonnes). The poor infrastructure means that mills in neighbouring countries may be more accessible than domestic ones (particularly during floods), and rather than channel surplus rice to deficit areas, it is often more profitable to sell rice across the border.

© G. Bizarri / FAO Although Cambodia’s official rice exports are Above: Despite having higher yields than wet- low (a few thousand tonnes of milled rice), it season rain-fed rice, irrigated rice accounts for only seems that smuggling of unmilled rice to 15-20% of total production. Primitive irrigation Thailand and Vietnam is considerable. Later in methods and the limited extent of their the year, as the need arises, the rice is then implementation reduce food security in Cambodia. bought back from these neighbours. The poor quality of Cambodian milling means that official exports realise low prices, further contributing to rural poverty.The recent building Below: Half of Cambodian children under five are (in Kandal province) of a milling plant of stunted and up to 20% suffer severe malnutrition. international standards, should improve this situation. In addition to food insecurity, malnutrition – caused by limited food supplies and low dietary diversity – is prevalent, especially among women and children under five.The UN estimates that % of children under five are stunted and up to % suffer severe malnutrition. For example, according to a survey by the Royal Government of Cambodia (RGC) and NGOs in , Vitamin A deficiency is a serious public health problem in rural areas.Vitamin A deficiency increases susceptibility to infectious diseases (and, consequently, early death) in the under fives; it can also result in permanent blindness. Although minor in terms of total production, staple crops other than rice (like green vegetables, a source of Vitamin A) and fishing, when possible, are very important for balancing households’ diets. Most farming families keep livestock but, rather than being eaten, pigs, ducks, chickens and eggs are usually sold for cash to buy family goods. Regardless, the main buyer of meat is the tourism industry. Larger animals (e.g. buffalos and cows) are used for farm work and are rarely consumed.The relative importance of livestock in agriculture does not therefore reflect a protein source for rural people. Rather, fish provide the majority (%) of © Frank Spangler / Panorama Productions © Frank Spangler / Panorama

     Left: Green vegetables and fish can contribute to Cambodian dietary diversification.

Below: Fish provides 75% of Cambodians’

Cambodian animal protein. In particular, fermented fish paste is an important protein source. Recent declines in fish catches due to intensive fishing and ecological disruption (deforestation causing silting of lakes and rivers and the loss of mangroves and flooded forests that are the reproductive sites of many fish species) does not contribute to improvement of the situation, but actively worsens it. From -, fishing lots around the Tonle Sap lake and river caught only half of the fish species and families, and one-third of the genera, recorded in earlier studies up to . Another advantage of diversification of agricultural activities is that it can help farmers cope with drops in rice production like those caused by the floods of September . People

living near rivers and the Tonle Sap lake suffered © EJF comparatively less than those in lowland rain-fed or scrub areas, thanks to the fishing activities In , as a consequence of floods, migration and cash crop production in the former. from rural areas toward the cities accelerated. However, the inefficiency of the rice market The departure of young women to better-paid leads to low capital for farmers, preventing them jobs in the garment industry, in particular, from investing towards diversification or resulted in labour force shortage in agriculture equipment. (about % of the garment industry’s workers Lack of manpower is another difficulty faced are young women, the majority of them recent by the Cambodian agricultural sector. Deaths immigrants from rural areas).The garment caused by the civil war and Khmer Rouge regime sector has developed extremely rapidly since the were greater among men than women, seriously mid-s, leading to the Government adopting depleting the rural labour force.The number of a minimal legal wage for employees of this disabled people is also high as a consequence of industrial sector (raised from US$ to $ per the war. month in July ), as well as rules on labour Many women have been left with the conditions.The minimum wage imposed is responsibility of farms as well as household approximately double the average Cambodian management (% of the population lived in income, making jobs in the garment industry female-headed households in ). very attractive.

     pesticide use in cambodia

 800

700   has recently intensified in Cambodian agricultural practice (see ). A 600  CEDAC survey conducted in  showed that 500 of  farmers surveyed, % used pesticides. Of 400 these % began using them in the s with the restP beginning in the s. 300

Insecticides and rodenticides (rat poison) are, by far, the Pesticide imports (US$1000s) 200 most commonly used pesticides in Cambodia. Herbicide use is not yet common but practices in other countries in 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 the region suggest that usage is likely to increase. Year Herbicides are already available on Cambodian markets – Pesticides imports to Cambodia 1989-1999 (data from many of them with glyphosate or .-D as active FAOSTAT8) ingredients. Although fungicide use is extremely rare, products can easily be found. Methyl-parathion: ten Pesticides are used in greater volumes on vegetables (e.g. facts13-16  litres or kg per hectare per year) than rice ( litre or kg A non-systemic per hectare per year). However, because rice production organophosphate insecticide dominates (using % of productive land), pesticide use in and acaricide (kills parasitic rice culture is greatest in terms of total volume. An IRRI mites). report showed that, depending on the province, -% of dry season and -% of wet season rice farmers use Kills insects by contact or via pesticides. digestive or respiratory action. In ,  different pesticides (active compounds) were WHO acute hazard available in Cambodia and within six years this had grown classification: Ia (extremely to at least  compounds in  different products, a  hazardous). Acute toxicity: oral significant proportion ( %) of which are classified by © EJF LD50 (rats) = 3 mg/kg. WHO as Class I: highly or extremely hazardous to human The most health. In most provinces, the most commonly used commonly used Highly toxic if inhaled or pesticides are all Class I chemicals: mevinphos, pesticides in ingested, moderate toxicity by monocrotophos, dichlorvos and, especially, methyl- Cambodia are all skin adsorption. Human acute parathion, produced in Thailand by Bayer with the trade WHO Class 1 toxicity symptoms: sweating, name Folidol. Persistent organic pesticides including DDT chemicals, nausea, vomiting, dizziness, and chlordane are also available. including methyl- diarrhoea, pupil constriction, Since Cambodia does not produce pesticides, all parathion, much muscle cramps, excessive products available are imports, which steadily increased and of which is salivation, laboured breathing, doubled in value between  and . Data are not produced in convulsions, and easy to obtain but as insecticides accounted for % of Thailand by Bayer unconsciousness. official pesticide imports in , it is likely that they were with the trade Death may be caused by also predominant in other years. name Folidol7. respiratory failure or cardiac Surveys of Cambodian markets reveal that most arrest. pesticides come from Vietnam and Thailand (c.% and c.% respectively in Kandal Province). Product labels Repeated / long-term exposure affects human indicate manufacture in these two countries by local nervous system. Cholinesterase inhibition and companies or by production facilities of international cumulative effects are possible. companies – for instance, Bayer has a production site in Very highly toxic to birds and mammals. Thailand and a joint venture in Vietnam. Other products are manufactured elsewhere (China, Japan, India, United Moderately to very highly toxic to amphibians, Kingdom), but formulated and packaged in Thailand or fishes, crustaceans and molluscs. Vietnam. Some products, labelled in Vietnamese, for Degrades in lakes, rivers and sea but degradation example, bear the logo of Makhteshim Agan, a company rate data vary from 100% degradation within two claiming to be the “largest and most geographically diverse weeks to a half-life of 175 days. generic manufacturer of agrochemical products” and that has manufacturing plants in Israel and Brazil. Banned or severely restricted in the USA, Tanzania, Some pesticides on sale in Cambodia are banned in their Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Bangladesh, Korea, country of origin.  of  products available in  were Japan, China and Cambodia. Included in the banned in Vietnam, whilst another  are banned in Rotterdam Convention on Prior Informed Consent Thailand.This has led to fears that Cambodia is becoming due to concerns about its impact on human health a dumping ground for unwanted and dangerous under conditions of use in developing countries. pesticides,.

     “When I was in the field I felt dizzy and then I couldn’t walk. When I returned home I vomited… I have to use pesticides. There is no other alternative. I am a farmer”. Pech Savoeun, Cambodian farmer7

   

Tens of thousands of malaria cases, and hundreds of deaths, occur each year in Cambodia. In ,  died from dengue fever.The World Health Organisation still endorses the use of DDT to control these diseases’ mosquito vectors but, in recognition of evidence linking DDT to cancer, changed its policy to one of recommending indoor use only in . DDT is a persistent organic pollutant covered by the United Nations Environment Programme sponsored Stockholm Convention (POPs). As such, it is now illegal in Cambodia (see page ) yet remains available on the market. Safer synthetic pesticides (e.g.Temephos and new pyrethroids) are used to impregnate mosquito nets and in standing water containers. Illegal fishing using pesticides including Folidol (methyl- parathion) and Thodat (endosulfan) also occurs. Finally, the use of pesticides (e.g. mevinphos and dichlorvos) to keep insects away from dried fish has been reported.

   

The relatively recent increase in pesticide use in Cambodian agriculture is attributable to a number of factors. © SAO-UK Pesticides have the Loss of Culture: The flow of information from generation to psychological generation was severely disrupted by the upheavals of recent decades. attraction of Thus, farmers active today do not necessarily know traditional "modernity"; and are methods of pest control. believed capable of Many farmers have relatively little experience and have not had the solving any problems time to develop knowledge of the need for pesticides, or their impact farmers might face. on health and non-target species. Indeed, the FAO found that those

Some highly (Ib) and extremely hazardous (Ia) pesticides available in Cambodia1,6,9

Active compound WHO class Trade names Chemical type Producer country# brodifacoum Ia Brodifa Organobromine Vietnam carbofuran Ib Furadan Carbamate Vietnam dichlorvos Ib DDVP, Dichlorvos, VP 50EC Organophosphate Thailand, Vietnam endrin O Endrin Organochlorine Thailand methadathion Ib Supracide 40ND Organophosphate Vietnam methamidophos* Ib Fillitox, Giant, Methaphos, Monitor, Ovansu, Organophosphate Germany, Thailand, Thom, U-T 70, Vindo Vietnam,China methomyl Ib Lannate, Methomyl Carbamate Thailand methyl-parathion* Ia Ankun-V, Folidol, Fosintol-phodetol, Foxentol, Organophosphate Thailand, Vietnam Isodol D, Methaphos, Methylparathion, Parathet, Parathion-methyl, Suthon-M mevinphos Ia Bosdin, Fitor, Kvinphos, Lockphos, Mevinphos, Organophosphate Thailand Phosdrin, Sudrin, Triphos, monocrotophos* Ib Azodrin, Mobile 600, Tanchrodin, Worldcron, Organophosphate Thailand, Vietnam Apadrin omethoate Ib Zony Organophosphate China phosphamidon* Ia XK-35EC Organophosphate Vietnam pirimiphos-ethyl Ib Actellic 50EC Organophosphate France zinc phosphide Ib USA tra-cantal, Zawa, Bek kham, Razor, Inorganic Thailand, China Osotspa, Zinphos, Fobeka Vietnam

#note: these are countries of final formulation. Constituent chemicals may be manufactured elsewhere. *Also listed on Rotterdam Convention Prior Informed Consent O = previously class I, now considered obsolete by WHO

     farmers who had reduced pesticide usage in  The impact of wildlife trade were the older, most experienced ones. Recent outbreaks of insects and rats in rice fields have been attributed by Cambodian authorities to “the dwindling number of sparrows, which Demographic Factors: Rural manpower eat insects, and snakes, which eat rats”29. Snakes are hunted and sold shortages resulting from migration to urban to restaurants and snake blood mixed with rice wine is a popular – and centres have resulted in increased farm labour expensive – beverage. Roasted sparrows are a cheap, popular meal costs.This, together with the low market price of among Cambodians, requiring 10-15 birds per person. Snake and (often illegally imported) pesticides, encourages sparrow hunters are increasing in number each year, since the activity is pesticide use over traditional, labour-intensive more lucrative than farming29. At the peak of the wet season, 8500 methods (e.g. rat hunting or hand-picking of snakes per day are removed from the Tonle Sap for domestic Golden Apple Snail).The situation is consumption (by humans and farmed crocodiles) or export to Thailand, compounded by the high proportion ( in ) of Vietnam and China30. Other natural predators of rats targeted by Cambodians seriously disabled by landmines. wildlife poachers include wild cats and owls31. Besides impoverishing Cambodian wildlife, diminishing predator numbers encourage pest Perception of pesticides: Pesticide outbreaks, to which farmers respond with the use of pesticides. consumption is encouraged by agrochemical “I never see any snakes or sparrows in the fields or the jungle, but I see companies’ burgeoning advertisement campaigns many of them in cages at Neak Leung or in front of the Royal Palace”29 (it is estimated that the industry spends US$ —Hean Van Horn, Crop Protection Office, Cambodian Ministry of billion annually on advertising and marketing in Agriculture Asia).The radical and rapid pesticide action portrayed in adverts makes a very strong impression on farmers, especially as the Khmer translation of “pesticide” includes the word “medicine”. Some farmers increase product concentrations used in the belief that pesticides not only control pests but also stimulate vegetative growth. Overall, pesticides are seen as status symbols with the psychological attraction of “modernity”, and are believed to be able to solve many problems farmers might face,.

Foreign Aid: Cambodian pesticide use has been encouraged by international aid supplying free pesticides to stimulate modernisation and increase productivity. Between  and  the © Mike Meaney / mikemeaney.com FAO and several NGOs provided , metric Many snake species help control rat populations. At the peak of tonnes of pesticides. In , a Japanese project Cambodia’s wet season, 8500 snakes per day are removed from the provided , litres of free broad-spectrum Tonle Sap for domestic consumption or export to Thailand, Vietnam pesticides – an action roundly criticised by and China. environmentalists, the IRRI, and the FAO, under suspicion that the ‘gift’ primarily served to establish the Japanese chemical industry rather than assist poor Cambodian farmers. Regardless of whether or not pesticides were required or used effectively, such influxes have contributed to a culture of pesticide-dependence in Cambodia.

Previous Pesticide Use: Paradoxically, pesticide use itself encourages further chemical applications. As shall be shown when detailing negative impacts of pesticide use (pages -), such chemicals can kill natural predators (fish, frogs, insects) of pest species, and can encourage pest resistance and pest resurgence leading to outbreaks, to which farmers respond with further / www.traveladdicts.connectfree.co.uk Traveladdicts The © spraying. In Cambodia, sparrows help control insect pest populations but are caught and roasted to create a cheap, popular meal, requiring 10-15 birds per person.

     pesticides and cambodian law

 

Until , Cambodia had no legislation specifically concerning pesticides, although the  Law of Environmental Protection and Natural Resource Management (Article ) covered the need to inventory pollutants being produced, imported, stored or released. Monitoring, record-keeping, pollution prevention and control are to be covered by sub-decrees, represented to date by the April  sub-decree on Water Pollution Control, which also provides water quality standards in Annex  for concentrations of pesticide pollutants. The  sub-decree on Standards and Management of Agricultural Materials was the first legal instrument mentioning pesticides, and is concerned with “the import, sale, labelling, packaging, quality, storage, disposal and marketing of pesticides in Cambodia”. The sub-decree prohibits the use and sale of pesticides classified by WHO as ‘extremely or highly hazardous to human health’ (Class Ia or Ib). As shown on pages -, many of these proscribed chemicals are still in use in Cambodia.

 

Cambodia is a signatory to the Stockholm Convention banning Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs). Mostly pesticides, POPs pose special threats to human health and the environment through their ability to persist and biomagnify, increasing in concentration up the food chain and capable of transmission to offspring via the placenta or milk.Two of the nine POP pesticides are available in Cambodian markets: DDT and chlordane. Under the Stockholm Convention, a health-related exemption has been granted for DDT, which is still needed in many countries to control malarial mosquitoes.This will permit governments to protect their citizens from malaria – a

major killer in many tropical regions – until they are able to © EJF replace DDT with chemical and non-chemical alternatives Although Cambodian law prohibits use and sale of pesticides that are cost-effective and environmentally friendly.To date, classified by WHO as Class 1 (extremely or highly hazardous to Cambodia has not applied such exemptions. human health), they are widely available in pesticides shops and A second relevant international instrument is the markets. Despite its political will, the Royal Government of Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Cambodia is impeded by a lack of human and financial resources. (PIC) Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade. Cambodia has yet to sign route via which many hazardous pesticides enter the the agreement but is participating in the voluntary interim country, it seems likely that a situation will develop akin to procedure, which is aimed at reducing use of dangerous that in Indonesia, where there is “…a flawless approvals pesticides imported from other countries, and assisting system for pesticides, but no monitoring program to police their developing countries to develop strategies to deal with the use.Therefore, there is no way of checking that government issues surrounding hazardous pesticides. legislation is being obeyed”. Indeed, of  pesticides found Through the procedure Cambodia can publicise in CEDAC’s  Cambodian market survey, the Ministry decisions on whether or not it desires imports of the PIC of Agriculture bans eight and places  in the ‘restricted chemicals (those banned or severely restricted in member use’ category. countries), passing the onus to control trade to exporting The RGC appears to be dedicated to tackling the countries. pesticide problem and official institutions such as the Bureau of Agricultural Material Standards were established   in  to enforce the law.They are currently working on how to implement the sub-decree but lack of human and Having established their dedication to environmental financial resources, in this area as in others, impede the protection, the greatest challenge facing the Royal Government’s actions despite its political will. Clearly, Government of Cambodia (RGC) is the enforcement of its both financial and technical support from donor countries laws. Given the permeability of Cambodia’s borders, the and agencies would be valuable and cost-effective.

     cambodia’s pesticide problem: causes

’ pesticide problem arises not only because of the presence of chemicals banned by the Government and regarded globally as hazardous to human and environmental health, but Calso because of a suite of contributory factors.   

Limited education and little access to relevant information has led to a culture of ignorance in Cambodia regarding the dangers of pesticides and means to minimise these.Typically, farmers lack even the most basic information such as which pesticides are appropriate for specific pests, what doses to use, which pesticide mixes are safe, and what the correct re-entry and pre- harvest periods are. An FAO survey showed that only % of vegetable farmers had received training from a technical field officer. % of  farmers in a CEDAC survey learned to use pesticides from neighbours or traders, who themselves are unaware of pesticide risks, have not been trained and are often unable to read labels. Nevertheless, traders are perceived to be knowledgeable, “similar to a doctor”. The paucity of Cambodian farmers’ education extends to lack of awareness about the necessity of (and alternatives to) pesticide use and ignorance of whether insects on crops are genuine pests, are benign or even beneficial.

 

Western companies continue to produce

pesticides regarded by the international © G. Bizarri / FAO community to be of sufficient risk to human health and the environment to be included on the 50% of Cambodia’s population is under 15 and many are Prior Informed Consent procedure or in WHO active in agriculture. 48% of farmers recently asked allowed categories Ia and Ib. Although many of these children to apply pesticides. The heat discourages the use of pesticides are banned or restricted in the Western overalls, boots, gloves and masks and such protection is too world, stockpiles remain and continue to be expensive for most farmers. Pesticides are thus often in contact exported to developing countries, a process of with the applicants’ skin, eyes or mouth, leading to serious risks questionable ethics, given the inability of many of poisoning. such recipient countries to ensure safe and effective use. Regent (a Rhône-Poulenc fipronil product) Intrinsic consequences of corporate marketing and Zeneca’s lambda-cyhalothrin are promoted strategies are the increased use of and increased as IPM-compatible pesticides but have been dependence upon pesticides.Whilst such market criticised for their negative impacts on natural expansion is naturally the aim of any commercial control and potential for promotion of severe interest, it may run counter to the aims of pest outbreaks in Vietnam. Furthermore, fipronil Integrated Pest Management strategies (see is harmful to crustaceans – a major concern as pages -), which emphasise the use of a suite floodwater links paddy fields with shrimp farms. of methods (including chemicals when That Western agrochemical companies necessary) to increase agricultural productivity in continue to market older more dangerous an ecologically sound and sustainable manner. chemicals in Asia but not in the West is tacitly Whilst the agrochemical industry voices acknowledged in the APCPA statement that: support for IPM efforts in South-East Asia,it “The lack of adequate data protection in several has been suggested that their marketing strategies economically important Asian countries is without hinder attempts to develop and implement safe doubt a serious barrier to introducing new, safer, more and sustainable alternatives. effective IPM-compatible molecules”.

     “The labelling often written in improper language fails to provide data on the active ingredient, application, date of manufacture and safe handling of the chemical” FAO/WHO press release10

   

A large proportion of pesticides on sale in Bad labelling: Cambodia is imported from Vietnam and This WHO Class Thailand and is thus labelled in a language and Ia pesticides is script incomprehensible to even the minority of labelled in farmers who are literate. A CEDAC study English, not revealed that only  of  pesticide traders said Khmer, lacks an they could read foreign labels on pesticides they expiry date and sold, whilst .% of the pesticides were labelled uses symbols in a foreign language.This exacerbates the that are difficult problems outlined above and leaves users to interpret.

ignorant of which chemicals they are using, what © CEDAC application regime is recommended and what the dangers are.This is exemplified by farmers’ Good treatment of fungal attacks on coffee with labelling: monocrotophos and mevinphos, both insecticides Although and thus ineffectual. methamidophos is also banned, “SPC’s (Saigon Pesticides these bottles are Company) products are characterized labelled in by their high quality and consistency, Khmer, illustrate good in appearance and safe in use, and target crops and to be widely used throughout country”11 use clearer —Corporate information of the Saigon safety symbols. Pesticide Company, whose WHO Class Ib products DDVP (dichlorvos), Azodrin (monocrotophos) and Monitor (methamidophos) are widely available in Cambodia – with only Vietnamese labelling. © CEDAC

Producers of some pesticides sold in Cambodia without Khmer labelling12

Product WHO class Company Instructions language Folidol (methyl-parathion) Ia Bayer Thai Mevinphos (mevinphos) Ia Cyanamid Thai Phosdrin (mevinphos) Ia Shell Thai DDVP (dichlorvos) Ib TIGIPESCO (Vietnam) Vietnamese DDVP (dichlorvos) Ib Saigon Pesticide Company (Vietnam) Vietnamese DDVP (dichlorvos) Ib VIPESCO (Vietnam) Vietnamese Furadan (carbofuran) Ib VIPESCO (Vietnam) Vietnamese Ovansu (methamidophos) Ib Bayer Thai Giant (methamidophos) Ib Sanonda (China) English, Vietnamese Monitor (methamidophos) Ib Saigon Pesticide Company (Vietnam) Vietnamese Azodrin (monocrotophos) Ib VIPESCO (Vietnam) Vietnamese Azodrin (monocrotophos) Ib Saigon Pesticide Company (Vietnam) Vietnamese Lannate (methomyl) Ib DuPont Thai Regent (fipronil) II Rhone-Poulenc (now Aventis) Chinese, Vietnamese Thiodan (endosulfan) II Hoechst (now Aventis) Vietnamese Thiodan (endosulfan) II Techno Agricultural Supplying Co. Vietnamese Padan (cartap) II Takeda (Japan) Vietnamese Sumicidin (fenvalerate) II Sumitomo Chemical Co. Ltd Vietnamese Diazinon (deltamethrin) II Asiatic Agricultural Industries Pte Ltd (Singapore) English Decise (deltamethrin) II AgroEvo (Hoechst) (now Aventis) Vietnamese Cyrin (cypermethrin) II Searle (India) Ltd (now ISAGRO, Italy) Vietnamese Pegasus (diafenthiuron) III Novartis (now Syngenta) Vietnamese Glyphosate U Monsanto Vietnamese

     “Since I began to use pesticides I notice that my health has deteriorated.” Mrs Srey Ya, vegetable farmer, Kien Svay district, Kandal Province

‘ ’  The Magnificent Seven? The seven companies (Aventis CropScience, BASF, If evidence from Cambodia’s neighbours is Bayer, DowAgroSciences, DuPont, Monsanto and indicative, it would appear that even if Syngenta) dominating agrochemical production are all instructions are printed in Khmer, and can be based in Europe or the USA, where some of the strictest read, they will not necessarily be understood or chemical control legislation exists. respected. A study by German technical aid The seven companies dominating agrochemical agency GTZ and the University of Hannover production are all based in Europe or the USA, where some revealed that, “Thai farmers apply higher than of the strictest chemical control legislation exists. Among recommended concentrations, do not pay attention to their products are chemicals banned or severely restricted in labels, wear no protective clothing and do not respect the West but which are marketed to developing countries recommended intervals between spraying and where inappropriate use is rife. harvest”. Similarly, in Vietnam, whilst % of Ascertaining which companies are producing which farmers were able to read pesticide instructions, chemicals and where is difficult. Some of the companies’ only % understood and followed them. websites, for example, list only a selection of their Instructions targeted to temperate zone agrochemical portfolio – generally the most modern, consumers are simply not realistic in the patented-protected products. Cambodian context.The heat discourages the During the writing of this report, each of the big seven use of overalls, boots, gloves and masks and such was approached with requests to provide lists of all of their protection is too expensive for most farmers. agrochemical products and the sites of their manufacture Only % of farmers interviewed in a  FAO and formulation. With the exception of DuPont, all declined study changed their clothes after spraying and to reply. one-half did not wash their hands. Lockable storage (beyond reach of children and animals) is uncommon and pesticides are often kept near (tanks, valves, lances) leaked onto the sprayers’ cooking areas,. Used pesticide containers are hands and down their necks and backs. disposed of without caution, frequently discarded Ignorance or disrespect of good practice is in fields, ponds or near houses. Furthermore, reflected by a CIAP survey conducted in , tools used are often old and in poor condition. In which demonstrated that % of farmers mixed Indonesia – a country with similar problems – it pesticides in the same containers used for was found that nearly half the spray equipment drinking water. Even at the traders’ level, risk awareness is minimal. Of  pesticide shops Lockable storage, beyond reach of children and visited by CEDAC in , over half did not animals, is uncommon in rural Cambodian houses. separate pesticides from cosmetics, food, drinks, Pesticides are often kept near cooking areas, and medicine; the situation remained a year sometimes among food items. later.

“During one season I spray - times, which is  tanks of pesticide in one go. I mix three different types of pesticide.This makes the crop grow better and look more attractive. I can read but cannot understand the labels on the bottles and packages of pesticides. Since I began to use pesticides I notice that my health has deteriorated.” Mrs Srey Ya, vegetable farmer, Kien Svay district, Kandal Province

   

According to a  Government report, % of Cambodian farmers believed that pesticides had no effect on human health, % thought that sickness was possible and none envisaged a risk of death. Even when health risks are accepted, many believe that danger only exists if pesticides are ingested orally, rather than via the skin or inhalation. Said farmer Keo Chouk, , “If you don’t drink [the pesticide] you will never die. If you are careful, you will never have a problem”. Even when signs of pesticide poisoning are shown, farmers do not always make the © Rachel Rinaldo

     “I can read but cannot understand the labels on the bottles and packages of pesticides.” Mrs Srey Ya, vegetable farmer, Kien Svay district, Kandal Province

connection. Some have blamed “bad magic” for Cambodian law (see page ) but remain health problems that are symptoms of pesticide available. % of  vegetable farmers poisoning. A child who collapsed whilst spraying questioned by FAO researchers used Class a or insecticide on rice was said to have “fell asleep b chemicals.Weak law enforcement contributes immediately” by his family, who expressed to the continued market presence of these surprise that he was so exhausted from the work: dangerous chemicals. applying insecticide directly from a bucket to the plant with the help of straws. Such exposure of    children to harmful chemicals is widespread. Indeed, % of farmers in a recent survey said Variable pesticide quality, encouraged by lack of that they allowed children to apply pesticides. controls over what is sold, confuses farmers and A recent FAO study suggested awareness is discourages good practice. For example, fake improving – % of vegetable farmers associated versions of well-known branded products are ill health with pesticide use. However, bad widely available. A  CIAP survey of rat practice persists and farmers aware of health poison revealed that one product was risks may consider them minimal relative to the completely fake and another was only % zinc lost harvest they fear will follow a cessation of phosphide, though labelled as %. Safe use of pesticide use.Vegetable farmers also believe such pesticides is almost impossible as farmers pesticides make their crops look healthy and consider them ‘weak’ on the basis that they do therefore increase their market value. not work as expected. During the next use of the same type of chemical, doses might be    increased, but if the next product is more concentrated, over-application will result, Many dangerous pesticides (those in WHO Class increasing risks to humans and the Ia and b) are officially banned under environment.

Safe use? The Asia-Pacific Crop Protection Association (APCPA), provides regional representation of the agrochemical industry (members include Aventis, BASF, Bayer, Dow AgroSciences, FMC, DuPont, Monsanto, Syngenta and Sumitomo). APCPA members endorse the Safe Use Initiative, a system of product stewardship in Asia19. According to the Bayer website ”Product stewardship does not end at the factory gate. At Bayer, environmental and safety aspects of a product are critically examined for the entire life of the product”20. However, Bayer is the manufacturer of Folidol (methyl-parathion), the most commonly used pesticide in Cambodia, although banned by the Government. Much of Cambodia’s Folidol is labelled in Thai and, as such, instructions for safe use are unintelligible to most users. This can hardly be considered safe for the product’s “entire life” (see also page 22 on Peru). Although the industry highlights the fact that fake Folidol is on sale in Cambodia, independent sources question the significance of the counterfeits as a proportion of the total15. Japan’s Takeda Chemical Industries Ltd boasts on its website that “The safe, environment-friendly agrochemicals created at these laboratories are making a significant contribution to Japanese 21 agriculture, and are also exported worldwide” . © EJF Indian workers report poisoning and death from Cambodian farmers, who are often unable to read the labels, do not handling Padan (a cartap pesticide) for Takeda22. know basic precautions related to the use of pesticides. Food containers Padan is available in Cambodia but all instructions are used for mixing pesticides. This can lead to confusion and serious are in Vietnamese. domestic accidents, especially for children.

     cambodia’s pesticide problem: dangers

 faces both human Oral contamination affects both resulting in high levels of residues in and environmental pesticide- sprayers and consumers, whereas the food products, and potentially causing related problems, all of which two other modes of contamination consumer poisoning. A growing are exacerbated by limited affect mainly farmers. Although concern is contamination of drinking appreciation of the risks ingesting pesticide is the most water through use of the same associatedC with pesticides. dangerous, breathing and adsorption containers to mix pesticides and to through the skin are probably the transport drinking water, or by direct     major causes of occupational pollution of water systems. poisoning cases among farmers in A major cause of farmers’ poisoning An estimated three million reported Cambodia as they are usually unaware is pesticide inhalation caused by cases of pesticide-associated acute of these particular risks. spraying without protective masks poisoning occur annually, resulting in Direct drinking of large quantities (pieces of cloth are sometimes used , deaths, % of which occur of pesticides is very rare and usually but they usually have minimal in the developing world, although happens in connection with suicide protective effect). Adsorption of these countries account for only % attempts. Accidental oral pesticides through the skin is the least of global pesticide use. contamination usually results when acknowledged mode of contamination. Contamination can occur via three farmers eat, drink or smoke while It is not unusual for farmers to mix main routes: spraying or do so just after spraying pesticides with bare hands, or to walk without washing their hands (for some barefoot in fields.These routes of oral (ingestion) pesticides, like methyl-parathion, very contamination are very difficult to inhalation small quantities can induce poisoning). prevent as Cambodian conditions As many Cambodian farmers are make wearing of protective clothes and through the skin (adsorption) unfamiliar with the concept of pre- masks impractical. harvest period, pesticides may be Pesticides can be dangerous for applied up to the day of harvest, human health in two ways: acute

Why are pesticides dangerous for humans? The diversity of pesticide compounds makes it difficult to generalise, but insecticides – with the exception of the most recent ones – all tend to act in the same way: targeting insects’ nervous systems, specifically the ‘synapses’. Synapses are spaces between nerve cells, across which chemical molecules transmit nervous information. Each insecticide can affect different synaptic molecules, but a given insecticide does not affect all potential target molecules. What makes insecticides particularly toxic for humans is the fact that human and insect nerve cells work, at a basic level, in the same way. So the nerve cell targets of the insecticides are present – and can be affected – in the human body. Usually, however, insecticides must reach nerve cells and so undergo modifications – mainly in the digestive system, which differs greatly between insects and humans. Insecticide compounds thus tend to be activated specifically by insect metabolism, and neutralised by human metabolism. Despite this tendency, many pesticides are still dangerous for human health. For example, parathion is activated in insect bodies to give paraoxon, a molecule 100 times more toxic to insects. Mammals cannot make this transformation, but parathion is still toxic to them through different reactions. Such actions on the nervous system can result either in immediate toxic effects or on longer-term disruptions (delayed neuropathies).

Right: Many farmers believe that danger only exists if pesticides are ingested orally, rather than via the skin or inhalation. It is not unusual for farmers to mix pesticides with bare hands, or to walk barefoot in fields. This Cambodian farmer’s hands show symptoms of direct pesticide

     A warning from Peru9 A scenario bearing striking similarities to that currently observed in Cambodia exists in Peru and serves as a stark warning of the potential for harm posed by pesticides. According to a recent press release from Pesticide Action Network9, 24 Peruvian children died following ingestion of Bayer’s Folidol (methyl-parathion), which had contaminated powered milk supplies. Although the pesticide was labelled in Spanish, it was marketed to Andean farmers, many of whom speak only Quechua and are illiterate. Furthermore, the packaging lacked pictograms warning of health hazards, instead showing images of healthy carrots.

poisoning and chronic effects. Acute human development and in    poisoning has the most striking effects reproduction, such ‘endocrine  and can lead to immediate disruption’ can affect humans as incapacitation and death. Chronic embryos or children. However, A recent () report from the FAO poisoning is usually less dramatic, consequences may only appear later in Community IPM programme appearing gradually, thus making the life, and include learning difficulties, provided strong evidence of pesticide connection with pesticide more behavioural and reproductive poisoning among Cambodian farmers, difficult to establish and to explain to affectations (e.g. accelerated puberty, the majority of whom were using the victim. infertility), and increased susceptibility chemicals classed as moderately to Pesticides’ acute toxicity is to cancer. extremely hazardous to human health measured by the Lethal Dose  One well-known effect of some (WHO classifications Ia, Ib, II).Of (LD), the amount of the product pesticides is their disruption of  pesticide-using farmers that would result in the death of half a cholinesterase, an enzyme functioning interviewed, % had experienced population of laboratory rats.The in the transmission of information symptoms of poisoning (dizziness, most toxic pesticides have the lowest across synapses between nerves. headaches, night sweats, shortness of LD (very small doses can kill). For Cholinesterase disruptors prevent breath, chest pains, red eyes, example, methyl-parathion has an oral nerves from working correctly. In unconsciousness) during or after LD of  mg per kg of body weight; particular, this can affect brain nerves, spraying. % reported vomiting, a nicotine and DDT both have oral responsible for the release of sign of moderate poisoning after LD of  mg per kg; malathion has hormones, hence affecting the spraying, whilst % had experienced an oral LD of  mg per kg. reproductive system. Cholinesterase unconsciousness, indicative of serious Acute poisoning symptoms depend disruption thus results in both poisoning. both on the toxicity of the product and immediate symptoms and longer-term According to a CEDAC report, in on the quantity absorbed.They are effects. Immediate symptoms resemble , at least one farmer died from numerous and range from dizziness the symptoms of acute toxicity.They pesticide poisoning and several became and nausea to breathing difficulties, can, however, be mistaken with seriously ill. In Siem Reap in , convulsions, increased blood pressure symptoms of common illnesses in seven Cambodians died and  and changes in heart rate (that can developing countries: heat prostration, became sick after eating normally non- lead to coma or death),.The same exhaustion, hypoglycaemia, toxic tetradontus fish. Hong Sun symptoms can sometimes be observed pneumonia, etc. Many pesticides from Huot, Cambodian Minister of Health after repeated exposure to pesticides the organophosphate and carbamate said, “According to the results of our (chronic toxicity). Delayed effects families are known cholinesterase laboratory tests, there were high levels of (including loss of feeling and needle- disruptors. pesticides in the fish”. This explanation like pain in the extremities) can Other long-term effects are was later disputedb, and the role of sometimes be observed  to  weeks teratogenic (inducing embryo pesticides in this case remains unclear. after an important exposure (to malformation), mutagenic (inducing It is likely that pesticide poisoning is methamidophos, for example). genetic or chromosomal mutations) under-reported in Cambodia, where Long-term effects are harder to and carcinogenic (inducing cancer). symptom recognition and association evaluate and data for a given pesticide Pesticides are tested for these effects, with pesticides have only recently vary between sources. One general but their slow emergence is hard to developed. In Thailand, in the early concern is pesticides’ effect on reveal in tests. If effects are found at s, there were reported to be about hormones. Since hormones are small doses though, pesticides are not  cases of occupational pesticide especially important in early stages of commercialised. poisoning annually.

     “I have never seen such hazardous pesticides used in any country in such a hazardous fashion” Helen Murphy, Medical Epidemiologist, speaking of Cambodia36

Left: This parasitic wasp is laying its eggs in a pest caterpillar, which will die as a 600 result. Such natural enemies are beneficial to farmers but 500 are killed by broad-spectrum pesticides, making pest 400 resurgence more likely. 300

resistant to at least one Number of species pesticide (global data)14,15 100 0 1938 1948 1958 1968 1978 1988 1998 Year

  prevalence as pesticides being “not as observed that brown plant-hopper strong as in the past”.This is termed outbreaks do not precede pesticide use Another major environmental concern the “pesticide treadmill”, a classic – they follow it. is pests’ resistance to some pesticides. vicious circle that leaves farmers in Far from being restricted to the thrall to dangerous pesticides whilst   developing world, this occurs virtually promoting further resistance. everywhere pesticides are used (an Negative pesticide effects are not estimated  arthropod species are   limited to farmers and insects in the resistant to one or more pesticides). vicinity of their application, but are Pesticide resistance occurs by Pesticides, particularly broad-spectrum also manifested through the natural selection.Whilst pesticides kill insecticides widely used in Cambodia contamination of the wider most insects, individuals with random today, often fail to differentiate environment, particularly of water mutations conferring reduced between target and non-target species. systems and food chains. sensitivity to insecticide molecules are As well as killing pest species, other Consequently, environmental pesticide more likely to survive spraying and insects, including natural enemies of reproduce. Some of their offspring will pest insects, are killed. However, Already endangered by wildlife trade, inherit this resistance and, as long as differences in reproductive strategies birds can be poisoned by pesticides pesticide application continues, the often allow pests to recover faster than through direct contamination or by proportion of resistant individuals will their predators.The absence of natural feeding on contaminated insects in the increase. Resistance can spread rapidly control agents can then lead to fields. as insects have short generation times explosions of pest populations. and large numbers of offspring. For example, insecticide sprays For example, the brown plant- against brown plant-hoppers eliminate hopper (Nilaparvata lugens), a pest of the adults – and their predators – but rice, became resistant to methyl- plant-hopper eggs are safely laid inside parathion in Vietnam in  and rice plants and hatch a few days later, Taiwan in . Resistance to this giving rise to a second generation that, insecticide elsewhere in Asia is in the absence of predators, will suspected, but confirmatory surveys proliferate even more than the first have yet to be conducted. In total, the one. Such pest resurgence has brown plant-hopper is resistant to  occurred on a range of Asian crops pesticides across South-East Asia. including fruit, rice, cotton, vegetables, Cambodian farmers’ responses to cocoa and oil palm. As long ago as pesticide resistance include mixing , FAO researchers presented data several insecticides to obtain “more from Cambodia that showed that powerful” products.This is a pesticide applications threatened rice dangerous undertaking, as the toxicity crops by killing off natural enemies of of the mixtures may be greater than pest insects, allowing the pests to that of constituent chemicals – the so- proliferate in their absence. called ‘cocktail effect’. Farmers also The emergence, in tandem, of react by increasing the quantity and pesticide resistance amplifies the frequency of pesticide application, problem of reliance on chemicals for misinterpreting increased insect pest control. In Thailand it has been © Peter Schrock © Peter

     Case studies: effects of pollution further impacts humans by concentrating in fat tissues these pesticides on wildlife the contamination of water supplies persistent pollutants ‘escape’ metabolic Research from Cambodia is lacking and food products. degradation and concentrate up the but data from elsewhere indicate the Water contamination can be direct, food chain. Meat-eaters, including risks posed by chemical pesticides if spraying occurs near the water humans, at the top of the food chain used today in Cambodia today. system, but more commonly occurs thus face increased risks.The effects when pesticides are carried away from of persistent organic pesticides vary endosulfan (WHO Class II) runoff fields by rain or soil erosion. between species and concentrations, from cotton fields killed over Contamination also results from the but include direct mortality through 240,000 fish in Alabama (USA) in practice of abandoning pesticide disruption of the nervous system. Less 1995 – the pesticide was applied packages, since they often retain some toxic effects, often observed in birds, according to label instructions27. chemical that eventually enters the include egg-shell thinning, monocrotophos (Ib) is responsible environment. Finally, washing of feminisation of embryos and reduced for extensive mortality of Swainson’s spraying equipment is a source of levels of hormones concerned with Hawk (Buteo swainsonii) in pollution. egg-laying. Although sub-lethal, these Argentina, with as many as 20,000 Once in the environment, pesticides effects still contribute to population birds dying in winter 1995-628. can be broken down by sunlight, declines. water, or micro-organisms (e.g. Although carbamates and DDT (II) is one of a cocktail of bacteria). However, although organophosphates do not persist in the organophosphates implicated in the pesticides usually break down into less same manner as organochlorines, deaths of hundreds of fish-eating harmful compounds, in some cases the many are highly toxic to birds, birds, largely pelicans but also rare newly formed compounds are more mammals, fishes, reptiles, and insects, storks, in Lake Apopka, Florida toxic than the initial pesticide. acting by interfering with neurological (USA) in the late 1990s29. Furthermore, not all pesticides processes common to these disparate brodifacoum (Ia) has killed large degrade in the environment, and some taxa. Again, effects vary between predatory birds, including owls and (termed persistent organic pollutants, species, pesticides and concentrations hawks, that have eaten rats targeted e.g. DDT, endrin) can remain but include rapid death (see box); in by the poison30 unchanged for very long periods. the USA, mammals and thousands of In Cambodia, higher levels of birds of over  species have died as a cypermethrin (II) sprayed on persistent organochlorines, including result of pesticide exposure. Other Bangladeshi vegetables in 1999 DDT, have been recorded in less obvious neurological and caused over 5000 sparrows to die freshwater than marine species of fish hormonal effects of pesticides on the following day, having eaten and mussels, indicating that pollution wildlife include appetite suppression poisoned insects31. originated in inland watersheds. contributing to starvation, decreased diazonin (II) is blamed for Concentrations of such pesticides in cold tolerance, disruption of parental numerous cases of mass poisoning fish tissues, for instance, can be tens to care and increased susceptibility to of geese (up to 700 in a single kill) in hundreds of thousands times greater predation. In the USA, methoprene, Canada and the USA, with death than in the surrounding water.By an insect growth regulator used to coming within minutes of swallowing sprayed grass32. Cambodian water-birds, like this globally threatened Painted Stork, are especially prone to pesticide exposure because of contaminated food and water. carbofuran (Ib) used to control flea beetles caused the deaths of several thousand Lapland Longspurs in a single Canadian field in 198432. phosphamidon (Ia), nicknamed ‘purple death’, resulted in heavy mortality and massive reductions of kinglets and several warbler species in Canada between 1963 and 197732. Other specific compounds responsible for pesticide-related wildlife mortality include: chlorpyrifos (II), dimethoate (II), methyl-parathion (Ia), and methamidophos (Ib)23. All of these pesticides remain available on the Cambodian market © Terry Whittaker © Terry

     Left: Pesticide packages abandoned near fields are an important source of environmental contamination.

Right: A major problem is that farmers spray crops a few days before harvests. Thus, pesticide concentrations on produce (especially fruit and vegetables) are still very high when they are sold at market and eaten. © EJF © EJF

control fleas and mosquitoes has been food poisoning when, in turn, they are shrimps, edible insects and frogs, linked to frog deformities (extra consumed by humans. represent a valuable protein source for legs). Birth defects noted in birds rural people.The use of pesticides kills include crossed bills, missing eyes and -  these animals and denies rice farmers clubbed feet. As with persistent access to the dietary supplement. organochlorines, these sublethal effects As well as public health concerns Fish constitutes an integral nonetheless contribute to population related to direct and indirect pesticide component of typical Cambodian declines. poisoning, continued pesticide use in diets, providing around % of animal By disrupting the natural ecosystem Cambodia will have other socio- protein. In an environment already balance, pesticides can have further economic impacts. destabilised by fishing and logging indirect effects on wild species. For Current agricultural pesticide use is practices, water pollution by pesticides example, in the UK, sharp declines in a costly approach, not reflected by is one more element that could lead to UK bird populations have been linked increases in yield. As such, it dramatic disruption of the Cambodian to pesticide use, not through direct impoverishes farmers and leaves them ecosystem and contribute to increased poisoning, but through elimination of dependent on external inputs. imbalance in rural diets. plant and insect food sources. According to CEDAC, methyl- Pesticide residues limit the potential Similarly, as stressed earlier, pesticide parathion retails at US$- per litre for export to countries with strict poisoning of natural enemies of pest and FAO states that rice farmers use controls on food safety.This concern is species can allow them to proliferate - litres per hectare, depending on said to have triggered the Indonesian and cause greater problems for the type of cultivation.Thus, for decision to improve its residues agriculture. some farmers, pesticide costs equate monitoring programme, whilst Dr Yang Saing Koma, Executive to almost % the per capita GDP. An providing an incentive to increase Director of CEDAC, believes that IRRI study showed that there is no net control of domestic pesticide use. declines in numbers of some bird economic benefit of pesticide use in Similarly,Thailand has recently species from around the Tonle Sap are tropical rice cultivation. In vegetable developed a pesticide residue partly due to pesticide poisoning.In farming, higher pesticide monitoring system for market produce recent years, mung bean farmers in concentrations (up to  litres / ha) destined for human consumption.In Siem Reap province are estimated to are used. Although most family-level Cambodia, local consumers are also have applied  tonnes (active vegetable farmers have only about . expressing concern about pesticide ingredient) of a pesticide cocktail of hectares in production, such ingestion through food consumption. DDT,Thiodan (endosulfan) and concentrations are extremely A major problem is that farmers spray Folidol (methyl-parathion) on fields expensive especially since it has been crops a few days before harvests.Thus, that, in the wet season, are submerged shown that pesticide use can be pesticide concentrations on produce and thus capable of polluting the Tonle reduced by over % from current (especially fruit and vegetables) are Sap. practice in vegetables without loss in still very high when they are sold at Besides accidental contamination of yield. market and eaten. the environment from pesticides used Beyond direct costs, pesticide Pesticide residues therefore have the on farmland, pesticides are purposely presence in paddy fields prohibits potential not only to endanger the used around Tonle Sap to kill fish and traditional rice-fish culture (see page future of Cambodian exports but also game for human consumption. ), a potential means of increased to impact the domestic market, thus Animals thus contaminated usually income for rice farmers. Each year, affecting the urban population and contain high levels of pesticides in Cambodian floodplain rice fields fill potentially tarnishing the image of the their tissues.They can cause serious with fish that, along with crabs, burgeoning tourism industry.

     tonle sap: a disaster waiting to happen?

The Tonle Sap lake, the largest in SE Asia, is the Pesticide input dominant geographical feature of the Cambodian 1.3 million litres of pesticides used in Tonle Sap landscape, expanding to cover 13,000 km2 in the wet catchment in 200035. season40. The lake and its 80,000 km2 catchment are of considerable cultural and economic importance to Most chemicals used are illegal and classed as highly the communities that live close to its shore, and to or extremely hazardous to human health (WHO class I)35. those more distant who benefit from its abundant An estimated 10 tonnes of DDT & methyl-parathion fisheries and agricultural output – in total, half of have run-off from 2000 ha of mung bean crops in recent Cambodia’s population are thought to draw gain from years34. the catchment40. However, dangers posed by pesticides loom on the horizon. The potential for Pesticides including endosulfan and methyl-parathion severe human and environmental impacts in the Tonle are illegally used to kill fish16,43. Sap area reflect wider pesticide-related problems Pesticides are used to protect dried fish from insects44. facing Cambodia as a whole. Tonle Sap’s unique hydrology (wet season reverse flow of the river) and Most users remain ignorant of potential for harm. connection with the Mekong basin may contribute to pollutants being distributed far from their source41.

Human uses Rural population of 3.4 million40, 38% of whom live below the poverty line42. Many subsistence fishers and 60% of Cambodia’s commercial catch37. Centuries old rice production and other agriculture. Burgeoning tourist industry visiting nearby Angkor Wat and bird-watching sites. © EJF

Natural riches Dangers posed by pesticides 500 fish species (179 endemic to the lake)40,45. Acute and chronic poisoning of farmers. 225 bird species. Internationally significant Wildlife poisoning and breeding grounds for rare death. birds, e.g Bengal Florican Pest outbreaks caused by (Houbaropsis bengalensis), absence of predators Greater Adjutant (Leptoptilos inadvertently targeted by dubius)46. pesticides. 190 plant species in Poisoning of human food flooded forest40. supply of rice and fish. Rare turtles and endemic Impacts on domestic and Tonle Sap water snake export food markets, and on Enhydris longicauda47,48. the tourist industry. UNESCO Man and Long-term and long- Biosphere Reserve40. distance impacts due to bioaccumulation of toxins, considerable water flow and transport of polluted food. © EJF

     alternatives and solutions in cambodian agriculture

    initial costs are relatively high (US$-  per unit in Indonesia and Vietnam), It is now known that pests of rice do materials can be re-used and shared. not affect yield to the extent previously Other non-chemical approaches thought and experts conclude that include avoiding staggered harvests in “insecticides are usually not needed in cropping areas, use of extended fallow rice”. Reflecting this, elsewhere in the periods, and ensuring field bunds are region, increases in pesticide low to deter nesting. application have not been matched by In non-rice agriculture, conclusions proportionate increases in about the need for pesticides are less productivity. easy to draw.This is in part because, Furthermore, it seems that many compared to rice, considerably less insecticide applications are research has been conducted into crop inappropriate, targeting the wrong pests and protection. Furthermore, the insect or being applied at the wrong diversity of non-rice products means time.This is the case for up to % of that a more diversified approach to pesticides sprayed in the Philippines, crop protection is required.This is of  for instance . In Thailand, most rice © IRRI concern given the agrochemical farmers spray their crop in the first Although targeted by Cambodian industries’ recent prediction that month after planting, yet these farmers’ pesticides, research from vegetable production will increase by applications are unnecessary. On the Vietnam has shown that spraying against % per annum in all South-East Asian contrary, they can kill pests’ predators, rice leaf-folders is unnecessary countries. thus allowing subsequent pest In some circumstances, pesticide outbreaks. population is not high enough to seriously use is an attractive means of pest Studies in Vietnam and the affect harvests”. control for farmers. However, the Philippines revealed that leaf-feeding After insects, the major pests direct and indirect costs of using insects were commonly targeted, targeted by pesticides in Cambodia are pesticides should always be compared accounting for % and % of rats. In contrast to insects, rat damage to the benefit they bring. As insecticide use in each country, but seems to be of real importance, “one of mentioned earlier, another hidden cost that spraying was out of proportion to the biggest threats to a growing rice crop”, of pesticide use is the residual effect on pest abundance. Although, leaf- according to CSIRO expert Dr Grant food products and their subsequent feeding insects are conspicuous to Singleton. loss in value, particularly for products farmers, rice can tolerate losing up to Alternatives to chemical control are destined for export. Such costs are % of leaf area without being developed and include CSIRO’s major incentives for farmers and compromising yield. A joint IRRI / Community Trap Barrier System government to turn to Integrated Pest Cantho University (Vietnam) study (CTBS), which uses a small, early crop Management or organic farming (see conducted in  in Vietnam’s to lure rats into a central trapping area below).Without suggesting that Mekong Delta convinced rice farmers and is cost-effective in situations where pesticides should be abandoned, their that spraying insecticides against leaf- losses are expected to exceed %. use should always remain a last resort, folders is unnecessary. Consequently, CTBS is only effective when used at when the cost of loss induced by pests’ half the region’s farmers stopped using the community level and although outbreaks justify it. pesticides against this pest and some were even testing whether they also really needed other pesticides. An IRRI study of rice production in the Philippines concluded that, when health costs are included in an economic analysis, pesticide use is detrimental to both rice productivity and farmers’ health. Given the similarities between rice production in the above countries and Cambodia, it is likely that a large proportion of insecticide used in Cambodian rice production is unnecessary. Indeed, recommending against the introduction of insecticides to Cambodia in the early s, staff of the Japan International Volunteer Center, FAO and IRRI warned that: “in most Cambodian rice paddies the pest © SAO-UK

     “Insecticides are usually not needed in rice” Dr P. Matteson, FAO1

IPM: Indonesia’s success    have previously received such training story20,21 (Trainers’Training Scheme).Thus, In 1986, in response to Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is farmers can gain the confidence pesticide-induced defined in the FAO Code of Conduct required to make their own decisions resurgence of brown plant- as “the careful integration of a number of back on their own farms. hopper, President Suharto available pest control techniques that To date, over , farmers (/ banned 28 pesticides in 57 discourage the development of pest female) have attended rice IPM FFS products and IPM became populations and keep pesticides and other and over  have completed further national policy for rice interventions to levels that are training and now organise FFS in their production. economically justified and reduce/minimise own areas. risks to human health and the This is a self-sustaining system, and Indonesia saved over environment. IPM emphasises the growth farmers can pass on the knowledge US$100 million a year by of a healthy crop with the least possible without any external help. phasing out an 85% disruption of agro-ecosystems, thereby Paradoxically, the fact that farmers pesticide subsidy between encouraging natural pest control learn from each other is the main 1986 and 1989. mechanisms”. reason that misconceptions about IPM Farmer Field Schools Essentially, IPM is a system of pest pesticides exist, as there has been no (FFS) were initiated – nearly control using a suite of biological, previous access to reliable information 1 million farmers have been chemical, cultural, and temporal sources. Now, once the basics of safe, trained in Indonesia. methods in concert and in an environmentally-friendly pest control environmentally sound and sustainable have been gained by some farmers, Nearly every village in rice- manner. they can be passed on to others in the growing areas has a FFS In order that farmers learn these same way. Farmers have more faith in graduate. techniques, FAO and the Cambodian their neighbours who share their IPM-trained farmers use Department of Agronomy initiated problems than in outsiders who are significantly less pesticide. “Farmer Field Schools”. In FFS, not part of their community. farmers meet weekly and learn to For IPM to work farmers must “be IPM farmers achieve equal recognise pests, predators and able to identify problems, have access to or higher yields, and greater parasites, to decide when pesticide use appropriate control measures and have the profits. is necessary, and to use pesticides confidence to make appropriate choices”. Across the country, safely. In addition they learn about Field schools help solving the first and pesticide use has halved seed selection, soil fertility, water last points, but government and NGOs and yields have risen by management and other aspects of crop play a central part in providing 10%. production. appropriate control measures, by Importantly, teaching occurs in the conducting field experiments. Health costs of pesticide field, through a participatory process, Focuses of IPM methods in rice poisoning have fallen since and is often conducted by farmers who production include: IPM’s introduction. In Farmer Field Schools, farmers learn to recognise pests, predators and parasites and that most pesticide use indiscriminately kills all of these species.

“The FAO Inter-country Programme for the Development and Application of IPM in Rice in South and South-East Asia has achieved a significant reduction in pesticide use and has led to 50-100% reductions of insecticide use, without reductions in yield; cropping has become more sustainable and more profitable.” —FAO. Summary of FAO Capacity Building Efforts in Pesticide Management14 © G. Bizarri / FAO

     Rice-field ecology: Farmers learn fields are levelled (average yields Case study: IPM of diamondback that respect of wildlife living in or obtained were . tonnes per hectare moth nearby the fields helps control pests – versus . tonnes per hectare in Larvae of the diamondback moth that frogs, toads, fishes, birds, and uneven fields, though in some levelling (Plutella xylostella) are major pests of especially spiders and certain insects trials, yields of . tonnes per hectare cabbages and their relatives. feed on insect pests, and that snakes were attained). They are resistant to all pesticides feed on rats. Farmers learn to identify in Thailand, Malaysia, and the different species, understand their Seed quality: Farmers should pay Philippines26. feeding habits and life cycles, be aware attention to the cleanliness of their Parasitic wasps (Cotesia plutellae) of factors affecting population seeds. Many seed stocks contain weed have been used as biocontrol agents dynamics, and appreciate crops’ ability seeds (either in seeds set aside by in conjuction with Bt (biological to recover from damage.Thus, they farmers from previous years or in insecticide) sprays in Cambodia’s learn that predators such as lady commercial seeds). Clean seeds could Kien Svay district, Kandal Province. beetles, wolf spiders and mirid bugs increase yield by up to %. Little damage appeared in fields can control herbivorous insect pests. without chemical insecticides There is, of course, a conflict of Pesticide timing: Kenneth Fisher, whereas those sprayed with interest for the rural population deputy director-general for research at pesticides were heavily damaged by between hunting larger animals that IRRI in , advised that simplicity the moth27. can represent a very valuable source of in the implementation of Integrated In another study, net barriers over cash income when sold on Cambodian Pest Management techniques is of cabbage plants reduced peak larvae markets, and protecting them to help great importance. For example, densities from 80.9 to just 3.4 per control rice pests and thus improve simple, but very effective, advice that plant, and doubled yield25. their staple food harvest. Often in such can be given to farmers is to wait at situations, farmers prefer the short- least  days after sowing before term solution. Arguably, if Cambodian spraying any insecticides: most insects farmers were more aware of the disappear on their own within this relations between rice pests and their period. Not using pesticides early in predators, the unsustainable trade in the season allows the establishment in wildlife might decrease. rice fields of predatory spiders, crickets and beetles, and also, depending on Weed control: Farmers learn that rice system, fishes and frogs that also attention should be given to weed eat pests, and are potential protein problems as soon as possible to give sources.

farmers alternative tools before the © G. Bizarri / FAO temptation of herbicide becomes a Biological control: The use of Above: Using insect zoos, IPM farmers reality and results in the same natural enemies of pest species can learn the life cycles of pest and beneficial problems as insecticides and partially obviate the need for chemical insects. rodenticides pose today. It is easier to pesticides. Predators and parasites teach farmers how to fight weeds including Trichogramma wasps, Below: In terms of quantity per hectare without chemicals than to have to lacewings and nematodes can be vegetable production uses considerably convince them later to give up reared in low-tech insectaries near to more pesticides than rice. The FAO has herbicides. the fields in which they are to be recently shifted its IPM focus away from Weeds cause an estimated yield loss deployed. Release of bio-control rice and towards vegetable production. of -% in Cambodian rice fields. agents may be more applicable in Water management in irrigated rice is vegetable than rice cultivation since a very efficient way of controlling the long history of the latter means weeds. Many Cambodian farmers do that a rich complement of natural not have this option as most rice predators or parasites usually exists production is rain-dependent and even already. in irrigated systems water resources are limited. However, a better preparation Resistant varieties: New high- of the field, particularly a good yielding rice varieties (IR) have been levelling of the soil could lead to great developed and some show resistance to improvements in weed-control. It has pest species (see page ). However, in been estimated that % of Cambodia, consumers and producers Cambodian rain-fed rice fields are prefer traditional varieties for their uneven, with an average difference in texture and flavour and retailers height between highest and lowest interviewed in Phnom Penh and parts of  mm (range: - mm). Battambang stated that customers A CIAP three-year trial showed that would avoid IR rice unless it is heavily yields can more than double when discounted. © EJF

       (through changes in its nervous affect insects’ behaviour and system), it often becomes resistant to physiology in various ways including as IPM has also been used in Cambodian all other insecticides with the same a repellent, feeding and oviposition vegetable production, although on a target molecule. Some plants, having deterrent, growth regulator, sterilant smaller scale compared to rice – the co-evolved with insect pests for a very and impairer of egg hatching. obvious reason being that rice is by far long time, have developed other forms Multiple modes of action reduce the the major Cambodian crop. However, of defence. For example, in the likelihood of insects developing in terms of quantity per hectare, Philippines, the makabuhay vine resistance to neem extracts. As well as vegetable production uses considerably (Tinospora rumphii) burns insects using - insect species, neem extracts more pesticides than rice. FAO has a chemical that concentrates have been demonstrated to reduce recently shifted its IPM focus away sunlight. In rice cultivation, impacts of pest nematodes, snails and from rice and towards vegetable makabuhay can be ground up and fungi. production.To date,  farmers applied directly or in solution to In the Cambodian context, neem is (half female) have been trained in control stemborers and leafhoppers. effective against field pests of paddy vegetable IPM and  government The neem tree (Azadirachta indica) rice (e.g. stem borers and leaf hoppers) staff have been trained to continue is another source of botanical and vegetables (e.g. diamondback providing further FFS teaching. pesticide, and has been used in India moth) as well as pests of stored In the / dry season, the since . Neem use declined with produce, for which % is lost to pests National IPM Programme in the advent of DDT, but has worldwide. Cambodia conducted a pilot FFS for experienced a modern resurgence in Further biological pesticides utilise  mung bean farmers on the Tonle response to the need for ecologically natural insect diseases caused by Sap shore. Crops grew well without sound, ethical pest management viruses, bacteria, fungi and protozoa. the use of hard pesticides (two products, which are biodegradable and The most widely used is ‘Bt’, a toxin applications of Bt were used, rather not harmful to humans and the produced from the bacterium Bacillus than five applications of a cocktail of environment. thuringiensis and applied as an methyl-parathion, DDT and Neem’s insecticide properties have insecticide spray. Although the chemical endosulfan), and yields were slighter been well studied and its components is less toxic and environmentally higher than those of non-IPM farmers. are even found in commercial harmful than most synthetic products, The project’s success led to the formulations in India. Rather than there are still doubts about the long- extension of FFS to all  mung killing insects outright, neem kernels term safety of Bt. bean farmers with a planned local bio- pesticide industry using native pathogens as an alternative to The neem tree (Azadirachta indica) is a source of botanical pesticide, used in India chemicals. since 1930. Rather than killing insects outright, neem products affect insect behaviour Other IPM methods used in and physiology in various ways to deter damaging effects. vegetable production include use of early trap crops (which lure egg-laying insect pests and are then destroyed), biological control using natural enemies, use of biological insecticide (Bt) and use of barrier nets to exclude low flying insects. In Sri Lanka, IPM programmes have resulted in the drop in the number of pesticides applications on cabbage fields from  to .

 

Alternatives to the use of synthetic pesticides are “natural” pesticides, like inorganic or botanical pesticides (the only ones allowed for organic farming in Europe). Although some are as poisonous as synthetic pesticides, most are much less dangerous and are cheaper. Furthermore, as almost all synthetic insecticides target insect nervous systems, when a pest population builds up resistance to one insecticide © S.Henne / Morgan Design Inc. Farms Tree / Neem

     “My father never used chemical pesticides, and he never lost a crop.” Hem Savoeun, Cambodian organic farmer34

-  striatus) and rats are reported to prey is achieved, reducing the need for on reared fish and may increase costs removal by hand. Fish tend to colonise rice fields by requiring greater fingerling Fish not only feed on the pests and naturally, representing an important numbers. weeds, but they turn them into natural source of protein for the rural Besides helping balance rural diets fertiliser through the deposition of population. Under certain conditions, and providing a potential source of faeces.This increases the uptake of an alternative to non-sustainable income, fish cultivation benefits rice nutrients such as phosphorus and capture methods is the ‘cultivation’ of production, constituting a natural nitrogen by the rice. fish together with rice.This ‘rice-fish component of the field ecosystem. Fish In some instances, rice yields have culture’, is a  year old South-East feed on worms, snails, insects, algae improved up to -% after Asian tradition, which has declined and soft weeds, although some farmers implementation of rice-fish culture. following increased populations, supplement this diet with insects or Arguably, this is due to better water dwindling fish stocks, and use of rice bran. Among the naturally management and increased focus on pesticides, which are toxic to fish. occurring prey are rice pests (including the rice field, but even if rice-fish Besides pesticide absence, rice-fish leaf-hoppers, stem-borers and aphids). culture’s only benefit is to promote culture requires certain field Predation by fish can play an Integrated Pest Management conditions, and is therefore not important role in controlling Golden techniques, it is a very promising possible throughout Cambodia. Apple Snails. Common carp, Cyprinus sustainable system. Its cost is lower However, CIAP has successfully carpio, eat large numbers of juvenile than the equivalent price for pesticides advocated this system in Svay Rieng snails. and fertilisers and it has the province, where rice-fish culture is Although fish predation does not advantage of providing a protein possible in both wet and dry season appear to provide as immediate a source to rice farmers. Since rice-fish rice. control of insect pests as insecticides culture is not applicable throughout In rice-fish culture, refuge areas are do, the effect comes without further Cambodia, research programmes on created in or adjacent to fields for fish disturbing the ecosystem and the where, and under what conditions, it to move into in case fields dry up. resulting fish production largely can be used should be undertaken. Fingerlings are purchased as soon as compensates for the pest damage. the ponds are flooded and are nursed The drying out and re-flooding of   in nearby ponds before introduction rice fields stimulates some weeds’ into fields (usually about  days after germination. As rice-fish culture Organic farming requires exclusive use rice has has been transplanted). requires farmers to regulate fields’ of botanical and inorganic, rather than Predators like snakehead fish (Channa water levels, a degree of weed control synthetic, pesticides. Like IPM, organic farming requires good Organic farming avoids the problems caused by chemical pesticides. Interest in this knowledge of the field ecosystem, alternative was recently measured at 70% of Cambodian farmers. particularly the relationships between pests and other species present (e.g. fish, frogs, spiders, non-pest insects) and natural contributions to soil fertility (manure and compost, but also faeces from animals, like fish, living in the fields). In a CEDAC survey of nearly one thousand farmers, % of interviewees expressed interest in organic farming because it was cheaper than buying chemicals whilst % cited health reasons. A further advantage of the organic approach is that organic produce commands higher prices on international markets. Organic rice sells for up to three times the price of non-organic Vietnamese or Thai rice. This means a better-paid crop for farmers of  riel/kg (US$.) instead of  riel/kg (US$.). Individual initiatives in this direction have recently been backed by the Ministry of Commerce, which exempted organic products from export licence charges. © EJF

     conclusions and recommendations

   leaves the people and environment of Cambodia in a parlous state. Outdated chemicals, unwanted by the rest of the world are being imported and used by farmers, Calmost wholly unaware of their potential for harm.The results of recent studies highlight the deleterious effects of pesticide misuse on human health and ecosystem stability.These early indicators presage long-term effects, yet to be revealed by the limited research conducted in this nascent democracy. The Royal Government of Cambodia’s recognition of the pesticide issues detailed in this document, and its moves to make legal provisions to rectify them, are laudable. It is essential that

the international community and the industrial © CDRI concerns active in South-East Asia support these moves and further action required to safeguard The production of rice itself – the major staple food – is jeopardised by Cambodian interests. current pesticide practice in Cambodia. Residues in food products are also of Whilst recognising that pesticides can be of great concern for human health and can have long-term effects. great benefit during major pest outbreaks, and that safe, modern chemicals can contribute to IPM schemes, they are not being used appropriately at the current time.Thus, we Recognise that rats, rather than insects, favour the adoption of the precautionary currently pose the greatest threat to rice principle based on: production and, consequently, food security and that resources should be targeted towards reduced use addressing this problem. reduced risk Support Cambodian efforts to enforce relevant reduced dependence legislation. This will rely primarily upon increased Endorse a massive farmer training programme education, research, financial support and aimed at raising risk awareness and inspiring stronger governance. In short, the Cambodian good practice. Government, with the assistance of bi- and Acknowledge indirect costs of Cambodian multi-lateral donors, NGOs, and the pesticide use such as impacts on domestic agrochemical industry, should strive to encourage food security, on public health, on the export the same standards as are accepted in the West. market and on the burgeoning tourism To this end, we make the following general and industry. specific recommendations. Participate in the establishment of a Pesticides Working Group to coordinate efforts to General Recommendations address the issues described herein.

In light of the information presented in this report, all relevant parties should: The Cambodian Government Acknowledge the valuable uses, limitations Profligate use of dangerous pesticides has the potential and dangers pesticides have to play in to seriously impact Cambodian food security, public Cambodian crop protection. health and development targets.The Royal Recognise that current patterns of pesticide Government of Cambodia should: use in Cambodia pose threats to human health Fully accede to the Rotterdam Convention’s and the natural environment, and that there Prior Informed Consent (PIC) procedure, exists both the need and the potential means thereby officially identifying to the to rectify this situation. international community those chemicals not Oppose and combat the presence in Cambodia desired in Cambodia, and placing the onus on of pesticide formulations banned by a exporter countries to behave more responsibly Government presently unable to control illegal with chemicals they themselves may have imports. banned or restricted.

     Join the intergovernmental Asian Productivity departments in order to better enforce present Organisation in order to benefit from its legislation and to have a greater role in future human resource development, technical monitoring, education and management of assistance and information dissemination pesticides issues. programmes. Develop mass media (especially radio and Further restrict use of pesticide chemicals not television) campaigns to deter farmers from covered by the existing domestic sub-decree unnecessary pesticide practices, such as very controlling WHO Class I pesticides. In early and very late season spraying. particular, chemicals such as endosulfan need Impose a moratorium on pesticide to be better controlled. advertisements, particularly on television.This Ensure that the ‘farmer first’ principle is is especially relevant for as long as banned applied by facilitating the availability of all chemicals remain widely available and until relevant information on pesticide issues to farmers’ awareness of threats posed by agricultural workers. pesticides improves. Take steps to collect and dispose of all Increase training of medical staff in the obsolete pesticide stock safely. recognition of pesticide-induced symptoms and in the ability to inform victims of the risks Introduce economic measures to discourage associated with pesticide misuse. misuse of pesticides (e.g. taxation of pesticides, subsidies for conversion to rice-fish Increase education about the importance of culture, bounties for captured rats). wild species in maintaining ecosystem functioning, and follow this up with greater Introduce a system of market inspection for control of the trade in wild-caught species. pesticide residues in produce for human consumption, as occurs in Thailand. Education programmes highlighting the natural Improve enforcement of domestic legislation balance between pests and their natural enemies, and banning WHO class I pesticides. Central to offering other alternatives to the use of pesticides – like this are inspections at borders and markets, sound water management or the rice-fishing system – and action against those infringing the new can result in high yields of healthy crops. law. Officially encourage Integrated Pest Management in rice and vegetable cultivation. Establish a central office (or designate an existing one) under the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry to coordinate all efforts to tackle the pesticide problem described herein, including organisation of the various Integrated Pest Management and educational schemes already established. Facilitate regular public health and environmental research to quantify and monitor pesticide levels and their effects on humans and the environment. Establish a national poison surveillance centre to monitor incidences of illness related to pesticide exposure. Prohibit use of the word thnam [medicine] to describe pesticides, in reflection of their potential to harm human health. Require that individuals and organisations involved in pesticide trade be licensed, and encourage farmers to buy pesticides only from licensed vendors. Build capacity and inter-ministerial cooperation in all relevant ministries and © Peter Schrock © Peter

     The Donor Community & NGOs Support alternative livelihood schemes such as the move to rice-fish culture and organic The scale of Cambodia’s pesticide problem requires farming. that solutions facilitate the further spread of better Direct funding towards research into and practice across the whole country, rather than simply support of biological control insectaries and providing site-specific solutions.Approaches taken eco-labelling schemes for organic produce. must be sustainable and undertaken with long-term vision.Thus considerable applied research will be a Target additional funding towards landmine necessary component of genuinely valuable projects. clearance in order to increase the area of land Two priorities are education and capacity building. available for agricultural production. The donor community and NGOs should: Research the benefits of irrigation projects Recognise that like Cambodia’s HIV, malaria aimed at increasing dry season lowland rice and tuberculosis crises, pesticide-related production. problems are widespread, directly or indirectly Conduct and support further research on the affecting a large proportion of the workforce, extent of pesticide pollution, the source of and present serious public health concerns Cambodian pesticides, and the impacts of that urgently need to be addressed. pesticide use on human health and the Ensure commitment to long-term, sustainable environment. All such research should involve projects and to co-ordination between projects full sharing of information with the Royal initiated by different agencies. Government of Cambodia and should include capacity-building components such that Support central and local government and training and equipment are provided to allow NGOs, with a view to strengthening the role of relevant ministries and local organisations civil society in pesticide control. (NGOs and university) to continue a research Increase funding for rural education programme in the long-term. programmes following the model of IPM Facilitate the transfer of relevant technologies Farmer Field Schools in order to educate to support increased productivity. farmers about pests, beneficial insects, good practice when using pesticides, and alternatives to pesticide use. The Agrochemical Industry Support capacity building within the relevant Ministries, e.g. in training pesticides The decision of some larger concerns to phase out monitoring and law enforcement staff. production of old organophosphates is to be congratulated. It is in the interests of the agrochemical Promote education about the impact of industry to protect its market and to back up its pesticides on the natural environment and commitment to product stewardship with increased about threats to human health posed by efforts to ensure customer safety.The agrochemical consuming pesticide-tainted food or by direct companies should: contact. Ensure that pesticide packaging has clear, Drawing insects and learning their ecology in Farmer Field concise instructions, using obvious symbols for Schools helps farmers appreciate which species are pests, and the illiterate and images of the target species. which are beneficial. In view of the cross-border movement of chemicals, the addition of basic Khmer instructions would be a low cost gesture that would assist in informing users of risks and good practice as well as strengthening product stewardship. Increase efforts to make safer new chemicals available at affordable prices. In parallel, companies should begin to phase out production of the most dangerous chemicals, reducing their pesticide portfolios to those products permitted for use in their headquarter countries. Increase efforts to reduce quantities of fake chemicals being produced in Thailand and Vietnam.The onus is on the transnational companies to protect their brand image and © R. Nugent / FAO

     they should cooperate with the RGC to determine the source of fake pesticides with a view to ending their supply to Cambodia. Increase transparency and accountability by identifying all subsidiaries and all chemical products in public, readily accessible lists (i.e. on the internet).

Cambodia’s Neighbours

Many of the pesticides Cambodia has identified as being undesirable continue to arrive in the country from adjacent countries, in spite of some being banned there.The governments of Thailand and Vietnam should:

Be prepared to control © EJF Cambodia is going through a re-building period. The international community has a responsibility pesticide exports that in helping this young country develop its agricultural sector in an efficient, safe and environmentally Cambodia decides to sound way. state, under the Prior Informed Consents procedure, are not desired. The USA & EU Member States Realise that as Cambodia’s economy matures, The European Union and United States of America, so will its agricultural export market.Thus it is through their highly developed legislation and as in the interest of its neighbours to be aware of centres of operation of market leaders in the the ‘circle of poison’, the danger of chemicals agrochemical industry, set the global standards for formulated in Thailand and Vietnam but safe use of pesticides.These Western nations should: banned for use there returning to these Contribute substantial further development countries in agricultural produce imported aid targeted toward the development of from Cambodia.The Thai and Vietnamese sustainable agricultural practices aimed at governments should be prepared to limit improving long-term food security an which chemicals can be produced in their agricultural productivity. countries. Eliminate the hypocrisy of banning exports of Under the requirements of the Rotterdam end products not permitted for use in member Convention PIC procedure, and in acceptance states, whilst permitting start products (active of the fact that pesticides formulated in ingredients) to be exported for formulation Thailand and Vietnam reach Cambodian within developing countries, where they are markets, ensure adequate labelling of all often used in a dangerous manner. products containing PIC chemicals, regardless of whether or not Cambodia consents to their Increase efforts to monitor exports and import.This includes insisting that domestic enforce existing legislation on the movement producers include instructions in Khmer. of restricted pesticides.

     glossary

Acaricide: Pesticide used to control pest mites. attainment and real gross domestic product per capita preliminary objective scientific evaluation that there (United Nations Development Programme). are reasonable grounds for concern that the Active ingredient: Pesticides comprise two types of potentially dangerous effects on the environment, ingredients: the active ingredient is the chemical that Inorganic pesticides: Inorganic pesticides are human, animal or plant health may be inconsistent affects the targeted pest. Other ingredients’ make the typically derived from minerals that occur as natural with the chosen level of protection”. active ingredient work more efficiently, by improving deposits. Examples of inorganic pesticides (many of contact with the plant or the pest, for example. them forbidden in most countries) are: sulphur, boric Pre-harvest period: Period of time it is recommended acid, fluoride or arsenic compounds. to observe between the last spraying of a pesticide Arthropods: Biological classification grouping and harvest. It ensures that the harvest will contain as crustaceans, insects, spiders, etc (literally: animals Insecticide: Pesticide used against insects. little pesticide residue as possible, so it can be with ‘articulated limbs’). Integrated Pest Management (IPM): Defined by consumed without danger. Good practice: Includes the officially recommended FAO as “the careful integration of a number of available pest control techniques that discourage the Re-entry period: Period of time necessary for a or nationally authorized uses of pesticides under pesticide to decompose, so that its concentration conditions necessary for effective and reliable pest development of pest populations and keep pesticides and other interventions to levels that are economically becomes low enough to allow people to re-enter the control. It encompasses a range of levels of pesticide field without risk of contamination. applications up to the highest authorized use, applied justified and reduce/minimise risks to human health in a manner that leaves a residue, which is the and the environment. IPM emphasises the growth of Resistance (Pest resistance to pesticides):When a smallest amount practicable.The  FAO’s a healthy crop with the least possible disruption of pesticide is used repeatedly against a pest, this pest “Guidelines on good practice for ground and aerial agro-ecosystems, thereby encouraging natural pest can become resistant to this type of pesticide. Such application of pesticides” gives some control mechanisms”. resistance occurs by natural selection.Whilst recommendations on pesticide use, with particular Lethal Dose : Pesticides’ acute toxicity is measured pesticides kill most insects, individuals with random regards to each step of the process: “what to use”, by the Lethal Dose  (LD), the amount of the mutations conferring reduced sensitivity to insecticide “before applying the pesticide”, “while mixing the product that would result in the death of half a molecules are more likely to survive spraying and pesticide and during application”, “after application”, population (%) of lab-rats.There are two measures reproduce. Some of their offspring will inherit this etc. At each step, they describe what action should be for each product, oral LD (the product is given resistance (for some pests, that produce clones it can taken to ensure the safest possible use of the orally) and dermal LD (the product is given even be all offspring) and, as long as pesticide chemical. through the skin).The most toxic pesticides have the application continues, the proportion of resistant lowest LD (very small doses can kill). individuals will increase. Resistance can spread Bio-pesticides: Pesticides whose active ingredients are rapidly as insects have short generation times and biological agents.The most famous ones are ‘Bt’- Molluscicide: Pesticide used to control molluscs large numbers of offspring. based products. Bt stands for Bacillus thuringiensis,a (snails, slugs, etc.). bacterium that induces disease in insects through Resistance (varietal resistance to a pest): As a plant Natural enemies:The natural enemies of a given and its natural enemies (diseases, fungi, insect) have toxin synthesis. Bt products contain either whole animal are all organisms that harm it in one way or bacteria or just their toxins. evolved together, some plant varieties have acquired another.They include predators and parasites. partial or total resistance to these pests.The process Botanical pesticides: Botanical pesticides are Neem: Azadirachta indicia (Meliaceae), an Asian tree involved is natural selection through a selective extracted from plants containing active compounds species with insect repelling properties that is pressure from the natural enemies on the less that have poisonous properties against a pest. Some becoming increasingly popular as a source of sensitive plant types. As a result many local rice of the most famous botanical insecticides are ‘botanical pesticides’. varieties, for example, are resistant to local diseases or nicotine, rotenone, pyrethrins and neem extracts. Nicotine: An extract of tobacco, Nicotiana tabacum.As insects, whereas imported varieties usually lack these Broad-spectrum action: describes the action of a a botanical insecticide it is authorised in organic defence mechanisms. pesticide that acts upon a wide range of organisms as farming by European legislation, but its high acute Rice-fish culture: -year old traditional SE Asian opposed to specific or selective products or narrow- toxicity leads to restrictions in use and it may soon be agricultural system combining aquaculture and rice spectrum action pesticides that only affect very outlawed in European agriculture. production. It gradually declined, but is currently specific organisms (e.g. broad-spectrum insecticides Organic farming: Farming system that, in the case of regaining interest from Asian countries as a complete, may kill very different insects, like aphids and arable production, excludes the use of any synthetic sustainable production system. beetles). organic pesticide. As a consequence only botanical or Rodenticide: Pesticide used to control rodents (rats, Cholinesterase: An enzyme of the nervous system. Its biological pesticides are authorised, but preference is mice, etc.). role is to eliminate the acetylcholine that accumulates usually given to non-chemical pest control Rotenone: A botanical insecticide allowed under in synapses when nervous information passes between techniques. restriction in European organic farming. It is nerve cells. Information travels along nerve cells as Oviposition: Laying of eggs (by insects). extracted from Derris spp., Loncho-carpus spp., Cude electrical signals, but between cells is a gap (the spp., or Terphrosia spp. synapse) where electrical information is transformed Parasitoid: Insects whose larva develops inside a host- into chemical information. Here, molecules including insect, feeding on its tissues and resulting in its death. Synapse: Gap between two nerve cells, where nervous acetylcholine are the vectors of nervous information, This last characteristic makes the behaviour of information from the first cell is translated from an released from the first cell and then recaptured on parasitoids closer to that of a predator than of a electrical signal into a chemical signal to cross the gap receptors in the second. If acetylcholine accumulates parasite per se. Many parasitoids are wasps and be passed on to the second cell. (Hymenoptera). in the synapse, there is a “jamming” of information. Synthetic organic insecticides: Do not exist in the The role of a destructive enzyme like cholinesterase is Pest: Organism considered harmful to human nature but are man-made.They are referred to as therefore central to functioning of the nervous activities. Agricultural pests include insects, mites, “organic” since they are carbon-based chemicals. system. fungi, etc. living at the detriment of crops and Systemic / non-systemic insecticide: A systemic resulting in reduced yields. Endocrine disrupting effect: Pesticide’s effect on insecticide is a chemical that is first absorbed by the hormone release or action, usually via actions on Poverty line: Definitions vary but, in the Cambodian plant, and then kills organisms that feed on its tissues. nerve cells located in the brain that control the release context, the World Bank definition of US$ per Conversely, non-systemic insecticides require direct of hormones. Such effects can have long-term person per day serves as the level of income below contact with the insect (insects living inside plant consequences. which a state of poverty exists. tissues like rice stem borer larvae are not affected by Fungicide: Pesticide used to control fungal diseases. Precautionary principle: Essentially, the avoidance this type of product). of factors promoting risk, before damage can be Generic product: Product whose patent has expired Transplanting (of rice): A common practice in Asian done. Following the  Rio Conference on the that can thus be manufactured by companies other rice culture is to sow the rice first in nursery beds. Environment and Development, the principle was than the one that first discovered it. The partly-grown seedlings are transplanted later into adopted in the Rio Declaration, which states “in order paddy fields. Half-life: Length of time after which half of the to protect the environment, the precautionary Variety: A group of organisms within a species, which quantity of a product has degraded. It indicates the approach shall be widely applied by States according differs slightly from the remainder of the species. time a substance will remain in the environment. to their capability.Where there are threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack of full scientific certainty Varieties are the result of selective breeding (natural Herbicide: Pesticide used to control weeds. shall not be used as a reason for postponing cost- or artificial). Crop varieties are also referred to as Human Development Index: A measure of a effective measures to prevent environmental cultivars. country’s average achievements in three basic degradation”.The European Commission states that Weed: Any unwanted plants that grow in a field.They dimensions of human development: longevity, the principle “covers those specific circumstances can be wild plants as well as previous or neighbouring knowledge and standard of living.The variables used where scientific evidence is insufficient, inconclusive crops.Weeds reduce yields by competing with crops to calculate the index are life expectancy, educational or uncertain and there are indications through for resources (water, sunlight, and nutrients).

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March  31 Pesticides – banned elsewhere, used in India. The farming begins. Phnom Penh Post: Issue /.  September their health. FAO Community IPM Programme Field 17 IRRI. Cambodia’s long journey back. Financial Express, Mumbai, India.  December  -  October .  Document. April  http://www.irri.org/hunger/cambodia.htm 32 World Resource Institute (WRI). . Intensification of 13 Extension Toxicology Network (EXTOXNET). .   11 Kay Kimsong. . Predator drop means pest, 18 Holmes, B. . A natural way with weeds. New agriculture – Chemical Inputs. http://www.igc.org/wri/wr- - Pesticide Information Profiles. Oregon State University   Scientist:Volume , Issue .  May  /agrichem.htm pesticide trouble. The Cambodia Daily. March . 14 FAO. . Methyl parathion. http://www.fao.org Reuters, Phnom Penh.  July . 19 CGIAR. . New rice techniques promise up to  percent 33 Saiyed, H.N., Bhatnagar,V.K. & Kashyap, R. . 12 15 Pesticide Action Network UK (PAN UK). –Methyl 12b Phelim Kyne & Bou Sarouen. .Tracing the less water usage. Consultative Group on International Impact of pesticide use in India. Asian-Pacific Newsletter. parathion, http://www.pan-uk.org    toxin: rumors, fear and puffer fish. Phnom Penh Agricultural Research Press release. May March 16 WHO/ IPCS/ ILO. . International Chemical Safety   Post.  September . 20 FAO. . IPM-trained farmers in Indonesia escape pest 34 Pradeep P. Dave. . India – a generic pesticides giant. Cards – Methyl Parathion  outbreaks. Press Release.  November . ww.fao.org Chemical Engineering World. 13 Girard, D. . In the tangerine grove. IDRC Reports: 17 Webster, J. . Malaria control in complex emergencies. Volume . International Development Research Council. 21 Bellamy, R. . EEPSEA Case Study: Integrated Pest http://www.exicom.org/cew/mar/dave.htm  Malaria Consortium, July . 14 Michigan State University. . The database of Management in Indonesia:The cost of chemicals. International 35 Santillo, D., Johnston, P., Stringer, R. & Edwards, B. 18 World Health Organisation. Development Research Center (IDRC) . A catalogue of gross contamination; Organochlorine arthropods resistant to pesticides. http://www.wpro.who.int/themes_focuses/theme/focus/th http://www.cips.msu.edu/resistance/rmdb/index.html 22 Loring, D. . Struggling to keep Cambodia off the production and exposure in India. Pesticides News: . June emes_focusdengue.asp   15 Georghiou, G. & Lagunes-Tejeda, A. . The pesticide treadmill. Global Pesticide Campaigner,Volume , 19 http://www.chem.unep.ch/pops/indxhtms/ifcsall.html# Occurrence of Resistance to Pesticides in Arthropods:An Index Number , December . 36 http://www.greenpeace.org 20 Loring, D. . Struggling to keep Cambodia off the of Cases Reported through . Food and Agriculture 23 Cambodian Development Resource Institute. . 37 Television Trust for the Environment (TVE). . Toxic pesticide treadmill. Global Pesticide Campaigner:Volume , Organization of the United Nations. Rome. Constraints on the rice marketing system. Cambodian Trail documentary.TVE. http://toxictrail.org Number . December .  Development Review  (). April-June . RPG Life sells agrochem business to Italy’s ISAGRO. 16 Loring, D. . Struggling to keep Cambodia off the 38 21Review of the Fishery Conflict in Stung Treng. NGO Forum.  24 Whitten, M. . A role for small-scale farmers and The Financial Express, Mumbai, India.  July . pesticide treadmill. Global Pesticide Campaigner:Volume , 22 Insecticides on foods in market. Charet Khmer:Volume . Number . December . rural communities in reducing the entry of persistent 39http://www.rpglifesciences.com/aproduct.htm # . - October   17 Mallet,V. . Poisoned chalice. The Financial Times.  organic pollutants (POPs) into the environment. 40 Mineau, P. . Praise for Novartis’ Decision. Pesticide 23 Sodavy, P., Sitha, M., Nugent, R. & Murphy, H. .  Proceedings of Regional Workshop on the Management of Impacts on Wildlife. (http://www.pmac.net/wildimp.htm). March . Farmers’ awareness and perceptions of the effect of pesticides on 18 Williamson, S. . Pesticide effects on natural enemies. Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs), Hanoi,Vietnam. UNEP, 41 http://www.pesticideinfo.org their health. Field Document, FAO Community IPM    March . Thurston, C. . Making the world safe for pesticides. Pesticides News: . June . 42 Programme. April   25AVRDC. . Annual Report . Asian Vegetable Foreign Service Journal: November . 19 Jungbluth, F. . Pesticide facts in Thailand. Pesticide 24 http://www.landmines.org News: . March . Research and Development Center,Tainan,Taiwan.  25 Specht, J. .Pesticides in Cambodia – A Compilation for 20Extension Toxicology Network (EXTOXNET). . 26 http://www.neemfoundation.org An overview of Cambodian agriculture Agriculturists, Local and Expatriate Staff Working for Movement of pesticides in the environment. Oregon State 27 Professor Merle Sheperd. Clemson University. pers. 1 Mougin,T., Fontaine, D. & Brun, J-M. .Vietnam, Agriculture in Cambodia. Lutheran World Service and University comm. Cambodge – L’espoir apres la tourmente. Peuples en Integrated Rural Development Project Kandal/Takeo. 21 Monirith, I. & al. . Organochlorine contamination 28 Eberlee, J. . A natural path to pesticide: botanical marche, mensuel de la solidarite internationale : Numero . Phnom Penh, Cambodia. in fish and mussels from Cambodia and other Asian pesticides in Thailand. IDRC Reports, International March . Ed. Peuples solidaires et Terre des hommes France. 26 Dr Yang Saing Koma. Centre d’Etudes et de countries. Water, Science and Technology : . Development Research Center,   2CIA. . The World Factbook – Cambodia. Developpement Agricole Cambodgien. pers. comm. 22 Cox, C. . Pesticides and birds: from DDT to today’s http://www.idrc.ca/books/reports/index.html http://www.cia.gov 27 Scoville, O.J. . Rebuilding Kampuchea’s Food Supply poisons. Journal of Pesticide Reform : -. 29 http://www.stii.dost.gov.ph/tekno/Book__.htm   3 http://www.Mekong.net/Cambodia/facts.htm 28 Mallet,V. . Poisoned chalice. The Financial Times. 23 Glaser, L.C. Wildlife mortality attributed to organo- 30 Swadener, C. . Bacillus thuringiensis (B.T.). Journal 4 UNDP. Cambodia Key Facts. March  phosphate and carmabate pesticides. of Pesticide Reform (): -. http://www.un.org.kh/undp/cambodia.html 29 Kay Kimsong. . Predator drop means pest, http://biology.usgs.gov/stt/noframe/u.htm 31 http://www.IRDC.ca    5 The World Bank Group. . The World Bank and pesticide trouble. The Cambodia Daily. March . 24Mezquieda, M. . Larvicide linked to frog deformities. 32 Gregory R. & Guttman H. . Capture and culture rice- Cambodia.May . http://www.worldbank.org/eap 30 Stuart et al. . Homalopsine watersnakes: the harvest The Wilton Villager, Connecticut, USA.  September field fisheries in Cambodia. In: CIAP. . Rice production in 6 UNDP. . UNDP Cambodia – Poverty Reduction. and trade from Tonle Sap, Cambodia. Traffic Bulletin :. . Cambodia. Edited by H. J. Nesbitt http://www.un.org.kh/undp http://www.traffic.org/bulletin/watersnakes.html 25 Van der Gaag, N. . Crossed bills and broken eggs. 33 Peter Newton. . 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Special report on Cambodia.  December Bangladesh. http://www.TWN.org.sg 

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