Indian J. Anim. Hlth. (2017), 56(1) : 11-30 Review Article

PISCICIDES IN TROPICAL FRESHWATER AQUACULTURE – AN OVERVIEW

S. K. DAS*, C. SARKHEL1, A. MANDAL2 AND R. DINDA

Department of Aquaculture Faculty of Fishery Sciences West Bengal University of Animal and Fishery Sciences Chakgaria, Kolkata 700 094

Application of piscicides of varying nature and compositions are widespread as part of the prestocking management of nursery ponds in tropical carp culture practices. The effectiveness, economic aspect as well as environmental consequences are widely discussed. Chemical piscicides though are very fast effective; there is an inherent risk of residual and colateral impact upon the nutrient dynamics of the pond ecology. Application of dimethyl = 2 : 2 dichlorovenyl phosphate (DDVP) results in N limitation, whereas, application of urea [CO(NH2)2] in combination with bleaching powder [Ca(OCl)Cl] favours P limitation. Piscicides of plant origin are safe, economical, imparts short term negative impact upon the biogeochemical cycling microbs unlike that of chemical compounds. Herbal piscicides upon decomposition favours N : P ratio to be in the desirable range of 4 : 1- 8 : 1. Understanding on the subject is limited in term of pisicicidal impact upon the microbial as well as planktonic profile of the pond culture system

Key words: Biogeochemical cycling, N: P ratio, Piscicides, Residual impact Efficient pond fish farming entails small, must be adopted to remove or control seasonal ponds preferable as they facilitate predatory and unwanted fishes (Jhingran, effective control of environmental 1991) for getting maximum survival rate conditions and also because of automatic and production in carp culture. Unwanted destruction of predatory and weed fishes or weed fish are smaller varieties of fishes by complete dewatering of the pond. In that occur either naturally or accidentally contrast, complete draining of deep introduced primarily along with the carp perennial water bodies are economically spawn into the fish ponds (Rath, 1993). The intensive, therefore, some particular steps negative impact of predatory and weed

*Corresponding Author 1Department of Fisheries, Govt. of West Bengal, India 2Department of Aquaculture, College of Fisheries, Guru Angad Dev Veterinary and Animal Science University, Ludhiana 141 004, India 12 Indian Journal of Animal Health, June, 2017 fishes in nursery has been discussed much Piscicide earlier by Alikunhi (1957); Ibrahim (1957) According to Jhingran (1991), a suitable and Choudhuri (1960). They not only piscicide is one which (i) effectively kills compete for food and dissolved oxygen but the target organisms at fairly low doses and also compete for space with the cultivable is not injurious to the people and cattle who variety of fishes (Chakroff, 1993 and Rath, may use the water, (ii) does not render the 1993). Weed fishes have high fecundity affected fish unsuitable for human and they ripen sexually very fast (Jhingran, consumption, (iii) gets quickly nullified in 1991). Tripathy and Sharaf (1974) listed water, (iv) leaves no cumulative adverse Puntius sophore followed by Chela effect in pond, (v) easily available and at laubuca, Amblypharyngodon mola and the same time economical. There are Rasbora daniconius as highly destructive several chemicals and herbal poisons which and observed that they took a heavier toll are used extensively as piscicides for of carp spawn within 24 hrs. than the frog eradication of predatory fishes. Piscicides lets, tadpoles or the aquatic insects. or piscicidess can be grouped as per their source of origin or of their chemical nature. Eradication of predatory and pest fishes Accordingly, they can be grouped as (i) In freshwater ponds, removal of predatory Plant derivatives and (ii) chemical fishes has become one of the most important compounds like (a) organophosphate prestocking management practices for scientific management of carp culture compounds and (b) chlorinated (Chatterjee and Ganguli, 1993). In earlier hydrocarbons (Jhingran, 1991; Rath, 1993 practices, eradication of unwanted fishes and Mahapatra and Thosar, 1999). was done mainly through hook and line Herbal piscicides with baits. However, the customary method of removing unwanted fishes from nursery There are quite good number of plant pond is by repeated drag netting (Jhingran, derivatives which could be used for fish 1991). Moreover, by using screening poisoning. Generally to avoid the hazardous devices at the inlet, the entry of weed and effects of chemicals some less toxic native predatory wild fishes can be reduced to a plant derivatives are now used in India as large extent (Lee, 1973 and Pillay, 1995). fish poisons (Chatterjee and Ganguli, Methods like dewatering and desilting of 1993). Plant-derived saponins have been ponds, repeated netting operations, hooks widely used in non-intensive aquaculture and lines with baits are found to be operations throughout Asia and Africa and incomplete and uneconomical (Rath, 1993). Therefore, limited poisoning of the pond are attractive for the control of aquatic pests with selective toxicants gradually became because of their low toxicity to mammals popular for the purpose. (Clearwater et al., 2008). However, the Piscicides in tropical freshwater aquaculture 13 most common herbal poison used in fish environmental side effects are insignificant. pond is rotenone inherent in derris (Derris However, such popular view is not elliptica) root powder. Rotenone is the supported by elaborate research works, main piscicide used internationally for primarily because such studies have eradicating and controlling pest fishes in primarily been concentrated mainly on freshwaters (Willis and Ling, 2000 and rotenone. Moreover, the target specificity Rowe, 2003). Chemical eradication using of majority of the plant derived piscicides rotenone has been used for fisheries are not rigid (Harborne, 1979 and Chandler management in Canada and the USA since and Marking, 1982). Even certain plant the 1930s (Finlayson et al., 2002), and also derived piscicides are far from safe to in Australia for about 45 years (Rayner and humans e.g. croton oil is one of the most Creese, 2006). The use of rotenone has been potent naturally occurring co-carcinogens very limited in New Zealand (Ling, 2003 to human beings. Besides it is the powerful and Rayner and Creese, 2006). Lake contact poison which causes ulceration of Parkinson was treated to eradicate all fishes, the skin, dermatitis and other potentially including grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon serious side effects (Seigler, 1979). idella) following their introduction to Likewise, rotenone derived from derris root remove nuisance water plants (Ling, 2003). powder is proved to be hazardous to A bait form of rotenone, developed in the workers as inhalation may result in USA (Prentox®), was used in Lake respiratory paralysis (FAO, 1997). Waingata to remove grass carp in 1999 Consequently, use of rotenone is strictly (Rowe, 1999). Other plant derivatives used controlled by many countries. Therefore, in fish ponds are tea seed cake, tobacco it is evident that the intensity of hazards waste and powdered croton (Croton associated with the plant derived piscicidess tiglium) seed etc. (Markling, 1992; is not critically reviewed because of the lack Chakroff, 1993 and Chiayvareesajja et al., of sufficient literatures. Doses of different 1997). piscicides prescribed by different authors showed in Table 1. The plant derived piscicides are environmentally benign compared to the Chemical piscicides chemical toxicants because they are The application of commercial pesticide biodegradable and act as manures in due formulations for the control of predatory course (Mahapatra and Thosar, 1999). fish is well documented (Jhingran, 1991) They are believed to be less hazardous to and is widespread throughout the tropics farmers and non-target species, do not result despite their obvious hazards to the user, in resistance problem, easily bio-degradable unpredictable biodegradability in the than the synthetic ones and also, the aquatic medium, persistence, and lack of 14 Indian Journal of Animal Health, June, 2017 target specificity. Their extreme potency Jhingran,1991). But such pesticides even at as fish poisons, easy availability and cost- very low concentration may exert crucial effectiveness has made them a popular effects on the endocrine system as well as choice (Perschbacher and Sarkar, 1989 and negative impact on the reproduction and the Table 1. Doses of different piscicides Author Dose Test organism Piscicide- Plant origin Bhatia (1970) 60 ppm All predatory and weed fishes Bhatia (1970) 200-250 ppm Mahua oil cake Banerjee (1991) Channa punctatus Nath (1983) 75 ppm Sarkhel (2002) 200 ppm

Hall (1949) 0.5 ppm Mugil parsia, Channa punctata Derris root powder Das (1969) 11-39 ppm

Shirgur (1972), 150 ppm All weed and predatory fishes Banerjee (1991) Jhingran (1991) 6-10 ppm

Tang (1967) 12-15 ppm Snails and aquatic organisms Nicotiana tabecem Banerjee (1991) 100-200 ppm

Pillay(1995) 216 kg/ha tea seed Clarias sp., Cyprinus carpio, Tea seed cake cake + 144 kg Gambusia sp., Oreochromis Chiayvareesajja et quicklime niloticus, Puntius gonionotus al. (1997) 25 ppm quicklime

Banerjee (1991) 100-200 ppm - Tea seed powder - Banerjee (1991) 200 ppm - Barringtonia acutangula Jena (1979) 250 ppm - Tamarindus indica Banerjee (1991) (Seed husk)

Banerjee (1991) 250 ppm Acacia moniliformes Chiayvareesajja et 25 ppm Clarias sp., Cyprinus carpio, Maesa ramentacea al., (1997) Gambusia sp., Oreochromis niloticus, Puntius gonionotus. Hashimoto et al., 1991 100 ppm Oryzias latipes Edgeworthia chrysantha Piscicides in tropical freshwater aquaculture 15 development of aquatic organisms (Froese, studied by Pal (1983) and Perschbacher and 1997). In broad classification such Sarkar (1989). It has been observed that chemical pesticides belong to two distinct DDVP with a mixture of non-ionic categories as per their chemical nature like detergent is more effective than individual organophosphates and chlorinated toxicant (Hossain et al., 1987). hydrocarbons. Organochlorins Organophosphates Chlorinated hydrocarbons like aldrin

In India, three organophosphate compounds (C12H8Cl6), dieldrin (C12H8Cl6O), endrin like thiometon, DDVP and phosphamidon (C12H8Cl6O) and taffdrin- 20 etc. had been (Srivastava and Konar, 1965 and Konar, in use for the eradication of predatory and 1969) have been found successful for weed fishes both in India as well as in the killing fish on experimental basis. Though, tropics (Jhingran, 1991 and Rath, 1993). Shrestha et al. (1987) used malathion for Organochlors could be used economically preparing nursery pond but the most in cleaning ponds of miscellaneous fishes effective and commonly used and other unwanted organisms. Chlorinated organophosphates are DDVP, thiometon hydrocarbons are very toxic to fishes in and phosphamidon (Rath, 1993). extremely low doses and persist in the Organophosphate compounds have more medium as stable compounds; also they detrimental effect than other piscicides might be biomagnified and bioaccumulated (Thosar and Das, 1984) because of their in the food chain (Mahapatra and Thosar, 1999). Chakroff (1993) suggested not to extremely high application rates often use chemicals like endrin, dieldrin, DDT employed (e.g. > 200 mg/L) but they are etc. in ponds as they can persist in the comparatively less toxic than chlorinated sediment for years and therefore, fish kill hydrocarbons to fish (Mahapatra and may occur afterwards. Organochlorin Thosar, 1999). compounds have also been suggested as contributing to the epizootics of ulcerative DDVP (0:0) dimethyl= 2:2-dichlorovenyl fish diseases in South- East Asia phosphate is commercially available in (Perschbacher and Sarkar, 1989). India as a spray formulation (Jhingran, Therefore, the use of organochlorine 1991). Mortality of snails (Pila sp.) of compounds has recently been prohibited in zoonotic importance was established under India. Doses of different piscicides laboratory conditions by using (organochlorine and organophosphate organophosphate piscicides (Panigrahi, groups) prescribed by different authors 1998). Acute toxicity of DDVP on fish was showed in Table 2. 16 Indian Journal of Animal Health, June, 2017

Table. 2. Doses of different piscicides (organochlorine and organophosphate groups)

Author Dose Test organism Picicide Organophosphates Jhingran (1991) 3-30 ppm Most unwanted fish DDVP Rath (1993) Konar (1964) 0.5 ppm Phytoplankton Rath(1993) 0.003-0.5 ppm Aquatic insects Chlorinated hydrocarbons Jhingran (1991) 0.2 ppm All predatory and weed fishes Aldrin Chaudhuri (1960) 0.001 ppm All weed fish Eldrin Chaudhuri(1960) 0.01 ppm All weed fish Dieldrin Jhingran (1991), Rath (1993) 0.05 ppm Blue gill , Bass Taxophene Chaudhuri (1960) 0.15 ppm Blue gill, Bass DDT Chaudhuri (1960) 0.2 ppm Blue gill, Bass Methoxychlor Chaudhuri (1960) 0.2 ppm Blue gill, Bass Chlordane Chaudhuri (1960) 0.1 ppm Blue gill, Bass B S C Other synthetic agents Mohanty et al. (1993) 3 ppm + 5 ppm All weed fish Urea + Bleach R Ram et al. (1988) 5 ppm Cl Channa punctata (fry)

+ 5 ppm NH3

Ramaprabhu et al. (1990) 5 ppm All weed fishes Un-ionised NH3

Tripathy et al. (1980) 50 ppm Unwanted fish, crab, Bleaching powder

Perschbacher & Sarkar - - Aluminium (1989) phosphide

Other type of synthetic piscicides vary from region to region. Endosulfan is There are several other type of synthetic a registered piscicides used extensively to compounds which are very often used for control undesirable organisms (Paul and eradication of unwanted or weed fishes. Rauth, 1987). Antimycin is also very toxic Inorganic compounds like cyanides, to carp and selectively kills some potassium permanganate and quick lime are undesirable species but is ineffetive at high used in different countries, but preferences pH (Markling, 1992). Antimycin is a Piscicides in tropical freshwater aquaculture 17 cellular respiration inhibitor and is used in (Anon, 1981). When it is used as a piscicide cellular physiology studies for its specific the ammonia liberated would act both as action as an electron transport inhibitor, piscicide and weedicide. Again ammonia specifically for mitochondrial complex III treatment with superphosphate resulted in (Eighmy et al., 1991 and Doeller et al., significantly higher growth of carp seed 1999). Antimycin is particularly toxic to (Tripathy et al., 1991). The growth and scaled fishes, is less toxic to channel catfish survival of carp fry in pond treated with (Ictalurus punctatus), and has low toxicity bleaching powder was comparable with to other aquatic organisms (Finlayson et al., those in oilcake treated ponds. Therefore, 2002). Juvenile life stages are more bleaching powder can effectively based as susceptible than adult fishes to antimycin piscicide without adversely affecting the (Finlayson et al., 2002). growth and production of carp seed (Ram et al., 1988). Ammonia is successfully employed for eradication of unwanted fishes and also it Fish killing mechanisms of the piscicides acts as a fertilizer afterwards (Rath, 1993). Different piscicides act differently at the The combination of commercial grade physiological and biochemical level which bleaching powder and urea having equal ultimately results in fish kill. Also, the proportion of 5 ppm each of chlorine and duration of toxicity in an aqueous medium ammonia has been found to be effective, varies. Saponin derived from mahua oil economical and is also considered cake (4-6%) and tea seed cake is the active advantageous (Ram et al., 1988). Though, ingredient that kill the fishes (Perschbacher singly anhydrous ammonia and Sarkar, 1989). Saponin act as (Ramachandran, 1960 and Ramaprabhu et haemolytic agent, dissociate the bonding al., 1985, 1990) and commercial bleaching pattern of haemoglobin molecules and also powder (Tripathy et al., 1980) have been responsible for breakdown of the bio- used for eradicating unwanted and membrane of red blood corpuscles predatory fish, combination of urea (as (Jhingran, 1991 and Chatterjee and source of ammonia) and bleaching powder proved to be better. Urea, besides acting Ganguli, 1993). Such toxicity following as a piscicide in such combination also helps mahua oil cake application lasts only for 2 in the growth of natural fish food days after which fish may be killed due to oxygen deficiency or due to CO liberated organisms, such as algae, diatoms and 2 rotifers and can be considered beneficial in in large quantities as a consequence of fish culture system (Mohanty et al., 1993). decomposition of mahua oil cake (Nath, Application of urea (200 kg/ha) is an 1983). Fishes on being affected by saponin established fertilization measure in are reported to appear in a distress condition composite fish culture operations in India at first after which they become inactive 18 Indian Journal of Animal Health, June, 2017 and loss their balance. Then they sink to toxic and strong inhibitors of the bottom and lie on as if in a state of coma acetylcholinesterase compared to the others and finally die (Bhatia, 1970). Other having P(S) group (Dash, 2001). Similar saponin containing plant derivatives like to organophosphate compounds, tamarind seed (Tamrindus indica) husk chlorinated hydrocarbons also act as (Jena, 1979) and sugarcane jaggery neurotoxins to fish but it is highly toxic and (Jhingran, 1991) also act as haemotoxic to adversely affect the other aquatic biota fish. Likewise, derris root powder which (Mahapatra and Thosar, 1999). In shallow contains 5% rotenone (C23H22O6) as active ponds, it acts quicker during sunny days but ingredient damages the respiratory system may have hardly any action in deeper water of fishes (Jhingran, 1991) and depending exceeding the depth of about 20 ft. It’s upon the dosage used, the toxic effect of action takes about 2-3 hrs to affect Indian derris powder may last upto 12 days major carps and 4 to 8 hrs to hardy fishes (Jhingran and Pulin, 1985). Exposure of like Tilapia and bottom dwelling fishes like air-breathing catfish, Heteropneustes Materopneustes tossihis, Clarias batrachus fossilis to various concentrations of ethyl etc. (Rath, 1993). alcohol extract of a piscicidal plant, Zanthoxylum armatum revealed significant Other than these piscicides, mixture of urea reversible inhibition of enzyme activity in [CO (NH2)2] and bleaching powder [Ca liver, brain and muscle tissues (Ramanujam (OCl) Cl] is also applied frequently as a and Ratha, 2008). Hashimoto et al. (1991) piscicides (Tripathy et al., 1980). Urea, observed that presence of two steryl after application into the pond is hydrolysed glycosides (sitosterol glucopyranoside to ammonia (NH3) which is liberated within acylated with linoleic or linolenic acid) in 24-48 hrs. at a temperature ranging from a plant (Edgeworthia chrysantha) which 230 – 300C, while hypochlorous acid have piscicidal activities. (HOCl) is produced instantaneously from the chlorinated compound, bleaching Organophosphate compounds act in general powder under the prevailing environmental as neurotoxins, irreversibly inhibits the conditions. This hypochlorous acid, being enzymatic pathway particularly the activity a strong oxidizing agent is readily produced of cholinesterases resulting in accumulation in the presence of reducing substances of acetylcholine which is a neurotransmitter +2 +2 namely, NH3, Mn , Fe etc. of the substance at parasympathetic neuroeffector environment resulting in ‘chlorine demand’ junction, autonomic ganglia, somatic of water. In the pond ecosystem, myoneural junction and probably certain chloramines usually termed “Combined central nervous systems regions (Ghatak Residual Chlorine” (CRC) are formed with and Konar, 1993). However, such the operation of oxidative-reduction process compounds having P (O) group are severely in the presence of both NH3 and Piscicides in tropical freshwater aquaculture 19 hypochlorous acid (Mohanty et al., 1993). the least sensitive (Ram et al., 1988). The The rate of chloramines formation largely piscicidal effect at higher level of chlorine depends upon ambient pH of the system as suggested by Tripathy et al. (1980) is (Mattice et al., 1981). due to the toxicity of free residual chlorine but according to Mohanty et al. (1993) the On the other hand, un-ionized ammonia combined residual chlorine is mainly

(NH3) and Free residual chlorine (FRC) responsible for fish kill. Individually free [HOCl + OCl] are primarily responsible for chlorine, even at low concentration in fish kill when ammonia and chlorine natural waters has been reported to be toxic compounds are employed separately in fish to fish by causing osmotic imbalance ponds. However, such effects are (White, 1955 and Tomkins and Tsai, 1976). somewhat pH and temperature mediated. Similarly, increased ammonia But when combinations of ammonia and concentration adversely affects enzyme- chlorine are used, resultant Total residual catalysed reactions, membrane stability and chlorine (TRC) (NH2Cl + NHCl2 + NCl3) gill function resulting in fish mortality becomes the toxic component in which both particularly under high pH and temperature Free residual chlorine (FRC) and (Colt and Armstrong, 1979). The total Combined Residual Chlorine (CRC) are ammonia concentration in a water body represented. However, the formation of required for 100% eradication of pest FRC and CRC depends mainly on the molar fishes, using lime to increase the pH to 10, ratio of both ammonia and chlorine present could be as low as 25 mg NH4–N/L in the system. The break point of ammonia (Clearwater et al., 2008). Ammonium in the presence of chlorine occurs within a sulphate is most effectively used in molar ratio of 1 to 2 with complete conjunction with a lime treatment, to first disappearance of all ammonia and chlorine increase the pH with lime, thereby from water (Fair and Geyer, 1954). increasing the toxicity of the ammonia (Kungvankij et al., 1986). In aquaculture ponds, 3–5 mg total N/L must be achieved through application of Effects on water quality parameters urea 24–48 hrs before application of The effect of piscicides on water quality bleaching powder to attain 5 mg chlorine/ L for 100% fish kill within 1 hr of parameters is dependent upon the nature of application (Ram et al., 1988 and Mohanty the compounds used for the purpose. When et al., 1993). Crustacean and molluscan mahua oil cake was applied in ponds, the death also occurred within 1–24 hrs (Ram dissolved oxygen content of the pond et al., 1988 and Mohanty et al., 1993). In a decreased upto trace within 24 hrs followed field trial, minnows and weed fishes were by a slowly increasing trend after 8-11 days. the most sensitive, and carps and predators The BOD of pond water was high (40-44 20 Indian Journal of Animal Health, June, 2017 ppm) which persist upto 5 days (Nath, When mahua oil cake was applied in ponds,

1983). In contrast, free CO2 content showed the values of phosphate and different forms increasing trend with insignificant change of nitrogen of water were greatly increased in total alkalinity (Nath, 1983). However, (Nath, 1983 and Jana et al., 1987). Jana et al. (1987) observed that bicarbonate Significant increase in phosphate alkalinity, total hardness, chloride concentration, after mahua oil cake concentration were greatly increased in application is due to its biodegradation mahua oil cake treated water. On the other (Ghatak and Konar, 1993) and the released hand, DDVP as a piscicide resulted in nutrients help in increasing the productivity insignificant fluctuations of water pH, afterwards (Nath, 1983). The phosphate and temperature and DO but the colour and total nitrogen content were found to be high odour of water changed significantly. The after mahua oil cake treatment upto 13th day combined application of bleaching powder until the nutrients were taken up by and urea did not result in any noticeable phytoplankton and algae (Nath, 1983). The change in water quality parameters, maximum toxicity develops during the excepting an increase in the chlorine content period of 3-7days of cake application and (Ghatak and Konar, 1992). was evident from the sharp rise in the

concentration of NH3 and CO2 of water Effects on nutrient status during this period (Jana et al., 1987). This Chemical pesticides as piscicides are though is because, a high rate of oxidation was very effective in killing the target as well observed in the water bodies with high DO as non target fishes, they are liable for levels, while the process of denitrification exerting negative effects on the biology of proceeds more rapidly in water which lacked the fish pond as a whole. Because toxic sufficient DO (Sugiyama and Kawai, 1978). chemicals impaired the normally high self Application of DDVP as piscicides in pond purification capacity of running waters resulted in the release of large amount of when they kill or harm the bacteria phosphate in pond water (Sarkhel, 2002) responsible for self purification process but no significant fluctuation in the level (WBGU, 1999). Negative impacts of a wide of nitrite and nitrate (Ghatak and Konar, range of chemical piscicides on 1992). On the other hand, when urea and biogeochemical cycling bacteria like bleaching powder was applied it increased cellulose decomposing bacteria, the level of free chlorine and larger amount ammonifying bacteria, nitrogen fixing of ammonia with subsequent rise in nitrate bacteria, denitrifying bacteria, ammonia and nitrite (Ram et al., 1988 and Mohanty oxidising bacteria and phosphate et al., 1993). In case of urea and mahua oil solubilizing bacteria of both soil and water cake application, increase in the organic was well documented (Sarkhel, 2002 and carbon level of soil as well as water was Sarkhel and Das, 2005). noticed (Ram et al., 1988). This is because Piscicides in tropical freshwater aquaculture 21 mahua oil cake instantly enriches the DDVP also significantly reduced both organic carbon pool upon decomposition phytoplankton and zooplankton population whereas; urea application enhances primary at sublethal concentration and subsequently production by supplying inorganic nitrogen it resulted in reduction of GPP and NPP to the growing phytoplankton population. (Pal and Konar, 1985). However, As a result, application of bleaching and combination of urea and bleaching powder urea mixture as piscicides results in a P did not cause any adverse effect on limited condition with high N : P ratio, productivity. Though initial reduction in whereas, DDVP application results in N planktons was noticed, a subsequent limited environment in the aquatic phase. increase in plankton population as well as However, application of mahua oil cake productivity was observed (Shyam et al., favoured the environment with a congenial 1993). N : P ratio of 4.5-5.5 (Sarkhel, 2002). Comparative persistence of piscicide Effects on pond productivity In general, the plant derivatives are bio- A reduction in gross as well as net primary degradable in water because they undergo productivity immediately after application decomposition and converted to manure of mahua oil cake was observed and the once their toxic action is nullified rate of such reduction was directly dose (Mahapatra and Thosar, 1999). The dependent (Paul and Zohra, 2000). effectiveness of saponin persists for about Toxicity of mahua oil cake was found to 2 days in water after application of mahua be responsible for the sharp decline of phyto oil cake (Nath, 1983). The toxicity and zoo-planktons within 3-5 days of persistence of tea seed cake and Maesa treatment (Jana et al., 1987). As mahua oil ramentacea was not significantly different cake subsequently acts as a manure in pond and fish can be released four days after following its decomposition (Banerjee et applying either piscicides (Chiayvareesajja al., 1987), it has got the utility in adding et al., 1997). Organophosphate piscicide fertility to the water for the growth of shows the abnormal behaviour of fish plankton besides controlling weed fishes within first 6 hrs of exposure while (Acharjee and Biswas, 1995). Highly abnormal activities increased after 6-8 hrs significant increase in primary productivity of exposure with organochlorine piscicides and growth of fish at 3200 kg/ha of mahua (Panwar et al., 1976). Chlorinated oil cake application in combination with 1125 kg/ha of lime was observed. hydrocarbons are more toxic to fishes and However, a period of 30-45 days should be persist in the medium as stable compound, allowed after application of mahua oil cake also these chlorinated hydrocarbons get before stocking, for maximum benefits deposited into the sediment (WBGU, 1999 from the cake (Lakshman, 1983). and Roychaudhuri, 2002) (Table 3), 22 Indian Journal of Animal Health, June, 2017

Table 3. General persistence of chlorinated hydrocarbons in soils 95% disappearance years Pesticide 1-6 Aldrin 3-5 Chloradane 4-30 DDT 5-25 Dieldrin 3-5 Heptachlor 3-10 Lindane

Table 4. General persistence of organo-phosphorus pesticides 75-100% disappearance Pesticide 12 week Diazinon 1 week Malathion 1 week Parathion therefore rendering its poisonous effect for chlorite) in low concentrations (USEPA, long (Chakroff, 1993). They may be 1999b). However, the one-off use of biomagnified and bio accumulated in the chlorine as a piscicide would be unlikely food chain (Mahapatra and Thosar, 1999). to produce significant long-term Therefore, in recent years organophosphate environmental effects. are preferred over organochlorines due to its less persistence (Table 4) as well as Comparative cost effectiveness residual effect (Mahapatra and Noble, Cost of piscicide like any other inputs is a 1993). On the other hand, the combination major consideration for choosing the right of urea and bleaching powder has a short piscicide by the fish culturist. Of all the residual toxicity in fish culture ponds piscicides, plant derivatives are (Janakiram et al., 1988). But as the residual comparatively cost effective. Among chlorine might be very toxic to aquatic life; others, extracted rotenone from plant dechlorination is often required prior to the derivatives is a registered toxicant but it is discharge of treated water to receiving thought to be expensive by some fish waters (USEPA, 1999a). In addition, managers (Markling, 1992). However, it is chlorine compounds can react with organic of moderate cost compared to compounds in natural waters to form organophosphate compounds which is too persistent chlorinated organic byproducts costly to be attractive to the fish culturists (e.g. trihalomethanes, haloacetic acids and (Perschbacher and Sarkar, 1989). The Piscicides in tropical freshwater aquaculture 23 combination of commercial grade effective in detoxification of treated water bleaching powder and urea has been found (Rath, 1993). The detoxification period of to be most economical and advantageous bleaching powder was lengthy among the inorganic piscicides (Ram et al., (Perschbacher and Sarkar, 1989). But 1988). Because, dual advantage of application of urea (200 kg/ha) is an piscicidal action and fertilization value is established fertilization measure in attainable from this combination with composite fish culture operations in India benefits of cost effectiveness (Janakiram et (Anon, 1981), so when urea is used as a al., 1988 and Mohanty et al., 1993). Over- component of treatment along with application of piscicides can be costly and bleaching powder it shorten the result in high mortality of aquatic detoxification period of the pond and act invertebrates. Similarly, specific as a fertilizer afterwards (Mohanty et al., recommendations for applications seldom 1993). Antimycin can be removed from exist where sunlight and organic matter water by using activated carbon in a water could significantly alter the toxicity of treatment system (Dawson et al., 1976). piscicides (Rupp, 2008). The toxic period of mahua oil cake can be Detoxication of ponds treated with reduced from 20-25 days to 7-10 days or piscicides even less by aerating the water Detoxification of piscicide treated pond is mechanically or by suitable doses of an important step before subsequent oxidising chemicals (Jhingran, 1991). It stocking of fish seed into the pond water. was observed that KMnO4 solution @ 2.4 Most of the plant originated poisons ppm indicate no detoxification of saponin, degrade and disappears from the water although KMnO4 solution effectively within 7-12 days (Chakroff, 1993), detoxify rotenone from derris root powder. whereas, the chemical poisons needed more Similarly, treatment of mahua oil cake time to be detoxified. The use of applied pond water with lime @ 200 ppm detoxifying materials like charcoal powder, indicate no detoxification of the saponin, sulphuric acid, potassium permanganate but it was only possible to reduce the toxic etc. has been recommended in the period of saponin by aerating the pond chemically treated ponds to remove the water with suitable aeration device (Nath, toxicity within a short period. These 1983). If single superphosphate is used detoxifying materials can be used as along with mahua oil cake, it compensates the deleterious effect of the cake. charcoal powder @ 20-25 ppm, H2SO4 @ Therefore, use of mahua oil cake at high 100 ppm, KMnO4 @ 5 ppm which can detoxify the pond within 4-5 days. Raw amount or it’s frequent addition should be cowdung @ 18,000 kg/ha is also found avoided (Sarkar, 1988). 24 Indian Journal of Animal Health, June, 2017

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Article received on 14 .09. 2016 and accepted for publication on 06.02.2017