CATAWBA POTTERY-MAKING, WITH NOTES ON PAMUNKEY POTTERY-MAKING, CHEROKEE POTTERY-MAKING, AND COILING

VLADIMIR J. FEWKES* University Museum, University of Pennsylvania (Read by title November 22, 1941)

CONTENTS

Introduction ...... 69 Molding within a double form...... 81 Methods and techniques of Catawba pottery-making. 72 Forms...... 83 Acquisition and treatment of raw material...... 72 Surface finish...... 86 Natural conditions and supplies...... 72 Decoration ...... 88 Clay pits...... 73 Drying process ...... 88 Preparation of paste...... 73 Firing ...... 90 Process of manufacture ...... 75 Post-firing treatment...... 93 General preparations...... 75 Time duration of the potter's tasks...... 94 Building technique ...... 77 Technological miscellanea ...... 96 Modeling ...... 77 Cherokee pottery-making ...... 97 Segmental building ...... 78 Pamunkey pottery-making...... 103 The uninterrupted process...... 78 Some historical retrospects ...... 105 The ring variant...... 79 Concluding remarks and comments...... 107 The circuit variant...... 79 Addendum: coiling ...... 110 The sectional process...... 81 Bibliography...... 122

INTRODUCTION of view. The usefulness of such an inquiry may be increased the status THE descendants of the Catawba profitably by considering contemporary of the Cherokee of the a remnant of the Eastern pottery-making among Indians, Siouan-speak- Mountains in North and live on a state reservation near Rock Smoky Carolina, among ing stock, the of Tidewater These York South Carolina. The "na- Pamunkey Virginia. Hill, County, still the craft old traditional as the natives like to refer to the reserva- groups practice along tion," and both have been to Catawba tion several survivals lines, exposed group, preserves prominent influences and intercom- of culture. through intermarriage aboriginal Particularly noteworthy munication. among these is pottery-making. Since 1884, the The purpose of this publication is to examine date of the first written record of the craft by a contemporary Catawba pottery-making; to in- dependable observer (Palmer's notes, vide infra), vestigate its history by projecting retrospective Catawba women have been repeatedly mentioned inquiries as far back as positive evidence permits; as skillful potters. Collections of pottery repre- and to consider, and within senting the interim reveal unmistakable uniform- strictly objectively practical limits, and ity in style and in technical details. pertinent comparative sup- Moreover, data. The notes on became the modern product has close if plementary coiling very similarities, an inevitable addition with which to not full analogies, among archaeological remains approach the task of classifying construction in hand-made found at sites known to have been occupied by the Catawba in early contact times or even before pottery. In the United the of either arch- the whites appeared. This circumstance renders States, study or has been co- the study of the Catawba craft aeological ethnological pottery potter's particu- ordinated into a rational larly attractive from the culture historical discipline; currently, point several serious and * well-qualified investigators Owing to the death of Dr. Fewkes on December 11, are pursuing researches which promise further 1941, after the completion of this manuscript but before advancement. The efforts in the field the arrangement of the Mrs. Lucile Serrem Pater- pioneering figures must be credited to the late Dr. W. H. son, who had worked with Dr. Fewkes on the manuscript Holmes, shortly before his death, arranged the figures and inserted who over 50 years ago began to publish his references to them in the text. studies, of which several should ever enjoy the PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY, VOL. 88, NO. 2, JULY, 1944 69 70 VLADIMIR J. FEWKES

reputation of classics. It is in point to recall that his studies were continental in scope, that they embraced archaeological and ethnological evidence alike, and that they concerned them- selves also with lithic, textile, and other domestic industries. Perhaps some of Dr. Holmes's short- comings may be attributed to the inevitable dangers inherent in such widely spread and diver- sified work. In any case, he covered several areas in considerable detail, and his contempora- ries or immediate successors carried on quite successfully. In the East, several accounts of surviving native pottery were prepared, and some attempt was made to connect certain modern wares with archaeological material. The Missis- sippi Valley received little attention from the time Holmes published his famous "Aboriginal Pottery" (1903) until Federal Government ap- propriations of recent years helped to develop extensive exploration programs. In the South- west, however, favorable circumstances stimu- lated pottery studies and attracted many spe- cialists. Dr. A. V. Kidder may well be called the Nestor of modern research in Southwestern pot- tery. His acumen, foresight, and profound schol- attitude, with rich field arly coupled experience, MAP 1. Catawba rendered him fitted for the mission. Approximate locations of Cherokee and eminently nations. Shaded areas: territories in eighteenth cen- This was to prepare the ground for, and to initiate tury. Dots: present locations of East Cherokee and the practice of research in, pottery technology. Catawba reservations. As a part of Dr. Kidder's program, Dr. C. E. Guthe published his splendid "Pueblo Pottery ject. Technological work pursues precise deter- Making " (1925), which is replete with minute minations by employing various means of investi- details of manufacturing steps. Then appeared gation proved dependable in other endeavors of Miss A. O. Shepard's "Technology of Pecos Pot- cognate aims. The analytical data are compiled tery" (1936), as part of Dr. Kidder's second vol- not necessarily for classificatory purposes; rather ume on Pecos pottery. Miss Shepard describes they provide indices of qualitative and quantita- the aims and methods of the research, examines tive properties of the analyzed specimens. The critically the glaring errors committed in subjec- usefulness of such data, as against the pitfalls of tive interpretation, and presents convincing proof subjective deductions, is quite obvious. There is of the practical and indisputable value of tech- no excuse for speculation in such matters as nological pottery analysis. Such work is entirely nature and sources of clays and temper, chemical scientific, devoid of personal reckoning, and forti- and physical composition, or optical properties; fied by standards derived from repeatedly de- and one can also be fully objective in dealing with monstrable principles. conquests, dates, diffusional trends, migrations, Thus the study of pottery is now facilitated by trade contacts, etc. If the positive evidence at excellent descriptive and detailed analytical re- hand is insufficient to yield the necessary data for ports based upon a thoroughly objective ap- answering these questions, no attempt is made to proach. It is this quality that distinguishes the substitute opinions. That pottery in itself, no modern work from so many earlier studies which, matter how well analyzed, has its own limitations however well intentioned, are not always free in culture historical investigations, is readily ad- from subjective treatment. mitted. The signal factor to stress is that studies The value of scrupulously observed objective of pottery in general, excepting aesthetic values, methods in pottery studies is the more pro- lend themselves to a full application of the princi- nounced in view of the technicalities of the sub- ples of scientific procedure; technological analysis, CATAWBA AND CHEROKEE POTTERY-MAKING 71 as convincingly demonstrated, operates with pre- tive studies extended the intermittent inquiries cise scientific methods. And yet, irrespective of into August, 1941, at which time I last visited the remarkable refinements reached in techno- the Catawba (and also the Cherokee). The sum logical pursuits, of the splendid body of factual total of the successive investigations corroborates data compiled, and of the standards established, the initial findings in principle. The most recent the laboratory work is only one part of the pic- field work, naturally, was directed toward a gen- ture. For it is equally interesting and important eral collation and especially toward an under- to know how a given pottery was actually manu- standing of the contemporary status of Catawba factured. In this regard, the scope of techno- and Cherokee pottery-making. logical endeavors may be most profitably en- The population of the Catawba reservation, as larged by specific detailed studies of contemporary estimated by Chief Sam Blue in the late summer pottery-making among aboriginal survivals. In of 1941, numbered about 260 souls, representing the United States a very fruitful field exists for some 60 families. With the aid of Mr. Irving such investigations, with several Indian groups Brown, 33 families were counted as pottery- still practicing the craft under traditionally re- makers; that is to say, at least one woman in tained principles of aboriginal methods and each was deemed to be fully acquainted with the techniques. native processes. The seasonal absence of the My initial field work in the subject matter here younger women from the reservation rendered an treated dates back to February, 1929, at which accurate check rather difficult if not impossible time it was my privilege to accompany Professor to obtain, but it seems to be a fair estimate to Frank G. Speck to the Catawba reservation.' state that some 70 female members (more or less) Favorable circumstances enabled me to observe, of the "nation" know how to make native pot- even during the first visit, virtually all the dif- tery. In any case, the chief informants from ferent processes and procedures practiced by the whose work and information the data here pre- potters. Subsequent observations and compara- sented have been drawn, and the most dexterous Acknowledgments: performers, were the following (status of August, It gives me pleasure hereby to express to Professor 1941): for his counsel and advice. Speck my gratitude Lula Rachel Brown Harris The most significant segments of my studies resulting Beck Georgia in the present publication became possible through the Doris Blue Fannie Canty Mary Plyler following generous grants. In 1939 and 1940, the Society Louisa Blue Eliza Gordon Arzada Sanders of the Sigma Xi, Pennsylvania Chapter, favored me with Edith Brown Sally Gordon Lillie Saunders funds toward specific technical work. A grant from the American Philosophical Society in 1941 enabled me to (now Bryson) further field work and to the pursue complete manuscript. Despite modern influences, the task of the To Mr. Donald Horton, Yale University, Mr. Frederick R. Matson, Jr., University of Michigan, Mrs. Lucile S. Catawba potter remains unaffected; the craft is Paterson, University Museum, University of Pennsylvania, based on the principles of an ancient technique and Miss Anna O. Shepard, Carnegie Institution, I am and certainly appears to be neither dormant nor greatly indebted for reading either provisional or final decadent. A distinct and indeed drafts of the and for consciousness, manuscript many valuable sugges- are manifested the tions. Mrs. Paterson also helped in proofreading. pride, clearly by contempo- During some of my field work, I had the pleasant com- rary artisans, whose skill and aesthetic sense re- pany of Mr. Joffre L. Coe, University of North Carolina, flect a deeply rooted control of their endeavors. whose knowledge of local culture history and skill in Local were archaeology, although very unsatisfactorily photography very helpful. known thus far, the view that much of To the University Museum, University of Pennsylvania, supports I am particularly obliged for the use of its technological the aboriginal technique is being traditionally re- laboratories as well as for certain photographs and draw- tained. The recent archaeological field work of ings. The Peabody Museum, Harvard University, favored the University of North Carolina, under the di- me with a number of photographs. Specific acknowledg- rection of L. has to ments are stated in of the Joffre Coe, helped identify appropriate explanations plates. several historic sites. them are The photographers were Reuben Goldberg, University Among early Museum; Fred P. Orchard, Peabody Museum; Joffre L. eighteenth century locations, long since aban- Coe, University of North Carolina. The drawings were doned, which reliable sources ascribe to the prepared by Mr. J. S. Benditt of the University Museum. Catawba. The found at such sites in- To I owe pottery my wife, Berenice, profound gratitude for cludes mottled ware which in construc- sustained help in the preparation of the manuscript, and polished for the inspirations derived from her untiring interest to tion, surfacing, and firing closely resembles the aid me in every possible respect. modern Catawba product. 72 VLADIMIR J. FEWKES

Pottery-making among the Catawba is essen- when finished the figure was very light in color. tially a woman's calling. Occasionally men par- That was the white man. In a second attempt, ticipate in the digging of clay in natural deposits, too much fire and heat scorched the figure-that a task which often calls for considerable labor, was the black man. The creator then tried a but with the completion of this process their share third time. He gave much care to the fire and is usually finished. The various steps of manu- arrived at a perfect result-the red man." 3 The facture appear to be a common tribal property on absence of a native explanation of the origin al- the reservation, and the craft is handed on more lows very little in the way of tangible deductions. or less through family lineage. Sometimes new- Mrs. Sally Gordon, confronted with a request for comers are instructed by seasoned artisans.2 an elucidation regarding her own conception in Naturally, individual dexterity is often respon- the matter, responded somewhat as follows: sible for certain deviations from the otherwise "Really, I do not know. But I have heard it well-established standards. On the whole, how- said that our people knew how to make pots and ever, the technique is essentially uniform through- how to grow corn since a very long time ago." out the reservation, and with negligible exceptions Other people at the reservation declined to ven- the final product differs very little from household ture on any conjecture. The question of the to household. Yet, individual potters are able to origin of Catawba pottery remains open; indeed, recognize quite readily the results of their own it appears to be a moot one. labor even if their ware be mixed with that of My purpose is to present an account of the others, although no individual identification pottery-making technique observed at the reser- marks are used. vation and of the general information furnished The pottery-making season normally lasts by the natives upon specific inquiries.4 The de- from early spring to late fall. Frost is to be scription follows the procedure employed by the avoided, but even in the winter some activity potters, and the various steps are arbitrarily often continues indoors. In the summer, drying arranged under eight headings: is facilitated the livelier naturally and, usually, Acquisition and treatment of raw material marketability of the product increases demand. Process of manufacture While some seasonal fluctuation in production Forms thus results, the natural limitations imposed by Surface finish weather conditions are not a very serious draw- Decoration back to the pottery-making throughout year. Drying process The Catawba have no tradition contemporary Firing the of their No regarding origin pottery. sugges- Post-firing treatment tions of a likely explanation are known from their and nor are there traces of a record in myths lore, METHODS AND TECHNIQUES OF extant sources which might elucidate this point. CATAWBA POTTERY-MAKING The following creation belief, however, is of some interest in this relation, not exclusively ACQUISITION AND TREATMENT OF although RAW MATERIAL a Catawba occurrence. "In the beginning the creator modeled a man from clay and proceeded NATURAL CONDITIONS AND SUPPLIES to fire his The fire was too low and product. Within the physical environment of the Ca- 2 The case of Mrs. Lillie Bryson (formerly Mrs. Saunders) tawba there are no serious handicaps to finding presents an interesting example in point. Lillie, originally adequate beds of clay suitable for the needs of a descendant of the Cherokee (born in northern Georgia), married Joseph Saunders on the Catawba reservation. 3 The Catawba do not associate this myth with pottery At the time of her arrival she knew little about pottery- origins. (I may add that a practically identical version making. Yet within a very short time she acquired, was told me by a Delaware from Oklahoma.) largely through the teaching of Mrs. Sally Brown, a thor- 4 Catawba linguistic equivalents for the clays, imple- ough knowledge of the local craft. Her products fully ments, tools, etc., are not included here; the reader may conform to Catawba standards. After the death of Joseph find these in Speck (1934; 47-48 (clay-eating) and 70-72 Saunders, in 1930, Lillie removed to the Cherokee reser- (pottery-making)) and in Harrington (1908a: 402 ff.). vation (Swain County, North Carolina), and married (Some of the terminology published by Harrington (1908a) Saunook, an officer of the Cherokee tribe. At the present requires revision.) For literature on Catawba pottery, time she is Mrs. Bryson, and lives at Ela, some 6 miles see Holmes (1903) and Harrington (1908a). Pennypacker from the village of Cherokee. She continues to make (1937a) is to be dismissed because of its inadequacies and Catawba-style pottery. amateur quality. CATAWBA AND CHEROKEE POTTERY-MAKING 73

the potter. Exposed sides of hills and ravines, being heaped beside the pit, "impurities" and hilltops, banks of streams, and occasionally undesirable particles are removed when they eroded surfaces, are relatively easily accessible. come to view, and the suitable clay is packed for In these, the women potters, usually aided by transportation. Sacks,10 baskets, or boxes are men, locate the potential sources to be exploited. used for this purpose. Two qualitatively differ- Under these favorable circumstances a ready sup- ent types of clay are utilized: (a) the so-called ply of clay is always close at hand. Abundant pan clay, often also referred to as "blue clay," raw material may be obtained within the limits which is a relatively dry and compact, coarse- of the reservation or near it.5 There are no re- textured variety, containing a natural admixture strictions on the exploitation of the clay beds. of sand and usually mica; (b) the so-called pipe Irrespective of land ownership and, apparently, clay, fine in texture, somewhat stiff, relatively notwithstanding possibilities of trespassing, clay- moist, and wellnigh free of sand, yet often con- bearing deposits are free for public use. Some taining minute particles of mica. The two kinds clay beds are situated on land belonging to Ne- are found in different beds, and in separate de- groes and are being exploited by the Catawba posits, and in the raw state are always stored without any compensation. separately, either "dry" (in sacks, etc.) or wet (in buckets, etc., moistened with water). The CLAY PITS pan or blue clay is most abundant in river bot- toms and gullies, and appears to be Apparently because of the labor involved, the sedimentary. The pipe clay, on the other hand, is most common actual digging of clay is done by men, but women, in elevated locations, and appears to be residual. i. e., the potters, attend to the immediate sorting As shown by laboratory tests, the pan has an and picking at the source of supply. At times clay average linear shrinkage of 4 percent, and the the pits are carefully covered 6 to protect them pipe clay has an average of 2 from rain washes, and often they are concealed shrinkage percent. Chemical analyses reveal a of and guarded.7 A given pit need not be high percentage exploited ferric contents in both the and the for a long period of time.8 The location of the pipe clay pan (blue) clay. The actual percentages with water table, the thickness of overlying strata, the vary individual locations. The several samples ob- accumulation of ground or rain water, and gen- tained by me and have eral accessibility, are among the decisive factors qualitatively analyzed shown the following proportions of iron oxide: in this regard. The natives concentrate on a pit, as Harrington points out, "until it becomes trou- Pan clay Pipe clay blesome to keep free from water, then abandon Sample 1: 11.92 percent Sample 1: 8.83 percent it and begin another one nearby." 9 Sometimes Sample 2: 10.40 percent Sample 2: 9.35 percent the clay beds are situated several feet under- Sample 3: 11.67 percent Sample 3: 10.04 percent ground and require the removal of a considerable The high percentage of iron helps to explain amount of material to be reached. The digging the red-burning tendency of the two clays. is usually done with the aid of agricultural imple- ments, although in certain cases it is possible to PREPARATION OF PASTE procure the clay by mere hands. As the bulk is The initial treatment in the preparation of the 5 Harrington (1908a: 402) states: "Three mines of pan paste consists of pulverizing the clay by vigorous clay are known on and near the reservation, and five of pounding with a cylindrical, double-headed the This pipe clay." number, however, does not express wooden pestle, 0.85 m. to 1 m. and about the potential sources in the locality. long 6 0.08 m. to 0.12 m. in diameter Cf. Speck (1934: 71): "When you depart 'from digging (fig. lh).11 The clay' put some earth back in the hole to cover it." raw material is crushed first, and then either 7 Even in 1941, I was asked to remain in the car while sifted through a household sieve, or screened a sample of pan clay was being obtained for me by a through a of window screen. This is done member of the reservation. piece either a board foundation 12 or on some Cf. Harrington (1908b: 224) for the significant observa- upon tion among the Eastern Cherokee: "After Ewi Katalsta coarse textile, and facilitates the removal of ob- had dug her clay from a bed on Soco creek, the exact jectionable matter which is exposed as the clay is location of which she did not seem inclined to reveal ... ." 8 Cf. "For a 10 Speck (1934: 71): long time clay has been Harrington (1908a: 403); Speck (1934: 70) specifies a dug, now the hole is big ...," i. e., ready to be abandoned. bag. 9 for Harrington (1908a: 403); an illustration of a small '1 Cf. also Harrington (1908a: pl. XIXb). see his XIXa. 12 pit, plate Harrington (1908a: 403 and pl. XIXb). 74 VLADIMIR J. FEWKES

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FIG. 1. a-g, polishing stones; h, wooden pestle for pulverizing clay; i-k, mussel-shell scrapers. CATAWBA AND CHEROKEE POTTERY-MAKING 75 repeatedly spread and turned. The two types of of weight in the final product.17 (Such blood is clay are subjected to the pounding treatment presumably highly coagulated and lumpy.) individually. Compacting of the paste is further advanced For the manufacture of vessels a mixture of by hand kneading while the two clays are being pan clay and pipe clay is used, the proportions mixed and water is being added. The prepara- being about half and half, or two thirds of pan tion of the paste consisting exclusively of pipe and one third of pipe clay,l3 while pipe clay alone clay undergoes a similar process. In either case is used in the production of pipes.14 The two the amount of admixed water is empirically clays are first combined by heavy pounding and governed by the degree of plasticity and con- by mixing; more mixing follows the addition of sistency which the potter deems best for her pur- water which is applied after a satisfactory state pose. There are no definite measurements, nor of clay pounding has been reached. The raw set standards, rather it is patent that the potter material is not subjected to levigation,15 nor are arrives at the desired state of satisfactory pro- any solid substances added to the paste. In fact, portions more or less mechanically. Previous the pan clay is arbitrarily freed of its natural experience, quite obviously, is the determining sand by sifting and picking.'6 However, parti- guide. Upon the completion of the paste- cles of mica, constituent to the clays, are allowed producing procedure, the bulk is broken up into to remain; it would certainly be very difficult to small lumps if manufacture of vessels follows remove them. Occasionally, blood of domestic immediately; otherwise it is stored away in larger animals is said to be added to the clay in mixing, quantities, usually bundled in cloth, to be drawn after the customary amount of water has been upon as needed. In the latter case, water may applied; this, the natives hold, assures lightness be occasionally added to replenish natural eva- poration, but as a rule the paste is not stored long 13 Harrington (1908a: 403) speaks of "about two parts enough to necessitate this step. At any rate, old of pan clay to one of pipe clay." Cf. also Holmes (1903: must be re-kneaded to restore its where "about are recorded. paste always 53-54), equal proportions" and this 14 Pipe clay alone is said not to be usable in the manu- pliability, inevitably requires additional facture of larger pieces, for experience shows that speci- water. mens so produced "always" crack when exposed to fire. PROCESS OF MANUFACTURE Apparently the natives have no remedy for this peculiarity, which seems to lie in the constituent properties of the pipe GENERAL PREPARATION clay. However, the combination of the two types of clay The either affords an excellent medium with which to build (and fire) potter operates outside-generally a vessel to satisfaction. The product of pipe clay alone on the open porch of the house, or under shade is always a small specimen and its firing, in comparison trees-or indoors, depending on weather condi- with the average vessel, requires less heat. It is interest- tions. Seasonal limitations, therefore, are rather ing to note that pan clay is never used alone. While this With the is not the it seems evident that its insignificant. proper place selected, explained by natives, the and tools are texture is recognized as unsuitable unless altered by an necessary equipment assembled admixture of the pipe clay. Asked to operate with mere and placed within easy reach of the artisan, who pan clay, Mrs. Edith Brown declined, saying that vessels works in a seated position. Of particular im- so produced "would not fire to satisfaction." portance is a board used primarily for the 15 Even if the in from the is prepa- clay brought pits submerged ration of fillets; this contrivance is in water while in storage, as is sometimes the case, the significant spontaneous "washing" which is started thereby is really here designated as the manipulating board. negligible. So long as the potter's hands and tools are Some potters use yet another, smaller board, being moistened during the manufacture, a certain amount often called the "lap board," which is limited in of levigated clay settles on the bottom of the receptacle. function to the of an As a this is insufficient for strictly purpose supporting rule, however, quantity prac- in the tical application, and its fine quality is not considered an embryonic piece building procedure, and asset. In as much as the Catawba are not acquainted with in the shaping process. The essential tools com- the principle of the slip, this sediment is more or less prise: a cane knife for cutting strips of paste and wasted, unless it is eventually returned to the bulk of the for and fresh- stored raw material. general paring trimming (fig. 2g-h); water mussel-shell and 16 In certain archaeological sherds collected on the reser- (fig. li-k) gourd-rind vation, I noticed the presence of calcined particles of 17 My attempts to secure a rational explanation for this crushed bone. As far as I know, such a medium has not reasoning from the potters were not successful. The prac- been observed among the historic Catawba. Dr. John R. tice was not demonstrated during my observations. The Swanton (personal communication) has recorded the use reference to the "lightness of weight" suggests that the of burned bone (and also of crushed sherds) for inclusions admixture of blood clots adds an organic medium which among the Natchez. in the firing process tends to increase the vessel's porosity. 76 VLADIMIR J. FEWKES

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FIG. 2. a-f, three gourd-rind tools employed in form-giving; g-h, cane knife; i, cross-section of g. CATAWBA AND CHEROKEE POTTERY-MAKING 77 scrapers (fig. 2a-f); polishing pebbles (fig. la-g).18 cedure I have observed. A detailed description A supply of water, usually in a metal receptacle follows. such as a tin can or a wash basin, is constantly Modeling maintained at the side for the potter's moistening The modeling begins with a roughly spherical and as well as for hands.19 paste tools, washing lump of paste, within which the potter first forms BUILDING TECHNIQUE a grip depression to accommodate her thumb. The depression is worked into a cavity by press- It is not to always possible segregate pottery- ing the fingers of one hand into the lump, and (i. the actual of building technique e., process turning it with the other hand. Thereupon from that construction) shaping (i. e., manipula- building and shaping progress simultaneously, tion which results in With the form-giving). both being the result of additional finger manipu- Catawba the two tasks are sometimes accom- lation. The body of the vessel may be made and con- plished wholly separately sometimes, either entirely in the potter's hands, or with some and For sciously unconsciously, concurrently. such support as a basal fragment of a broken this reason it is at the outset of the necessary, vessel or a of gourd rind. It seems ad- of the relevant to make due portion description processes, visable to stress the purely non-form-giving allowance for the often inseparable duality function of such a support in order to preclude involved. possible misunderstanding. The shape of the The Catawba employ the following three cate- basal of the vessel under construction is of construction: or direct portion gories (1) modeling, not achieved by pressing the paste into the cavity out of a of not necessi- form-drawing, lump paste, of the supporting device. It is, of course, en- build- tating subsequent shaping; (2) segmental tirely to effect certain incidental on two annular in both possible shape ing, depending variants, conformity; however, the bottom has already of which individual fillets of are paste used; (3) been modeled when the support comes into use. molding within a double form, used exclusively The modeled are of small size for the manufacture of certain and specimens usually pipes lugs. and simple in shape (figs. 3, 9). Two different modes of fillet construc- distinctly The so-called "peace pipe," a Southeastern tion are on the reservation: commonly practised oddity,20 consists of a globular bowl with four or the which uses the (1) uninterrupted process, more appended stem tubes (fig. 7a),21 and imi- ring or the circuit variant; (2) the sectional pro- 20 cess, which depends largely on the circuit variant. Originally also in use'among the Chitimacha; cf. The three categories and their respective va- Swanton (1911: 349).-Whether or not its Catawba occur- riants were known to all the potters whose pro- rence is to be related to the stone or pottery "peace pipe" mentioned but, in so far as the pottery variety at least is 18 Cf. also Harrington (1908a: pl. XXIIIa, b): shells; concerned, inadequately described, by Timberlake (1765: (c-e): shaping artifacts of gourd rind; (f): wooden imple- 39), cannot yet be established.-An interesting specimen ment, not explained by the author-perhaps a shaping or of steatite, having four perforations for stems, drilled at smoothing tool?; (g): iron knife, i.e., one with a metal equal distances from one another, is known from a grave blade and a wooden handle; (h, i): cane implements, i. e., find in Philadelphia; cf. Barber (1878: 113). This, as far both fashioned of splints; (h): apparently a knife; (i): per- as I understand the distribution, seems to be the most haps a perforator?; (j): wooden perforator; (k-m): smooth- northerly appearance, yet known, of the type of pipe which ing stones; (q-r): bone implements, evidently polishers, accommodated four smokers at a time.-The Pamunkey used in the manner shown on plate XXk. For polishing probably borrowed the four-stemmed pottery variety from pebbles from Tidewater Virginia, cf. Speck (1925: fig. the Catawba; cf. Speck (1925: 427 ff.).-Speck (1925: 432) 106a, b): Mattaponi and (c-g): Pamunkey, shown in com- contends "the 'peace pipe' was a native Southeastern parison with three Catawba specimens (j-l). object." This view finds some support in certain scanty, 19 Dr. Speck supplied the following interesting belief yet suggestive archaeological evidence from the territory which he recorded at the Cherokee reservation from the of the contemporary Catawba. Fragments of bowls and late Mrs. W. West Long: "If a woman engaged in pottery stems of such "peace pipes," collected during our stay at making touches or handles dead mice or rats, pollution the reservation in ploughed fields, tend to endorse the follows and causes serious breakage during the firing deduction first advanced by Speck. However, the locality process. In order to alleviate such consequences the in question did not yield adequate evidence with which to woman must wash her hands on four successive mornings establish, even provisionally, whether or not a definite in water procured from the holes of red crawfish, i. e., pure archaeological site exists there. Moreover, the material deep water." The Catawba, as far as I am aware, do not may well be of modern Catawba manufacture, or in any subscribe to this belief. Yet, according to Mrs. Sally case historic. Gordon, although not corroborated or substantiated by 21For a six-stemmed, four-footed specimen, cf. Holmes others, dead mice or rats should be interpreted by the (1903: pl. CXXVIII, lower row, center); the teatlike feet, potter as "a bad omen, if anything." of which three can be seen in the illustration, have the 78 VLADIMIR J. FEWKES

drawn out, and finishing the surfaces. Naturally, this requires rather scanty attention at the end of the shaping, for the potter's fingers have auto- matically smoothed the wall concurrently with its growth. There is also a minimum of scraping, if, indeed, any significant roughness does occur. Only polishing, if desired, is finally done with the aid of specialized tools, such as a pebble, bone, or cane implement, or the specimen may be treated with a wet cloth to attain smoothness. Beginners, as a rule, are instructed first in the modeling method which is, quite naturally, con- sidered the simplest. FIG. 3. Construction of a modeled Catawba bowl from Segmental Building the initial lump of clay to the finished product. The stem and bowl of the pipe were carved out of a molded I have chosen this expression as a substitute blank. for the general term "coiling." Its collective connotation includes coiling proper or that pro- tates the shape of a spear head. This and some- cess of pottery-building in which the paste me- times the plain pipe (fig. 7b),22as well as minia- dium, either a single fillet or a series of succes- ture vessels, are produced by hand modeling. sively joined fillets, linked as the potter proceeds, Similarly, bottoms of vessels, irrespective of size is wound spirally. (Cf. the section on "Coiling," or form, are modeled in hands; they are first infra.) It also includes the Catawba practices patted in the palms, then flattened into a dis- here called the ring and the circuit variants, coidal shape, and finally neatly rounded (fig. 5). either of which these potters employ in two dis- tinctly different building progressions. The two modes of construction are here labeled, respec- tively, the uninterrupted process and the sec- tional process. Since a decision as to which of the two methods to be followed is necessarily determined by the potter in advance of the con- struction, it seems imperative to classify the fillet processes first of all in recognition of this princi- ple. The headings of the description which now follows are, therefore, arranged accordingly.

THE UNINTERRUPTED PROCESS- Strictly speaking, this process concerns only FIG. 4. Procedure followed in the fashioning of a single the erection of the wall, for irrespective of the "ring" from the original lump of paste. variant followed by the potter (either ring or circuit), the bottom is always prepared first by The technique of modeling complete vessels is hand modeling (fig. 5). a very simple process in which the fingers of the operator are the sole means of building and shap- ing the form, thinning the wall as it is being shape of a truncated cone; the four tubes in full view have a cylindrical form; the grooved decoration presents a linear design placed on the bowl (cross hatching, running chevron, and myrtle twig) and on the stems (four parallel grooves on each one of the visible four); a pronounced sur- face lustre is clearly in evidence. The specimen was collected either between 1876 and 1886 or later (Holmes, 1903: 143), i. e., possibly, by inference, as late as 1903, the date of Holmes' publication. 22 For illustrations of certain phases of pipe-making by FIG. 5. Steps in the construction of vessels by both the modeling, cf. Harrington (1908a: pl. XXIIa-d). ring and the circuit methods. CATAWBA AND CHEROKEE POTTERY-MAKING 79

The ring variant.-The ring method consists of smoothing its surface with her fingers. Viewed the superposition of several individual rings of in cross section, the traces of such bonding are more or less constant dimensions, each first sepa- parallel and reveal symmetrically overhanging rately fashioned and fully closed on the manipu- spreads on either side of the underlying ring.25 lating board. The construction of a prospective Either a slightly convex or a slightly concave vessel begins with the modeling of the bottom, curvature, or possibly an irregular flattening, is from a suitable piece of paste, in the potter's discernible in the profile of the zone marking the hands. The disk-shaped piece is placed on the contact between the initial ring and the base. supporting board with an impact which imme- The overhanging then appears only on the out- diately flattens its underside. The board23usu- ward side where the potter had pushed some of ally has a coating of old, dry paste so that mois- the ring's paste over the edge of the basal disk. tening to prevent adhesion of the disk is not Throughout the bonding procedure, the artisan always necessary. If the force of the impact operates up and down the growing wall. Traces causes distortion to the shape or to the margins of the junctions are, of course, at least partially of the disk, the potter carefully rectifies this and mutilated by the subsequent shaping and scrap- then proceeds to build the wall. ing processes. Nevertheless, a cross-section of The preparation of the rings themselves in- the fired product often enables the observer to volves the following manipulation. First, cylin- distinguish several criteria of the constructional drical fillets of paste, fairly uniform in length, are technique. The ring joints, for example, are fashioned either beforehand, or as the process often visible through marks retained within the advances; as a rule, the manipulating board is span of the overlap; individual rings are at times utilized for this need. To prepare a fillet, a recognizable, and so are also their marginal over- ribbon is cut, with a cane knife,24from a strip of hangs (fig. 10). Sometimes a chip on a fired paste which was first flattened out of a lump. specimen exposes certain technical details. Dis- The ribbons are then either rolled out on one of section of a vessel still in the plastic state usually the boards, or manipulated between the palms reveals ample evidence of the building process while hanging pendant; thus the fillets acquire employed, despite the distortion occasioned by fairly uniform thickness and length, both of the scraping and form-shaping steps. which are determined by the dimensions of the The circuit variant.-The circuit variant in- desired vessel. The fillets are closed into rings volves the use of strips of paste, rolled into fillets on the board prior to their entry into the building on the manipulating board, and fairly uniform in process proper; their diameters are more or less length. The following lengths of rolls have been equal in each individual cylindrical blank. The observed: by Palmer, 12 inches or less;26 by ends of the fillet are somewhat thinned and flat- Mooney, 8-10 inches;27 and by myself, 8-16 tened to prevent increase in the girth of the over- inches (0.203 m.-0.406 m.). It is to be remem- lap, and any surplus paste is removed. bered that unless sectional building is necessary, The initial ring is placed upon the previously the potter usually produces first a cylindrical flattened disk-base in such manner that it rests blank which is subsequently shaped into a final close to the horizontal edge thereof; the ring is form. For the annular construction, therefore, then pressed down as soon as its outward margin the length of paste rolls, whether intended for coincides with the planed circumference of the rings or circuits, must be rather constant. Natu- embryo bottom. Subsequent rings are super- rally, occasional deviations can be easily rectified. imposed one by one, concentrically, and each is The building proper again begins with the for- individually pressed down vertically, until the mation of the bottom. The first fillet is applied preconceived height is attained. The joints of in a manner similar to the placement of the initial the rings are usually well aligned in order to "aid ring, but the completion of the circuit occurs on in the shaping process which follows later"; at the growing embryo. A right-handed potter28 least so the potters explain this seemingly irra- proceeds in a clockwise direction. She holds the tional peculiarity. The potter achieves satisfactory bonding of 25 Cf. Holmes (1903: fig. 30f, c) for an analogous, sche- each individual ring by pressing, pinching, and matic illustration. 26 Cf. Holmes (1903: 55). 23 27 First recorded among the Catawba, as far as sources Cf. Holmes (1903: 54). Dr. E. Palmer in Holmes 8 show, by 1884; cf. (1903: 55). All the Catawba potters observed by me were right- 24 A metal knife is sometimes substituted. handed. 80 VLADIMIR J. FEWKES fillet in the right hand, adjusts its placement and Then follows shaping of the form.30 Employ- contact with the left, and also turns the bottom, ing a spoon-shaped piece of gourd rind (fig. 2e-f) this time counterclockwise, with the left hand. on the inside of the cylinder, and her free hand The fillet is somewhat flattened as it is pressed on the outside, the potter gently forces out a down and bonded. Its ends meet at the comple- definite form, progressing, as a rule, upward from tion of the circuit, having been trimmed by finger the bottom.31 Superficial traces of the fillets are pinching as the last step preceding their joining.29 more or less completely obliterated by this opera- Excess paste is broken off; should there be a tion. However, individual demarcations of their shortage, the potter either removes and re-shapes adhesions are retained inwardly; this is so because the fillet, or, if the deficiency is negligible, adds the pressure exerted by the potter upon each ring the necessary amount of material. Subsequent or circuit registers a lessened effect within the building proceeds by superposition of individual wall.32 (Penetration of tools into the interior of fillets; their placement, bonding, and alignment the wall is entirely out of the question. During are accomplished in a similar manner as in the the placement and bonding of the individual case of the rings. In reality the ring and circuit rings or circuits only the fingers are employed.) variants are functionally identical. In the one Throughout the shaping process the tools as well the ring is closed and then applied as a part of as the hands are frequently submerged in water. the wall-erecting process, whereas in the other In the removal of excess paste the potter utilizes this operation is reversed (figs. 5, 6). a cane knife. When finished, the definitely formed vessel has a smooth appearance both inside and outside. The wall is now thinner, but there still remains a superfluous quantity of paste smeared over the body. The next step, therefore, involves a scraping process33 whereby this excess is removed with the aid of a mussel shell,34 which is also frequently dipped in water. As a rule the scraping is done on the outer surface FIG. 6. The procedure followed in the construction of a first, because in the case of defects limited re- Catawba vessel from the of superimposed rings paste shaping becomes necessary and its execution is at the left to the polished and fired bowl at the right. effected by operating largely within the interior of the specimen. The scraping completes the the the hands of During building manipulation shaping process, and at the same time prepares in the potter are frequently washed water, where- the vessel for its final surface finish, namely are not free of but also by they only kept paste, smoothing and polishing. The mussel shell also in condition to facilitate and removal of bonding serves to cut and smooth the rim, for the lip form material. the time the desired surplus By height of which a provision is made as the final fillet is is the crude usu- reached, product, fully plastic, bonded and partially drawn out or perhaps has a distorted here ally cylindrical form, and everted. Vessels with a plain, undiverted rim, there owing to the frequent turns and patting by the The fillets become on all 30Although the description of this process should per- operator. planed be reserved until the method has been sides soon after remain indi- haps molding pre- joining, yet they sented, its inclusion at this point is motivated by a desire vidually recognizable despite the frequently re- to retain continuity. peated hand smoothing. With the placement 31The Catawba do not use a trowel or anvil, of either and of the terminal or the pottery or other material. As far as I am aware, there bonding ring circuit, are no annular the erection of the suggestionsor positive evidence to show that either process completes contrivancewas known to their predecessors. The pottery wall. trowel, as found archaeologicallyin the Middle Mississippi Valley area (Holmes, 1903: 35-36, figs. 6, 7 (diagrammatic 29 Cf. Holmes (1903: 54) (Mooney's observation): a roll depiction of a method of use), and pls. XXXV, XXXVI), "properly flattened out was carried around its [the disk's] is paralleled in Tennessee, presumablyamid Cherokeere- circumference and broken off on completing the circuit"; mains; cf. Harrington (1922: 194, fig. 33). and p. 55 (Palmer's observation): "One of these [rolls] is 32Tests on plastic as well as on fired (fresh and old) wrapped about the margin of the disk and worked down material clearly illustrate this point. and welded with the fingers, and others are added in like 33 This step, no longer a part of the building process, is manner until the walls rise to the desired height." Har- inserted here for the retention of continuity. rington (1908a: 403) speaks of "coiling" individual rolls 34 A piece of gourd rind, similarto the usual shaping tool, one by one-in reality the circuit method. but with sharpenededges, is sometimes substituted. CATAWBA AND CHEROKEE POTTERY-MAKING 81 or entirely without a lip, are terminated at the mouth by hand pressing or by pebble polishing. No drying is necessary before scraping begins, for this step has the function of reducing and smooth- ing the wall, as well as further increasing the total compactness. The state of complete plasticity, therefore, facilitates this treatment most ad- vantageously.35

THE SECTIONAL PROCESS- Vessels of large proportions and severe curva- tures are produced by sectional building and subsequent joining. The component sections of such specimens, i. e., the base with a lower por- e tion of the belly, the shoulder with an upper portion of the belly, and the neck, are separately erected usually by the circuit, rarely by the ring, variant of building. These parts are individually shaped and scraped, and then joined. To effect their complete bonding, the potter works with a gourd rind tool wherever the hand fails to reach. It is thus possible to manufacture a great variety of body shapes.36 T Molding within a Double Form FIG. 7. Catawba decorative The mold is of pipes illustrating styles: made paste comprising equal a, "peace" pipe; b-f, smoking pipes; g, pipe in form parts of the two clays used in the manufacture of axe. of vessels. The molds are now rather rare on the reservation. Those still to be found were mostly they are ready for use."37 Harrington is to be inherited, and the younger people do not seem to credited with the first record of the Catawba pipe be very skillful in producing new specimens. mold manufacture. It may be added that some Harrington (1908a: 405-406) recorded the fol- molds have pyrenoid protuberances fitting into lowing process of manufacture: "For making pipe corresponding depressions to aid in retaining the molds an original model is shaped by hand, and position of the tightly closed double form. Other after being burned in the usual way is greased molds have orifices bored through their corners to and forced down into a flattened cake of fresh clay until half embedded, then the surface of the cake is also greased to prevent sticking, and another cake laid over and pressed down, forming a complete form of the original pipe. When dry these half molds are removed and burned, then

35For illustration of various manufacturing steps em- ployed by the Catawba in 1908, cf. Harrington (1908a: FIG. 8. Catawba pipe mold. (Courtesy Peabody Mu- pl. XIXc), "roll shaping"; (d), "application of initial seum, Harvard University.) roll"; (e), "application of roll in later stage of building," i. e., the circuit process, by Harrington, however, labeled as "coiling"; and (f), "blending of individual rolls," i. e., serve a similar purpose by the insertion of wooden superficial bonding of the fillet circuits; and (XXg), "rim sticks38 (figs. 8, lle-f). shaping"; (h), "rim smoothing"; (i), "scraping of outer surface"-in the instance shown, done by a male operator; (j), "rubbing with a pebble"; (k), "rubbing with a bone 37 For illustrations of pipe molds, cf. Harrington (1908a: implement." pl. XXIIIn, o, p): single half and two halves of the same 36 The sectional process has not been recorded in hitherto mold--Indian head form. published sources on Catawba pottery. 38 Cf. also Harrington (1908a: pl. XXIIIo, p). 82 VLADIMIR J. FEWKES

FIG. 9. Various types of smaller Catawba pottery pieces, constructed for the most part by modeling.

The molds are now frequently borrowed from quently extricated and scraped, and inserted house to house. All varieties of pipe shapes, again until it assumes the final conforming shape. with the exception of the "peace" and the spear- When satisfactory form is attained, the specimen head types, are usually molded, although the requires only drying to be ready for surface treat- plain form is frequently hand modeled. The ac- ment, for the piercing of the stem, and for the tual technique of molding may be described as carving out of the tobacco bowl (unless it is to follows. A rough shape, approximating the cav- be used as a lug, which is often the case with the ity of the form, is modeled by hand, and pressed Indian head type) (figs. 13, 14). into the mold in which it is enclosed as much as Harrington (1908a: 405) speaks of coating the the bulk will allow. The excess paste oozes out cavities of a pipe mold with grease or ashes "to between the incompletely closed halves of the prevent sticking"; such procedure was not noted form, is removed, and the pressure is renewed. The process is repeated until the mold is tightly closed. In the meantime the paste blank is fre-

FIG. 11. a, "peace" pipe in section; b, pipe in form of FIG. 10. Cross-sections of Catawba pots, indicating wall spear; c-d, pipe in form of Indian head with stylized thickness and contour. feather bonnet; e-f, pipe mold. CATAWBA AND CHEROKEE POTTERY-MAKING 83

tendencies are nominal, and above all the tech- nique of manufacture remains wholly aboriginal (fig. 12). The guiding criteria which enable the student of Catawba culture history to affiliate their ancient ware with the modern product rest first of all upon the phenomena of technique. Although archaic forms are giving way to shapes dictated by the marketability of the product, the continuity of aboriginal methods is paramount. The peculiar process of fillet-building by the ring method appears to be decidedly endemic. How- ever perverted the forms may now appear, their manufacture plainly documents an unmistakable uniformity in qualitative properties, building manipulation, surface treatment, and firing, all of which preserve elements recognizable in early historic Catawba pottery. The contemporary forms may be classified into two groups: (1) Endemically inspired similes of older ex- amples, governed by traditional survivals,40 in which globular and broad-bodied open jars, semi- globular bowls, conical bowls of low height, casserolelike vessels, each with a flat bottom, are

FIG. 12. Vases exemplifying the mottled effects achieved by the Catawba in firing: a, plain handles; b, un- adorned cylindrical vase; c, flared lip; d, lugs in the shape of Indian heads. by me, yet the potters did not seem to experience any difficulties in the alternately repeated inser- tion and removal of the plastic blank.

FORMS FIG. 13. Catawba vessel with plain lip and handles in the The forms of the Ca- form of unadorned Indian heads. (Courtesy of Pea- pottery contemporary Harvard tawba seem to be determined by local as well as body Museum, University.) by external factors; the former are governed by tradition and the latter by economic forces. The bulk of the product is absorbed through commer- cial channels and is sold to the ultimate user chiefly through an intermediary. The market and its demand unquestionably exert certain in- fluences on the form, and have done so, appar- ently, for some fifty or sixty years.39 Thus candlesticks, book-ends, ashtrays, and various grotesque forms now so commonly produced, are illustrative of this force. Neverthe- FIG. 14. Catawba vessel with flared indented lip and concretely Indian head handles depicting feathered bonnet. less, purely native strains still dominate the craft. (Courtesy of Peabody Museum, Harvard University.) After all, the market is interested in this ware because it is Indian. The old basically globular 40 And up to the late eighties, apparently, perhaps also and semiglobular forms are retained, protean by actually retained ancient specimens, such as were then collected for the U. S. National Museum; cf. Holmes 39 Cf. Holmes (1903: 143); Speck (1934: 70). (1903: 143). 84 VLADIMIR J. FEWKES

(2) Forms inspired or demanded by commer- cial opportunities, among which practically any shape may now be found (figs. 7, 9-11, 13-15). Again, the flat bottom is typically constant, and scalloped rims seem to be favored. The canoe shape may possibly be a modified survival of an elongated bowl; however, it may equally well have been developed in post-European contacts. Such pieces as ashtrays, book ends (figs. 20, 21), wall vases, and various other non-native forms must have been adopted by the Catawba, either directly or indirectly, since colonial days. Whether or not the pottery terminal of the sy- ringe-insert43is aboriginal, is open to question. a The tobacco pipes include the most commonly made form with a plain bowl, the rim of which may, at times, be drawn out into a mildly flaring lip (fig. 22a); the rooster-comb shape (fig. 23a), in which the appendage may be either pronounced or moderate; the boot type (fig. 23d); the Indian head with a stylized depiction of a feather bonnet

\ A

FIG. 15. Cross-sections of Catawba pots indicating thick- ness of walls.

common (figs. 11-17).41 The jar sometimes has three or four teatlike pedestals, in which case the bottom is usually rounded (figs. 11, 13, 14).42 There is no dependable archaeological evidence with which to consider the likely antiquity of this form. The drum possibility is perhaps to be held in abeyance; on the other hand, the shape may well have been derived from the European metal kettle or cauldron. 41 The flat bottom seems to be an old characteristic in Catawba pottery; cf. Holmes (1903: 143). However, Harrington (1908a: 407) considered the flat bottom a sign of the modern product only, a view which, I think, requires revision. The flat bottom is characteristic of all pottery reasonably ascribable to pre-contact or early historic Catawba. 42For illustrations of this type, cf. Holmes (1903: pl. CXXVIIb, rear row, first from the left), i. e., a modern "Cherokee" piece (vide also ibid.: fig. 4, depicting a three- footed vessel converted into a drum); and further Harring- FIG. 16. Catawba vessel in old native inspired form. ton (1908a: pl. XXIIIc). For Pamunkey similarities, cf., Holmes (1903: pl. CXXXVI, 1 and 3, counting from the left) and Speck (1925: fig. 114). 43Speck (1934: 51, note 1). CATAWBA AND CHEROKEE POTTERY-MAKING 85

usefulness of native vessels as catch-alls was amply demonstrated in all the dwellings which I visited; both damaged and intact vessels were employed for such purposes. Of the pipes, the plain type, in the short tube of which a stem of cane is inserted, is generally smoked. According to Speck (1939: 50), "the older [Ca- tawba] informants ... all remembered some- thing definitely of the pot water-drum . . . constructed of an ordinary clay pot of the Catawba ware of medium size over the mouth of which a piece of wet rawhide . . . was stretched and bound below the rim of the pot by a thong or cord wrapping."45 "In regard to the existence of burial mounds as recalled in the tradition of the oldest [Catawba] Indians questioned," writes Speck (1939: 45), "it may be noted that nothing has been brought to light. And the interment of pottery with the deceased is known to the present Indians only through pottery jars, of the types resembling FIG. 17. Catawba vessel in old native inspired form. those which they still produce, being found occa- sionally in graves washed out or invaded in the (fig. llc, d); the spear (fig. 23c); the axe (fig. 22c); reservation cemetery." This observation is to and the so-called "peace pipe" (fig. 7a).44 Of be kept in abeyance for future archaeological these various types of pipes, only the plain pipe work in the Catawba area. has close form analogies among archaeological Catawba pots vary in size from miniature ves- finds in the Southeast. sels to pieces with a capacity of several liters. Such vessels as are still in active use on the Wall thickness depends on form and dimensions; reservation perform the function of general re- on the whole, 0.01 m. represents a fair average. ceptacles, storage facilities, and, in a decidedly (Book ends are often 0.02 m. to 0.03 m. thick.) limited degree, culinary utensils. In 1929 only Open bowls measure as much as 0.5 m. in mouth Mrs. Sally Gordon preferred pottery vessels (of diameter, while their bottom diameter equals her own make) to metal receptacles. She found about two-thirds or less of that measurement. them, as she explained, "more satisfactory in general, and much easier to keep clean." The 44 Illustrations of modern Catawba pottery will be found in Holmes (1903: pl. CXXVIIa), showing "vessels col- lected betwen the years 1876 and 1886" (ibid.: 143), of which only the pitcher (rear, center) is not a representative of the otherwise truly native forms, and (pl. CXXVIII) pipes "of the same or a later period" (ibid.) including plain shapes and the "peace pipe," which is thus dated as being manufactured at Catawba prior to 1903 (i. e., the publi- cation date of Holmes' report). Also in Harrington (1908a: pl. XXIII (lower) a-j), of which only b and c may be considered as being due to European inspirations, while a and d-j represent the common native shapes. The boot- shaped pipe from Pamunkey, illustrated by Speck (1925: fig. 123, lower, extreme right), has a typical Catawba form, and was likely either made by a Catawba potter or copied after a Catawba sample; vide Speck (1925: 414 ff.). Speck FIG. 18. A particularly handsome three-legged (1925: fig. 125d) shows a Catawba pipe of the Indian head Catawba pot. type, apparently a molded specimen, in comparison with Pamunkey imitations (e and f), both produced by hand 45 Cf. also Speck's figures 1 and 2, illustrating improvised modeling. pot drums. 86 VLADIMIR J. FEWKES

FIG. 19. Unadorned Catawba vessel with everted, FIG. 21. Book-ends with Indian heads in relief. flared rim. takes the Catawba reach a of 0.4 a ing place. However, usually Many jars height m.; very few, omit embellishment of vessels. even 0.5 m. or 0.6 m. In Texts Speck's (1934: The is to the a traditional recollection of milk rag smoothing usually applied 71) "large pots" outer surface alone. A of old sack is com- is these are no and their piece recorded; longer made, used for the excess is re- size remains As far as I monly purpose; paste conjectural. know, cracks and defects are and material of Catawba moved, obliterated, archaeological presumed evenness of wall is attained. The chief function manufacture does not reveal dependable data is to prepare the piece for the polish. with respect to the sizes of the ancient ware. The polishing is executed over a moistened aid smooth SURFACE FINISH surface with the of a worn, pebble The final surface treatment, executed while the specimen is still in its plastic state, consists of smoothing with a moist rag and polishing with a cloth or with a pebble4"(fig. 25), unless decorat-

FIG. 20. Catawba book-ends.

46 This involves mechanical pressure, and the resulting friction always leads to accelerated compacting of the surface so treated, which increases luminacy and, upon firing, leads to a lustrous effect.-The rag is of coarse FIG. 22. Catawba pipes: a, plain with slightly flaring lip; material, such as burlap, while the cloth is invariably a b, molded in the war-club shape; c-d, in the shape of piece of some soft cotton goods. an axe. CATAWBA AND CHEROKEE POTTERY-MAKING 87

e FIG. 25. Catawba potter using a polishing stone. Note bone scraper lying beneath right hand. FIG. 23. Catawba pipes, molded in the form of a rooster's comb (a-b), a spear (c), and a boot (d-e). a family often for several generations.48 They are blunt at (figs. la-g, 25, 26), a bone tool made of a rib or of ovoid, elongated quartzitic pebbles, either and with one or more facets. a shank splinter (fig. 26), or a stick of hardwood end, working The direction of the stroke stripped of its bark.47 A piece of cloth, or of a smoothing depends the size and of the vessel under treat- soft skin, vigorously applied over a thoroughly upon shape vertical and horizontal movements are moistened surface, will produce a polish com- ment; most common. the is re- parable, in compactness and lustre, to one at- Generally process stricted to the outside.surface and to a limited tained by the tools just stipulated. However, the rim on the inside. Viewed in the cloth and the skin leave very inconspicuous zone below after the identification stroke marks as against the typical cross-section immediately execution, smoothed stands out in distinct contrast pronounced facets of the stone, bone, or wood margin tools. to the rest of the wall. A smoothed area is dis- an accelerated textural The polishing pebbles are regarded as some- tinguishable through in the so affected. A similar dif- what of a precious possession and are retained in density paste ference is likewise discernible in the cross-section of the fired product. The textural difference, of course, is then especially prominently brought out by the heat. In extreme cases this pheno- menon simulates a slip, which, in the true sense, is completely unknown in contemporary Ca- tawba pottery, and, as far as can be ascertained at the present, is also absent in the ancient ware.49 48 Cf. the statement in Holmes (1903: 55) that Catawba women married and living at Cherokee had brought smoothing pebbles with them from their homes, and (p. 56) that such a stone was in use by a Cherokee potter's family for three generations. Cf. also Du Pratz (1758, 2: 179) regarding the careful preservation of smoothing pebbles among the potters of Louisiana. For a Pueblo FIG. 24. Catawba potter employing ordinary kitchen analogy, cf. Guthe (1925: 28); for South America, Linne knife as scraper. (1925: 107). Smoothing pebbles, with unmistakable facets documenting their original use, are known from sites 47The metal handle of a table knife is sometimes sub- around the Catawba reservation. stituted with equally effective results.-Cf. Harrington 49 In old Catawba pottery, polishing frequently appears (1908a: pl. XXIIIq, r, and pl. XXII, 1) for illustrations of on the interior which, in contrast to modern pieces, is often bone polishers; and his pl. XXIIIk-m, for illustrations of quite dark. The possibility is to be considered that the polishing pebbles. Catawba originally may have "smoked" the interior of 88 VLADIMIR J. FEWKES

Among the designs given the pipes, floral mo- tifs, expressing single or multiple petals, leaves, etc.; curvilinear combinations, such as cartouche, arches, undulating lines, etc.; and rectilinear fig- ures, forming herringbone or myrtle twig simula- tions, zig-zags, chevrons, diamonds, rectangles, etc., are common. Single lines or multiple parallel lines are frequent, and bands defined by two lines in which the inner space is filled with cuts placed athwart seem to be especially preferred.51 The technique of decorative execution in any one of the several varieties of design just enumerated employs incising, fluting, grooving, and impress- ing. Frequently the incised work is so delicate that it approaches engraving. The impressing technique depends chiefly on the looped end of a hair pin. Juxtaposition of differently produced decoration on the same specimen is by no means FIG. 26. Catawba potter smoothing interior of vessel just rare. The tools used in the decoration of below the Bone and stone in pots lip. scraper polishing of about the the of a foreground. and pipes are same; edge sharp knife, a piece of wire, and a hair pin, how- are in the Pebble polishing is a particularly constant fea- ever, particularly preferred executing more on ture in the treatment of pipes, which are given a delicate designs pipes. Decoration of those which hand highly lustrous finish; temporarily "lost" in fir- pipes require or tool of their outward features in ing, i. e., subdued by a carbon film, such lustre is shaping, ap- relief is deferred until the details easily reinstated by wiping the cool specimen plied usually are finished. under with a dry cloth. (Vide infra, drying process.) On the whole, however, such pieces remain un- DECORATION embellished unless they receive some such simple additions as rows of short cuts, While Catawba vessels are predominantly un- parallel lines, serration of the or of the etc. embellished, smoking pipes are very often deco- lip rim, The of decoration on vessels is rated rather incising, fluting, striking paucity by simple grooving, and to a the and The are geometrical, minimized, degree compensated, by impressing. patterns colorful final which a vivid combining rectilinear and to a lesser degree also product acquires mottled effect in and is often intensified curvilinear lines in the case of the incised, firing, a of lustre. The is con- grooved, and fluted techniques. The impressed by high degree mottling trollable and to afford much satisfaction variety is attained by rocking or rolling a corn appears cob over the surface. Another effect is some- to the aesthetic desire of the potter, who really values it as a decorative asset. The lustrous times produced by rubbing the vessel with a corn serves to enhance the cob which is firmly gripped in the operator's quality mottling. hand. While modern means, such as the milled DRYING PROCESS edge of a coin, a hair pin or a shoe-button hook, With the surface finish (and decoration) com- a piece of wire, etc., are frequently called upon, the is set aside for drying. The native tools, e. g., the mussel shell, gourd rind, pleted, specimen of time required for this purpose varies and cane knife, nevertheless preserve their im- length from one to several days. In certain instances, portance. In all cases the embellishment is exe- vessels may remain in drying a full week. cuted while the specimen is still in a plastic state, large after the polishing, and usually upon a moistened reveals no details of the design nor the technique involved; surface50 (figs. 7, 11, 22, 23). Harrington explains (ibid.: 404) that the edge of a cane knife was actually used. His illustration of a pipe- vessels in a manner perhaps comparable to that described decorating process (ibid.: pl. XXIId) likewise fails in for the modern Cherokee by Harrington (1908b: 226); details. i. e., by smudging the interior with a slow fire of corn cobs. 51 For sample illustrations of decorated pipes, cf. Holmes 50 Harrington (1908a: pl. XXe) shows a photograph of a (1903: pl. CXXVIII); specimens collected after 1876, cf. potter engaged in decorating a vessel which, however, ibid.: 143. CATAWBA AND CHEROKEE POTTERY-MAKING 89 The handles, always attached at both of their termini, are of two varieties: the band handle, having a strap-shaped body of an elongated rectangle in cross-section; and the rod handle, shaped like a cylinder or a rod, and circular, oval, or rectangular in cross-section. In either case, the handle usually describes a sufficient loop to accommodate a firm hand grip. A "wish bone" type of rod handle has been developed in the past few years; it appears on the slender, pedestaled vase (figs. 24, 25). The spouts range from a mere dent in the lip to a carefully modeled elaborate feature with a pronounced protrusion. The legs, on the whole, closely resemble the forms of the plain lugs; they are mostly conical, al- though at times cork-shaped, and invariably flattened (figs. 15b, 18). Pipe blanks must be dry before the tobacco FIG. 27. Cross-section of Catawba vase indicating thick- bowl is carved out and the stem is for ness of wall. perforated smoke passage, for otherwise the incompletely evaporated paste would be less resistant to dis- A shady, protected place outdoors, or a dry tortion; its consistency, when thoroughly dry, ventilated room inside, are preferred. Care retains a satisfactory degree of softness for the must be taken that the pieces are not exposed to carving and piercing. The details of the relieved frost, which would, according to practical experi- features, such as the chin, mouth, nose, eyes, ence, inevitably cause chipping and in fracturing brows, and halo of the Indian head type, the firing. serration of the rooster comb, etc., are fashioned During the drying period, or sometimes after its culmination, the appending of lugs, handles, spouts, and legs takes place. The wall of the vessel selected for such additions is pierced in appropriate locations with the point of a cane knife or an awl. The appendages, comprising lugs and handles, are prepared by modeling or by molding. Their terminal tabs, ovoid, circular, or oblong in cross section, are inserted, secured and fastened from within, and the contact is carefully smoothed in and out to obliterate roughness. (Within the thickness of the wall, however, the bonding is less complete and leaves recognizable traces of the operation.) Some- times these additions receive their final form before attachment, while on other occasions they are shaped by hand modeling after the appending is completed. Upon breakage, the fired pieces invariably reveal the shape of the tab and the manner of attachment when the retention within the wall is exposed. The typical forms of the several categories of appendages are characterized by a rather small range of variety. The lugs, distinguished by a single plane of attachment, are predominantly conical and blunt at the The invariably apex. FIG. 28. Mrs. Eliza Gordon at work on a Indian head (Catawba) type, shaped in a pipe mold, is used vessel held on her lap. The scraping tool is a kitchen as a lug (figs. 12d, 13, 14, 27), rather rarely. knife. 90 VLADIMIR J. FEWKES

temperature maximum is below that of an open fire.52 Some of the older potters still use a plain hearth, or rarely, a pit, out of doors; in any case, the method can be demonstrated upon request.53 While the domestic fireplace has now largely replaced outdoor firing, the technique involved is essentially the same, i. e., it is still based on the principle of the open fire. The main difference between the two means seems to lie in the quan- tity of specimens which may be subjected to the heat at the same time; naturally, the domestic fireplace can accommodate a smaller number of pieces because of spatial limitations. On the other hand, the shelter of a dwelling is of signal advantage in the control of the fire, and facili- tates operation irrespective of weather condi- FIG. 29. Two young Catawba potters employing tions. It seems to be generally understood by stones. polishing the potters that firing of vessels is not to be done on an excessively hot day; the reason for this is by paring, scraping, and carving (fig. 28). (The perhaps to be attributed to the physical comfort paste so removed is used again in mixing fresh of the operator rather than to other considera- clays.) Positive applique may also be executed; tions. thus, for example, the rooster pipe, which origi- The fuel consists of wood, tree bark,54 and nally had its blank crest prepared in a mold, is corncobs. The firing process begins with the now completed, by additional modeling and carv- building of a substantial fire in order to establish ing, into a rooster-comb effect. The potter does a fresh bed of ashes which is localized more or less not find it cumbersome to alter, by addition or in the center of the hearth. The two classes of reduction, the original shape of a given blank. the product, pots and pipes, are always fired sepa- New or additional decoration is then executed as rately. With the fire well under way, the pots desired. The final manipulation preceding the are assembled near by, within a distance of 1 to firing of pipes involves cloth, bone, or pebble 1.5 m. There they remain exposed to the ra- polishing. diating heat for perhaps a half hour. Mean- All specimens undergo a careful scrutiny before while the periphery of the hearth has been swept firing begins. Flaws and defects are rectified, and the pieces have been advanced closer to the here and there a few strokes of smoothing and fire, being occasionally turned as well. They polishing are added, the security of appendages is are, therefore, not subjected to extreme heat until tested, and meticulous examination is made of a certain amount of slow evaporation has taken the state of dryness. While the potters do not place. The vessels are eventually set close to seem to be conscious of any criterion with which the fire, in either upright, inverted, or reclining to judge adequate dryness, it appears that they find guidance in the surface color. When a uni- 52 At any rate, with the Catawba ware, it seems proper form tone of greenish-gray is shown, the speci- to speak of firing rather than "baking." But it would men is considered for Satisfied certainly be wrong to say that these people (or any potters ready firing. "burn" their for and that the raw has received for that matter) pots, clay inorganic product ample care, inclusions are not normally pyrognomic. the potter proceeds with preparations for the 53Harrington (1908a: 405-406) describes an outdoor firing process. firing operation specifically arranged for his benefit; similar procedure applies indoors. As a rule, vessels are not FIRING placed on the ash bed of an indoor hearth; such practice seems to go with firing outdoors (ibid., and Speck, 1934: Ceramic pyrogenation of the Catawba depends 70). For illustrations of an outdoor process, cf. Harring- of vessels"; on an open fire in the case of pots, and on a fuel- ton (1908a: pl. XXIm), "preliminary heating (n), "vessels inverted upon embers"; and (o), "firing of smothered process confined to a receptacle in the vessels." case of pipes. Even the latter mode, however, 54Apparently preferred by some of the older potters; does not involve the principle of a kiln, and its cf. Speck (1934: 70). CATAWBA AND CHEROKEE POTTERY-MAKING 91

position, in the last-named instance with the much smoke and creates a reducing atmosphere. mouth turned toward the flames. As an addi- If the specimens are no longer turned during this tional supply of fuel is being consumed, care is procedure, only the sides exposed to the fire, and taken to confine the limits of the fire to the their margins, will be colored dark gray to black. original bed. Yet, no effort is made to prevent The tone may be intensified by placing bits of an occasional leaping of flames over the vessels. bark directly upon the specimens with hot clink- Frequently the brisk fire expels sparks or bits of ers superimposed thereon. Occasionally the embers which settle and are allowed to remain burning particle resting upon a vessel (or in close upon the specimens. The contact of such hot contact with it) generates excessive heat owing particles produces a lasting mark, namely, a to a draft and increased oxidation, and promotes lighter discoloration of the surface, which re- alteration in the surface color. In such cases mains recognizable in the finished product. The reduction is prevented. Hence an area so af- size and penetration of the spot so occasioned fected becomes extremely light in color. In in- depends on the intensity of the heat as well as stances of this kind (limited in intensity and on the interval during which the necessary fuel definitely allocated to small spots), color changes medium remains in contact with the surface of to light shades are often apparent in the course the vessel. Sometimes this medium is applied of the firing. More often, however, the burning intentionally, for the potter is well aware of the particle of glowing fuel undergoes slow fire con- cause and effect involved. In the advanced sumption, which produces sufficient gas and car- stage of firing the hot pots are set practically next bon to create the characteristic surface blackening. to the fire, being turned frequently in the mean- In the case of pipes and smaller vessels, the time to gain even distribution of the heat. At no entire specimen (at times a number of them at time, however, are the vessels placed within the once) is placed within a receptacle, such as a fireplace proper where they would be most diffi- metal pail, filled with bits of bark or wood chips; cult to handle. The shifting and turning of the this fuel is then set afire, and allowed to burn for vessels is accomplished with a stick or with the a certain period; unoxidized carbon is thereby rake which is used in attending the fire. retained. At times the burning contents of the On two occasions Mrs. Sally Gordon smeared receptacle are subsequently emptied upon an ash an incompletely fired, hot vessel with a grease- bed, and heaped over with additional, similar soaked rag, having first cooled it by removal to a fuel. There the firing continues, again under a comfortable distance from the fire. Asked for an somewhat smothered condition and limited oxi- explanation, she responded that such treatment dation, and eventually results in fairly uniform produced blacker and lighter-weight ware. This blackening of the specimens. The pieces first was later corroborated by the qualities of the smothered in the fuel within the receptacle un- vessels in question: they were quite dark, yet dergo a process of slow firing under reducing mottled, and of a relatively light weight.55 conditions whereby their carbonization is auto- Soon after exposure to the heat, the color of matically accelerated. The smoldering bark, the specimens changes from greenish gray (dry being usually decayed and dry, produces gases state) to a reddish brown or grayish buff, and which come in direct contact with the specimens these tones darken as the firing, a matter of one and are partially absorbed within their surfaces. to several hours, continues. These colors are the Wood chips apparently possess the same qualities basic values, for the dark gray to black effect, as bark, for the two types of fuel are used for this which is so often attained, is really produced particular purpose interchangeably. through a distinctly separate agency. As the The following interesting statement appears in specimens are advanced practically next to the Myer (1928: 522): fire, a process of carbonization is invoked as soon as fresh fuel, this time largely bark or wood chips, Mr. James Mooney, of the Bureau of American is added to the flames. This process produces Ethnology, described to the author the following method which he had seen the Catawbas use in mak- their finest black ware: After the vessel or 55Bushnell records a somewhat ing other (1909: 12) analogous has received its final and before it is example in the treatment of pipes among the Choctaw: object shape, "When thoroughly burned [i. e., fired] it [the pipe] turns baked, it is given a high polish by much rubbingwith rather dark in color, whereuponit is removed from the fire certain very hard and smooth stones or mussel shells and immediately immersed in a bowl of grease, which is with edges properlyshaped by grinding. Over these absorbedby the clay and carbonizedby the intense heat." unbaked, highly polished objects selected fragments 92 VLADIMIR J. FEWKES of oak bark are piled, and the heap is then carefully so far as its depth penetration is concerned, to the and closely covered with a large inverted unbaked very surface of the wall (either in or out), or more pottery vessel. . . . Over this unbaked pot a large properly only to the polished veneer. However, amount of oak bark is and then set on fire. piled in the examples of roughly surfaced, corncob- This produces considerableheat and bakes the large and vessels inverted vessel. The heat sets rubbed, unsmoothed, unpolished penetrating finally which I saw fired at an the same of fire to the oak bark underneath which, open fire, type fragments it, from smoke con- being shut off frcm a full supply of air, burn after blackening occurred, apparently the manner of charcoal and produce a strong, pene- tact; its penetration into the wall was again quite trating black, which reaches to a great depth into the superficial. Inquiries revealed that the natives ware, thus producingthe beautiful color. The glossi- were not cognizant of the causes, although they ness arises from polishing. The modern Cherokee fully realized the means of achieving the desired produce a black which is much inferior to the above effect.56 They were inclined to attribute the by burning ground corncobsin a small excavation in blackening to smoke alone, especially as they the soil, over which the vessel to be blackened is could point to an occasional puff carried by a inverted. They also produce an inferior black by of flame on to a vessel where a in leaping tongue burning corncob meal within the vessel, which, dark soon afterwards. this is covered to too of spot developed They case, prevent rapid burning maintained that differences in the natural the meal and the escape of the smoke. quali- ties of the clays, and also mere chance, were often for the The peculiar manner of firing presumably ob- responsible mottling. It was not to obtain a served among the Catawba by Mooney should possible satisfactory answer as to the criteria the be dated to the last quarter of the nineteenth determining comple- tion of With the which century. The method is neither practiced nor firing. pipes, require about an actual is for remembered by the contemporary Catawba just hour, testing possible, the are small and can be handled with potters. specimens In the case of the One of the most recent innovations in firing is ease. large pieces, changing the use of the kitchen stove and a tin wash tub. color seems to be the guiding factor, although the resonance test is Vessels to be fired are first placed within such a perhaps equally important.57 The the vessel's rim with either a firm tin tub, reposing upon its bottom, some six to potter taps twelve at a time. The tub is then set stick or a piece of stiff wire; at times she employs pieces her a and the the stove, in which a moderate fire has been merely hand, flicking finger striking upon rim with the nail. started in the meantime. More fuel is gradually finger The initial in that the slow heat- added and the heat is increased, reaching 500? to step firing, is, at a safe distance from extreme heat, 600? F. (260? to 315.56? C.). During this pre- ing brings about The chemical liminary heating, the hearth to be used for proper gradual drying. composi- tion of the constituent then a is and the preheated specimens clays undergoes firing prepared, reaction which is evident to the are transferred to it when they can be handled operator through with the aid of are ex- the change of color. Under oxidizing conditions, comfortably rags. They of to the heat of the hearth at a distance of the ferric elements produce a predominance posed reddish or buff a atmos- about 0.8 m. from the edge of the ash bed. Only pigmentation; reducing on the other hand, is responsible a few potters resort to preheating the vessels phere, largely the stove. for the gray and black tones. upon the color and sonorous to her Just what may be the reaction of the organic Finding quality the removes the from the fat added in or in the process of firing, fancy, potter pieces polishing, or the fire the is not clear. Yet it seems reasonable to expect hearth, extinguishes by disturbing the ashes in the rear of the fire- that its increases carbonization. When bed and heaping burning As in all of the other of manufac- so greased are completely smothered in place. steps specimens and failure, unless a fuel, the combination of readily burning organic ture, experience previous aid 56 matter (the fat) and the reducing atmosphere Cf. Speck (1934: 70). in carbonization and smudging. In open firing, 57Speck (1934: 47, note 1) states: "atuski, 'pot, clock,' a similar, though less generally constant, car- denoting the hour, is interesting in Catawba semantics. results from smoke contact or from A clay pot rings clear like the stroke of an old clock when bonization 'two or oxidation is tapped on the rim; two o'clock becomes pots, smudging by embers; yet naturally rings,' and so on. Even the dove, itusi . . . earns a sobri- promoted by the free access of air. Whatever quet from its call which resembles a stroke of the clock or the causes, the blackish coloration is restricted, a pot." CATAWBA AND CHEROKEE POTTERY-MAKING 93

new experiment is pursued, seem to be the chief The hardness of the Catawba ware ranges from guidance of the potter. The specimens which I 2.5 to 4, Moh's scale; the majority of the samples had an opportunity to watch in the firing process taken by me were under 3.5, and the average was required from one to three hours of exposure to 3. These figures apply to both surfaces and dis- heat. I was told, however, that large pieces regard the core as revealed by cross-section. may need as much as twelve hours at the fire. As late as 1929 a tradition survived that none but POST-FIRING TREATMENT the potter could witness the firing process, but it Once fired, the Catawba pottery is virtually was not enforced. There are no records of this finished. Some of the older potters either re- restriction published prior to that date. The member or still practice the smearing of hot geographically nearest similarity was noted by vessels with a piece of fat (usually bacon rind or Bushnell (1909: 12) among the Choctaw. ham skin).59 Such treatment produces a fine The following temperatures, determined with lustre which is particularly noticeable on dark the aid of an optical pyrometer, represent charac- tones; as a rule this process is restricted to the teristic averages: outside surface. Plain wiping with a dry cloth, of carbonized is often fire, out of doors 1670? F.-910? C. especially pieces, per- Open it is not Domestic 1760 F.-9600 C. formed, although always necessary. fireplace The cooled I Smothered fire in 1400? F.-760 ?C. pieces, noted, usually do not soil receptacle one's hands. A pronounced variety characterizes the color At times vessels are decorated, during the of the Catawba ware. Pieces fired under reduc- stage under discussion, with red sealing wax. ing conditions tend to be predominantly gray and This is done by applying a stick of wax over the black. The open fire, on the other hand, pro- outer surface of a moderately hot vessel and exe- motes reds and oranges. However, the majority cuting the desired, usually floral or simple geo- of the ware is highly mottled; the colorful effect, metrical, design. While I have not observed as has been said, is considered an aesthetic asset; this apparently irregular practice, I have seen the mottling and the lustre have definite decora- and examined about a dozen vessels displaying tive values. the sealing wax crustation. It is of interest, in Attempts to express the numerous tones and this relation, to cite Gregorie (1925: 21): hues on a vessel in terms of a standard color single Mr. E. of St. scale are to meet with serious difficulties. Phillip Porcher, formerly Stephen's apt Parish, who lived to be more than old The of Mrs. Fewkes and dis- ninety years experience myself and died in Christ Church Parish in 1917, told me courages me from placing on record the matching that he rememberedfrequently seeing the Catawba of some twenty Catawba pieces with Ridgway's Indians in the days when they travelled down from plates (1912).58 In one instance four basic tones the up-country to Charleston, making clay ware for were discernible (two in the grays, and two in the the negroesalong the way. They would camp until reds), while the mottled areas totaled forty-eight a section was supplied, then move on, till finally individual values. It seems adequate-and per- Charleston was reached. He said their ware was haps safe-to state that the basic colors of the decorated with colored sealing wax and was in great Catawba ware the demand, for it was before the days of cheap tin and range through grays, oranges, enamel ware. This account and reds. the most characteristic ex- may for the smooth, Perhaps fresh fragments I have found on what are of the as in terms of evidently amples grays, expressed old sites of negro quarters. Ridgway's nomenclature, include pale smoke gray, deep gull gray, mouse gray, and black. It seems safe to presume that the use of sealing The reds and oranges, similarly expressed, com- wax for pottery decoration among the Catawba prise: avellaneous, cinnamon, English red, drab, represents a definitely post-Columbian, and very grenadine, sepia, vinaceous, woodbrown. In likely quite modern, acquisition. cross-section, neutral gray and vinaceous buff Whatever the post-firing care may entail, the are the most common colors. chief purpose of handling the specimens imme- diately after their cooling arises out of a desire 58 This work was done by my wife first; then a pottery to examine each for possible defects. On the and I each preparator made separate matchings. The whole, casualties in firing are insignificant. three sets tallied about as much as might be expected from the limits of Ridgway's dependability as against a col- 59 Dr. Swanton (personal communication) has recorded orimeter. the use of bear grease upon vessels among the Natchez. 94 VLADIMIR J. FEWKES

There is no specially provided place for the stor- required about 2 minutes, and was accomplished age of the final product in the fairly limited during the preparation of a hearth for firing. A dwellings of the Catawba. The main concern, satisfactory bed of ashes was established in 15 it seems, is to dispose of the output by selling as minutes by burning sundry twigs, branches, and soon as possible. Merchants from Rock Hill corncobs. The firing process of the specimen was formerly visited the reservation quite regularly completed within 31 hours. The particular ex- to close the bargains, or the natives carried their ample here described may be considered fairly ware to town and sold to dealers. The producer representative of the several time durations ex- realized from five cents up to a dollar60 and perienced in the case of modeled pieces. occasionally even more per piece, while the mid- The ring and the circuit variants of building dleman cleared a handsome profit. In recent are, of course, more prolonged. The base disk years, sales to shops at Cherokee, N. C., have is shaped in a very short time, the average being reached a considerable volume, but have also about 2 minutes, and the cutting of the strips forced prices at Catawba to a low level. At the of paste, out of which the fillets are fashioned, is same time the market at Rock Hill has just about done in 5 to 10 minutes. I had an opportunity ceased to exist. to observe a ring-building example which may be tabulated as follows: TIME DURATION OF THE CATAWBA Indi- Com- POTTER'S TASKS vidual pound time time The chronology of procedure, as here presented, (in minutes) is fairly constant. Such deviations as sometimes 1. Modeling of the disk (bottom) ...... 3 3 do occur are neither radical nor serious. The 2. Flattening of a lump of paste into an slab about 0.01 m. and actual time element is a variable factor with the irregular thick, cutting this into rectangles (repeated individual potter and the diversified steps inci- four times in order to gain adequate dental to the several processes. Clocking of the supply) ...... 2 8 is not always practicable. 3. Cutting out 14 strips, and placing them procedure an board The of a pottery piece coincides with separately upon auxiliary (12 genesis to be shaped into rings, the remaining the departure in search of clays. The Catawba 2 eventually to become handles); aver- do not have to go far from home for pan clay; age dimensions of strips: length 0.28 m.; however, pipe clay is most readily obtainable in width 0.015 m.; thickness 0.01 m...... 1 14 the river bottom and a ride of some 6 4. Rolling the strips into fillets, and ad- requires of their and to miles. The in a entail justment length girth digging clay pit may uniformity; dimensions: length (aver- several hours of labor; this includes the initial age) 0.295 m. (increase over strip due removal of undesirable matter. The mixing of to rolling), diameter (average) 0.015 m. 1 12 raw clays takes perhaps an hour, and the shaping 5. Shaping and closing each individual of the kneaded into is a matter of ring ...... 1 12 paste lumps 6. Applying, adjusting, and bonding the mere minutes. initial ring upon the base disk...... 3 3 The preparation for the building process like- 7. Application, adjustment, and bonding wise consumes a short interval of time. With of each of the subsequent 10 rings.... 1 10 the a vessel of a 8. Placement, adjustment, and bonding modeling method, globular of the terminal to form and width of 0.1 (twelfth) ring shape, with a maximum height the rim and lip ...... 2 2 m. and an average wall thickness of 0.005 m. can, 9. Smoothing, by hand, the entire body I have witnessed, be shaped within 6 to 8 min- of the cylinder inside and outside.... 4 utes. Since there is no in such an in- 10. Shaping of the form, producing a jar scraping the and follow the globular in the lower portion of stance, polishing drying building. body, with a gently profilated shoulder, In the stipulated example the specimen remained and a cylindrical neck...... 14 in drying, under an average temperature of 50? F. 11. Scraping; inside and outside (with a C.), for approximately 17 hours; its polishing cane knife)...... 9 (10? 12. the surface with mois- consumed about 8 minutes, and 2 hours later the Smoothing rough tened hands and with a rag soaked in potter pronounced the piece to be adequately w ater...... 2 dried for firing. The wiping, in which a dry 13. The vessel was next set aside for drying piece of fine-textured cotton cloth was utilized, on the mantelpiece; the average tem- perature of the room was about 60? F. 60Speck (1934: 71) records 25 cents. (15.56? C.); the vessel remained in CATAWBA AND CHEROKEE POTTERY-MAKING 95

drying for 41 hours. Thereupon, the At the end of half an hour they were hot; in resumed operations entailed: another 15 minutes were and 14. Pebble over the entire out- they quite warm, polishing, 10 to 15 minutes later could be handled ward wall, bottom, and approximately they three-quarters of the height of the neck comfortably. Certainly the maximum time on the inside ...... 13 necessary for their complete cooling did not 15. Appending of 2 diametrically opposed, exceed 1 hour; the room rod temperature averaged flattened, sharp-edged handles, about 68? F. The time consumed akimbo in appearance, each attached (21.11? C.). on the neck and shoulder respectively, in the examination of each specimen then varied utilizing 2 of the 14 strips of paste (see from 1 to 3 minutes, the particular vessel here step 3), but modeling the shapes after described little over 2 minutes to be attachm ent ...... 7 14 requiring As the final 16. Final adjustment of rim by flattening pronounced entirely satisfactory. its lip ...... 1 touch, the potter rubbed the batch with the same 17. Restoration of pebble polish in areas piece of bacon fat previously used by her in cul- affected by the attachment of the the surface this handles ...... 2 minating pre-fired treatment; ...... took but 5 minutes of her time. 18. Polish with a piece of bacon fat...... 2 Mrs. Sally Gordon, the operator in both cases The specimen was now in its completed plastic here timed, was a very skillful and speedy potter. stage. Her dexterity, efficiency, and form tastes were, I The handles, made of the two fillets which think, distinctly above the average. The record during the drying interim were placed under of Mrs. Sally Gordon, proudly revealed by herself moistened paper, required about 4 hours to be and corroborated by others, of having completed freed, by normal evaporation, of the bulk of their eight vessels by ring building, two by modeling, admixed water. The partial drying incidental and adding a half dozen molded pipes, all in the to their storage despite the proper protection, span of a single working day, represents an out- was dismissed by the potter as inconsequential. standing achievement. Thus the total compound time up to this stage Two hours seem to represent a fair average for amounted to 2 hours and 5 minutes. the construction and surface finish of a simple Preparation for the firing process, with all the form; attachment of appendages, curvatures in necessary prerequisites and accommodations close shape, etc., may call for an additional mean of at hand, was a matter of a very few minutes. about 30 minutes. This estimate is equally ap- The ash bed was formed in approximately half plicable to the ring and the circuit modes of an hour, with fuel similar to that cited in the building. instance of the modeled piece. The sectional building process approximately The vessel under description, and other pieces doubles the time necessary for the uninterrupted previously made, were examined for defects and, procedure. The largest, and most complicated being found satisfactory, were placed on the floor vessel ever so produced within the memory of my before the fireplace at a distance of about 1.5 m. informants, was said to have arrived at its final There they remained exactly 40 minutes, being state of construction after some 6 hours of un- turned, in the meanwhile, about every 10 min- interrupted work. utes. Then they were advanced within 0.7 m. A pipe blank can be modeled by hand within 5 of the ash bed, allowed to be examined by me minutes. The molding of a pipe in a double in the process, and having been turned at inter- form is usually a matter of 10 to 12 minutes vals of approximately 5 minutes each, for fully (fig. 8). In either case the surface treatment 1 hour, were finally pushed practically into con- is partially achieved concurrently, and if done tact with the frequently fueled flartes. There entirely separately, it requires no more than 8 they were permitted to remain, with still addi- minutes. The decoration is more tedious, the tional turning, at an average frequency of 20 plotting of the motif taking as much as 20 min- minutes (the rake being called upon for the pur- utes; yet the actual execution of the design can pose), for 2 hours. The computed time of the be accomplished within half that time. Drying graduated firing, therefore, totalled 3 hours and takes one day or less, the carving of the tobacco 40 minutes. Upon the completion of the firing, bowl and the perforation of the stem for smoke the glowing embers were extinguished by raking passage some 20 minutes, and firing about 1 hour, and the ashes were heaped into the rear of the while the final polish is often done in as little fireplace. Thereupon the vessels began to cool. time as 1 minute. 96 VLADIMIR J. FEWKES

TECHNOLOGICAL MISCELLANEA on the rings. During my observations I did not notice deliberate to do so. section is concerned with certain any attempt This only The as has been is a of Such cylinder itself, stated, mechanical aspects technology. aspects characteristic in the Catawba build- to the peculiarity pertain primarily constructional, surfacing, Its several are On the other ing technique. advantages par- and finishing processes. hand, favorable to the of which on ceram- ticularly separate step shaping those approaches depend chiefly the form. The dimensions of the finished form be ics, chemistry, optics, petrology, etc., may often differ from those of the blank. as radically collectively designated analytical technology. of a concrete illustration of this I the domain of ceramic By way point, Naturally, technology- return to the for which time as the term itself be-should may example equiva- unsatisfactory may lents in construction are tabulated in the about a co-ordination of the two subdi- pre- bring section. The in when matter is so involved that it ceding cylinder question, visions. Its subject had a maximum of defies the control of and a completely erected, height any individual, yet 0.135 m. the maximum of the of must be (Theoretically, high degree overlapping inevitably but twelve in It is a fortunate circumstance that superimposed unpressed rings, recognized. added to the base disk 0.015 m. thick, the American in number, specialists pottery technology, and the of the to a of and inter- adjustment rim, compute representing a variety qualifications total of 0.15 m. The factual measurement of have reached a division of tasks. est, already 0.135 m. reflects the alteration, i. e., compression, This was demonstrated the conference held by effected by the bonding.) The body of the cylin- in on which a brief note November, 1938, ap- der was fairly regular in curvatures; when its in American peared Antiquity (4 (4): 358-359, erection was completed, the mean mouth diam- 1939). eter measured 0.083 m. (reading on the inner side true is un- With the Catawba, coiling totally of the rim), whereas the mean maximum diameter substantiated either in literary sources or in the of the bottom, taken on the outside, amounted recollection of those informants whom I inter- to 0.105 m. The fired vessel has the following rogated. (When the potters themselves refer to maximum measurements: height, 0.153 m.; diam- "coiling," they actually have in mind the annular eter of body (outside limits), 0.104 m.; diameter variants of construction.) The archaeological of bottom, 0.065 m.; diameter of neck at its junc- sherds collected and examined by me at the tion with the shoulder, 0.075 m.; mouth diameter reservation revealed no evidence of coiling. It is (outwardly), 0.065 m.; thickness of wall (taken interesting to note, in this connection, that at the lip), 0.004 m. (fig. 15a). Catawba potters settled amid the Cherokee, with This same vessel has a grayish buff color, and whom coiling unquestionably formerly was really approximately one-half of its outside surface has characteristic, appear not to have adopted this mottled areas in varying shades of orange and method. That such women may well have seen gray. Their distribution begins on the lip, runs Cherokee potters use coiling must be admitted over the neck, handles, and belly, and also the as a reasonable certainty. bottom. The variegated effect is due to oxidiz- The circuit and the ring variants, the Catawba ing atmosphere, to reducing gases, and to smoke insist, offer equally convenient means of wall- carbonization. The upper inside margin of the building. Both are commonly used, and are said neck is only faintly discolored in blackish gray in to be equally old. With respect to the validity places adjacent to the lip mottling. The bottom of this contention, it may be stressed that wit- shows an undiscolored spot, some gray and black nessing of the two variants convinces the observer tones, and a most instructive streak of a slightly of their equal expediency as to manipulation and darker shade of the basic color. The streak, speed. The construction of a blank cylinder, darkened by the carbon of the smoke rolling up subject to subsequent form-shaping, a character- the wall, is also plainly visible on the belly istic phenomenon at Catawba, is also believed through a similar, although smaller, zone, which by the natives to be an old practice; indeed, it indicates where the smoke stream started. of appears to be preferred to tecto-shaping. It While reducing conditions prevented mottling seems permissible to presume that certain curva- the streak on the bottom, oxidation stimulated tures might easily be attained-consciously or it on the exposed belly. The smoke was derived unconsciously-in the process of fillet-building, from several slow-burning clinkers expelled from re- depending on the circuit variant or even perhaps the fire and settled near the vessel (which CATAWBA AND CHEROKEE POTTERY-MAKING 97

mained in an upright position throughout the ble that high-speed photography and special firing); the blackening was then due to reduction filters might be helpful in such an endeavor. and acute carbonization. The streak on the Similarly, the use of blood or fat in the prepara- belly, however, was partially subjected to addi- tion of paste, and their full significance and value, tional penetration of smoke and was somewhat are incompletely understood. As already stated, darkened thereby; a close examination reveals I did not see the practical application of such the extent of its original distribution. The dark- media during my studies. est tone of gray appears on the lower portion of the belly, off the base. In watching the firing, CHEROKEE POTTERY-MAKING I noticed that a well-glowing clinker became It seems appropriate at this time to consider wedged there and promoted the In the process. the status of the areas of its closest contact with the vessel, the present pottery-making among whose has been under Ca- basic color was not mar- Cherokee, industry changed. However, tawba influence for a considerable and the excessive period of time. ginally, only vertically up wall, If it is to of delimited permissible speak acculturation in blackening resulted, being quite sharply this individual instance an undulation in one and rather blurred alone, then the pheno- by spot, menon involved illustrates an acute elsewhere. The severe demarcation to example of appeared its manifestation. Now that be incidental to two the of practical, dynamic factors, namely shape and from Catawba the of the and imported pipe pan clays have contacting portion clinker, the the concentration of replaced allegedly depleted local supply, the reducing gases immediately resemblence between the above it. The smoke found freedom in superficial two cate- rolling of is close indeed. the soot settled the surface of the gories pottery very upward; upon of Ewi Katalsta as vessel in a broad over the and Mooney (1900: 164) spoke span running lip "the last conservator of the art also the inner side of the neck. I potter's among reaching sup- the East Cherokee." Her was observed that the heat from the interior of the process pose rising as late as 1908 vessel its by Harrington (1908b: 222 ff., pls. prevented deeper penetration inwardly It was described Holmes down the neck. The same column of 2-10).61 previously by rolling who obtained his information from smoke also left traces on the sides of the handles (1903: 56) and Holmes also wrote of its certain deflection took Mooney; (1903: 53) facing course; however, Catawba the likewise there as evidenced the discoloration of potters among Cherokee, place by after One of named the horizontal bars of the handles. The handles Mooney. these, Susan, the wife of the Cherokee ex-chief Sampson Owl, was a have their edges defined by unequal sharpness constant maker of pottery, entirely in the Ca- and angularity. It is interesting that in the one tawba style, for over forty years;62 she died in having a more or less rounded form, the smoke 1934.63 Her daughter, her relatives, and others coloring continues quite on to the gradually who desired to learn the craft, were planed underside. The of the readily angularity other, taught by her or copied her however, all but this distribution. A procedure.64 stopped Ewi Katalsta65 was her it can similar is visible on its contemporary; phenomenon laterally be demonstrated, I think, that even she was not but is due to another batch of opposite edge, immune to influences of the Catawba smoke. Elsewhere on the other potters body splotches, living at Cherokee. That she could have each the result of smoke are adopted contact, present. certain elements from Catawba at Despite the from immigrants knowledge gained observing Cherokee is, of course, wholly within the realm of the processes just described, certain elements probability. Moreover, it is possible to point to operative in mottling remain unexplained. Out- these are the common 61 standing among examples Harrington stated that there was, in 1908, only one of concentric shading within a given spot; the other potter at Eastern Cherokee, "an aged woman known formation of peculiarly distributed areas on the as Jennie Arch, whose feeble hands had all but lost their skill." He interior of a vessel; and the frequent occurrence apparently was not cognizant of Susan Owl; vide infra, and Speck (1939: 25-26). of spattered, small occa- 62 blotches, apparently Personal information from Dr. Speck. sioned 63 wholly by smoke rather than by contact The date is apparently only approximate; cf. Speck with individual clinkers. Whether or not it is (1939: 26). 64 possible to rationalize these induc- Personal information from Dr. Speck. phenomena 65 Ewi tively remains to be determined. The Katalsta was still a somewhat active potter as point late as 1913; she died about 1926. (Information from should be pursued by further inquiry; it is possi- Dr. Speck.) 98 VLADIMIR J. FEWKES

concrete evidence that this was actually so. Mooney observed that "in building she [Ewi Katalsta] sometimes66used one long coil which was carried spirally from the bottom to the rim after the manner of the ancient Pueblos and the Louisiana potters."67 There is no explanation as to which mode of construction she employed otherwise. Conjectures are unnecessary, for Har- rington's account of Ewi Katalsta's building furnished conclusive proof of its analogy with the circuit variant of the Catawba: she applied the paste roll, and adjusted it, "pinching it fast the while until the circuit was completed. The coil proved too long, so she broke the superfluous piece off and blended the two ends together with care. . . . Thus the coiling proceeded until the required form and height were reached."68 Note also the omission of temper in the instance wit- nessed by Harrington (1908b: 224), which is yet another Catawba rather than Cherokee charac- teristic. In 1929 Dr. Paul Kirchhoff collected an old FIG. 30. Cherokee vessel, probably the work of Ewi Katalsta. Collected Dr. Paul Kirchhoff. vessel in the Cherokee country,69 which seems by inferentially attributable to the work of Ewi I am not with Katalsta.70 The specimen (fig. 30) embodies a acquainted analogous comparisons in so far as the decorative motif and the rim debased Cherokee form and decoration (grooved, treatment of the vessel collected Dr. Kirchhoff pointed garlands, each formed by four parallel by are concerned. At the lines, with a fringelike effect, vertically placed, any rate, specimen, whether the of Katalsta or illus- and a similarly executed cross-hatched design on product not, trates one of the last flickers of the now the neck, which is slightly raised above the perhaps vanished Cherokee work based on their shoulder) and typically Catawba polishing."7 largely own traditional it is not The shape of its body approximates presumed expression. Although accu- ancient Cherokee forms,72 and the execution of possible to judge the building technique from surface a certain amount the decoration resembles similarly ornamented rately appearance, of concentric not all due to sherds thought to be of Cherokee provenience.73 alignment, polishing, an annular method. The con- 66 suggests present Italicized by the present writer. cern with Katalsta well be terminated 67 Holmes extraterritorial may by (1903: 53). (The comparison Dr. statement that may have been drawn by either Mooney or Holmes; that, recording Speck's significant however, is irrelevant to the point under consideration, "by 1913 Ewi was no longer a potter purely in which applies to the Cherokee potter.) the Cherokee style, but markedly influenced by 68 Harrington (1908b: 225); italics by the present writer. Catawba methods."74 Cf. Holmes (1903: 53-54) for identical procedure by two At the time and Ca- Catawba women at Cherokee in 1890; Holmes's index present Catawba-type (p. 207), not text, classifies this as coiling. tawba-inspired ware is being produced by the 69Specimen originally deposited in the Department of Cherokee as a permanent source of revenue. Anthropology, University of Pennsylvania, where I have The tourist trade, served by "craft shops" on examined it. the reservation and the chief 70Dr. Kirchhoff Dr. and to elsewhere, provides accompanied Speck myself In season the demand is the Catawba reservation prior to his trip to the Cherokee. market. quite lively, (The vessel in question impressed him as a valuable speci- and the local potters are unable to produce an men, and he investigated, without positive success, its adequate supply. The shortage is made up by history; personal information from Dr. Kirchhoff.) the who either their to 71 Catawba, bring products I am obliged to Dr. Speck for permission to refer here in or sell them at their reservation to this Cherokee cars, interesting specimen. western 72 Cf. Harrington (1922: pls. XLIXd and LII; also pls. to visiting shopkeepers and agents from XLIXg and L, both from Tennessee). North Carolina and elsewhere. Thus Catawba 73Harrington, 1908b: pl. LVIIa (particularly the lower three scrolls of the left portion of the design), d, and f. 74Personal information from Dr. Speck. CATAWBA AND CHEROKEE POTTERY-MAKING 99 pottery is often sold as a Cherokee product, or two are of the Catawba category and one in quasi- farther away from the Smoky Mountains Na- old-Cherokee style, paddle-stamped.75 The pad- tional Park, simply as Indian pottery. To one dle-stamped specimen is quite inferior in fabric acquainted with the characteristics of the Ca- and general execution as compared with the two tawba ware, the identity is immediately obvious Catawba-inspired pieces made by the same pot- no matter what the label. It seems appropriate ter. Truly, the latter two pieces rival the aver- to note that some Cherokee potters have been age ware now manufactured at Catawba. In approached by commercial buyers from Minne- 1941 Mrs. Welch informed me that she used local sota and Arizona. However, there has been no clay in making the stamped pot, and Catawba favorable reaction to such offers, perhaps chiefly clays (pan and pipe) in the other two pieces; and because the local market is so good. A proficient that she constructed all three vessels by the potter at Cherokee, according to local informa- circuit method. tion, may realize as much as twelve hundred The contemporary Cherokee no longer manu- dollars on sales of her ware within a single year. facture any of their own original type of pottery. Such an income, almost entirely clear profit, pro- Similarly, vessels distinctly characteristic of the vides a revenue which, in view of local standards Catawba quality and technique, and yet combin- and economy, is quite considerable if not extra- ing such native Cherokee elements as coiling and ordinary. (At Catawba, an entire family of the use of the paddle, are also not made any more. potters with four expert women at work and one Mrs. Lillie Bryson (cf. note 2) continues to or two men to dig clays, does not make six make typical Catawba-style pottery which is hundred dollars in a year.) sold as Cherokee product. She, like Mrs. Welch, As late as 1934, Dr. Speck collected three uses Catawba clays; moreover, her former ex- vessels made by Mrs. Maude Welch, a native periences at Catawba still tend to dominate her Cherokee and an accomplished potter, of which work. She is, therefore, less inclined to deviate from old tradition, although not always success- ful in resisting certain new temptations. With the express permission of Dr. Speck, I should like to mention a particularly interesting and instructive pot manufactured by Mrs. Bry- son late in 1935. This is a vessel of a globular body with two independent necks. The necks are surmounted by a ribbon handle forming a high loop and attached to the mutually opposed margins of each rim. In 1935 Dr. Speck was informed by Mrs. Bryson that the specimen was originally conceived by her to serve the purpose of a wedding gift; her idea, it seems, was motiv- ated by a desire to symbolize the union of the intended recipients. Mrs. Bryson reiterated the sibstance of these statements in answer to my inquiries in 1941. However, my further pur- suance of the subject-since the "wedding pitcher" is now quite common both at Cherokee and at Catawba revealed a significant factor. In 1935, at an Indian fair held at Atlanta, Georgia, several Pueblo potters are said to have been present, among them the renowned Maria Martinez of San Ildefonso-at least that was the name my informant was able to recall with some help on my part. In any case, the Southwestern

FIG. 31. Mrs. Maude Welch (Cherokee) working on a pot 75 All three specimens originally in the Department of on which Indian heads with braided hair are used as Anthropology, University of Pennsylvania, where I have lugs. A pair of toothless combs, a spoon, and a knife examined them with Dr. Speck's permission to mention are among the tools upon her working board. them here. 100 VLADIMIR J. FEWKES

artisans demonstrated their native pottery-mak- Mrs. Welch is doubtless the most skillful na- ing, and the vessel with two necks, a normal tive Cherokee potter at the present time. She Pueblo form, was among the finished products. learned her craft at Catawba, where she still Mrs. Youngbird, a Cherokee potter, attended the visits occasionally, and is, on the whole, rather fair, and it appears quite certain now that she is conservative. The frog pot, and a conoid jar to be credited with the introduction of this with applied snake about the body or with two Pueblo form at her reservation. Mrs. Bryson's Indian heads provided with braided hair (fig. 31), claim to independent invention of the pitcher are typical and ever readily recognizable on any with two necks has a counterpart at Catawba. store counter. (They are usually identified by And yet it was possible, by following chrono- her name and residence inscribed on the bottom.) logical evidence and trade contacts, to recon- The local trade prefers her products, and they struct the actual course of events. Catawba bring higher prices. Mrs. Welch makes rela- potters, visiting Cherokee to sell their ware, tively few pitchers with two necks, which she noticed the new form after 1935 and promptly views as outside intrusions not in line with do- adopted it as an expedient economic advantage.76 mestic tradition. She obtains her clays from the Mrs. Bryson, now living at Ela, 6 miles away Catawba reservation, uses two parts of pipe clay from the Cherokee reservation, is a very active and one part of pan clay in making vessels, and potter. Her products are made from imported employs the circuit variant of annular fillet con- Catawba clays, and upon the principles of struction. She resorts to modeling only in pro- Catawba techniques from start to finish. They ducing small pieces. Mrs. Welch relies rather are easily recognizable in the several "craft heavily on the use of a moist rag for smoothing, shops," and can be fully identified by the maker's reducing wall thickness, and even some shaping, name and affinity appearing on the bottom. as well as polishing. Her tools depend more on Mrs. Bryson has added the pitcher with two modern kitchen pieces than on native means; necks and the frog pot to her forms since she mussel shell, gourd, cane knife, bone polisher are took residence at Cherokee in 1930. not included in her tool assemblage. On the Dr. Speck secured yet another interesting ves- other hand, the polishing pebble is of prime sel during his 1935-1936 work at Cherokee. importance, also a cherished possession, and This is a bowl with a frog figure in positive relief usually quite old. Mrs. Welch employs model- enveloping the upper portion of its body,77 re- ing in making pipes, the Indian heads, and the cently made by Mrs. Maude Welch. The oc- snakes and frogs for applique; the blanks are currence of the applied frog motive was presumed quite crude in either instance, but carving with a amid ancient Cherokee (?) pottery by Harrington metal knife-blade and smoothing with a wet rag (1922: 283).78 According to her own statement, eventually lead to the execution of delicate de- Mrs. Welch arrived at her idea through observa- tails in many cases. The applied features are in tion of archaeological specimens in the B. S. all cases solid, irrespective of dimensions; special Colburn collection at Biltmore Forest, North care is taken in their drying process, which is Carolina. invariably prolonged, and in the firing, which is done and under controlled 76 with two necks made Mrs. in very slowly minutely The vessel by Bryson increase of heat. Mrs. Welch fires her 1935 has, in the meantime, been published; cf. Penny- products packer (1937: 147-148, fig. 1). However, Pennypacker at an outside fire and as a rule preheats them in a gave no account of its then alleged history; his statement washtub on the kitchen stove. that "archaeologically these pots have a very wide dis- Aside from Mrs. Welch, there are some five or tribution which extends from Canada to Florida along the six native Cherokee women on the reservation Atlantic Coast" is certainly contrary to truth. 77 The vessel is somewhat analogous with the specimen who make pottery more or less occasionally. shown in Harrington (1922: pl. LIX), but the modern Their standards and skill are not comparable to piece has the frog more pronouncedly in relief. I am those of Mrs. Welch and Mrs. Bryson. More- indebted to Dr. Speck for permission to refer here to this. these unstable are vessel. over, it appears that potters 78 Such presumed Cherokee provenience of the frog pot responsible for some of the most grotesque amid archaeological remains in the Southeast cannot claim products at Cherokee, such as the figure of a any recognition, since there is no positive evidence to squaw with a papoose on the back, imitations of support it. The frog is not represented among the pottery modern industrial forms or their various found in historic Cherokee sites in pottery remains recently etc. Tennessee (personal information from Miss Madeline features, Kneberg). The "craft shops" at Cherokee offer the gulli- CATAWBA AND CHEROKEE POTTERY-MAKING 101 ble tourist numerous gift "attractions" and ap- method, and by the carved wooden-paddle pear to be doing a thriving and profitable busi- stamping or textile-wrapped paddle impressions ;79 ness. It is quite natural, then, that the pressure the blackening of the interior, achieved by the of commercial opportunities exerts its influence firing of readily burning fuel,80 such as bran,81 upon the local sources of supply. The potters corncobs, or tree bark; the seemingly lesser degree are exposed to a veritable motley of temptations of care given to clay selection, which stands out to which they succumb, either of their own will, in particular contrast to the Catawba practices;82 or upon an impressive sales talk, rather easily. and by the surface color, which is almost entirely The result is often quite ghastly from the ethno- buff (on dull ground) and only rarely blackish (on logical standpoint, although it may well delight lustrous ground). Holmes (1903: 56) viewed the average tourist. The shopkeepers are in- "the application of a black glossy color by terested in the profit, and the natives appear to smother-firing" as one of the chief differences be oblivious to the potential ultimate conse- between Cherokee and Catawba wares. Accord- quences of abandoning old tradition. As a re- ing to Harrington (1922: 196), the native Chero- sult, truly native pottery-making no longer exists kee processes "probably are practically the same at Cherokee. as in prehistoric times." This assumption is The agency school had an opportunity to sal- quite vague in view of the author's own concept vage and resurrect the craft during the last (1922: 174-175) of an early group and a later decade, but the attempt actually made was a group of aboriginal Cherokee pottery. Harring- failure. Instead of stressing native methods, the ton does not give the manufacturing technique potter's wheel and a kerosene kiln were intro- for either group. Holmes (1903: 161) inferred, duced. Photographs of archaeological vessels although not conclusively, the "coiling" method.83 from the Colburn collection were used as models Mooney was informed by a Catawba woman at despite the circumstance that they did not in- Cherokee that "the manner of baking by which clude a single specimen of true Cherokee affinity. a rich black color was given the ware was . . . Apparently the lack of a competent instructor, acquired from the Cherokee" (Holmes, 1903: acquainted with the history and technology of 53).84 As far as possible interchange between native Cherokee pottery-making, was a particu- Cherokee and Catawba potters in earlier ("pre- larly serious handicap. In any case, the abortive historic") times is concerned, there is no suffi- endeavor to attract and stimulate local interest cient ground for deductions. made no impression on the active potters, al- The pottery now being made at Cherokee com- though some of the artisans participated in the prises pieces produced by transplanted Catawba initial work. The school authorities are anxious methods, either locally taught by Catawba immi- to secure a and it is properly qualified instructor, 79 to be that the of . e., purposely applied for decorative purposes, not hoped significance retaining incidental to the shaping manipulation. native procedures will not be overlooked. The 80 Probably also practiced by the ancient Catawba. clay shortage is to be met by importation of suit- 81 Cf. Harrington (1908b: 226) and Holmes (1903: 56), able supplies to be sold, under government super- where "wheat or corn bran" is specified. This method vision, to local at cost. It should cer- was occasionally used by Mrs. Welch even in 1941. potters 82 This is as due to tainly be to obtain an peculiarity perhaps explainable being expedient ample clay sup- the shortage of suitable clay. According to Mrs. Welch, ply at Catawba. And it cannot be urged too the best deposits, situated on Soco Creek (cf. Harrington strongly that the wheel and kiln be relegated to (1908b: 224)), became unavailable about twenty years ago, oblivion in the contemplated program. The his- when some buildings were erected upon the clay beds. and tradition of Cherokee lend them- 83 Cf. also Holmes (1903: 50-51) for the assumption that tory pottery in the Eastern United States "the of were selves well indeed to rational vocational strips clay wide, training. irregular, and rude, and . . . rarely showing traces of their As has been stated, pottery-making at Chero- employment." Yet, immediately thereupon, Holmes kee has lost the truly native procedure in which stated: "Specimens from many sections of the Eastern methods And United States fracture along the strip junction, thus re- aboriginal predominated. yet the and the manner of their manufacture." some even now be vealing fillet, specimens may found on the It may be recalled, in this connection, that Catawba reservation which, although quite inferior in exe- women settlers among the Cherokee appear never to have cution and fabric to the old style, retain certain adopted the true coiling technique. elements of native Such 84 Fuel-smothered firing, reducing conditions, and con- technique. specimens trolled are all at are the mottling commonly employed Catawba recognizable by admixture of crushed to attain black or dark gray tones; the methods involved pebbles for temper, often by the use of the coiling appear to be survivals of old practices. 102 VLADIMIR J. FEWKES grants or acquired by Cherokee women at the okee, as now practiced, is nurtured primarily by Catawba reservation. Except for certain modi- the thriving tourist trade. fications resulting chiefly from lesser general Forty years ago Holmes wrote (1903:142): "It skillfulness, and some differences in form, this is not yet possible to make a satisfactory analysis pottery resembles that of the Catawba reserva- of the pottery of the Carolinas." Referring to tion. To one familiar with the latter, however, the pre-Columbian ethnic complexity of the area, the inferiority of the Cherokee product, qualita- he also stressed that the field has been "little tively speaking, is quite obvious. The surfacing studied," a point which remains true today. In and the color scheme of the Cherokee-made extant literary sources information on Catawba pottery do not equal the aesthetic effects attained and Cherokee pottery technique is sadly deficient by Catawba women at their home. Since throughout the period antedating the observa- Catawba clays are generally used now, the basic tions of Palmer and Mooney. For the Cherokee, similarities in outside appearance should be Timberlake (1765: 62) merely mentioned their rather close. And yet there are clear-cut dif- "two sorts of clay, red and white, with both [of] ferences even between the products of Mrs. which they make excellent vessels, some of which Welch, the best native potter, and those of Mrs. will stand the greatest of heat." Butel-Dumont Bryson, who originally came from Catawba.85 (1753, 1: 154; 2: 271 ff.) and Du Pratz (1758, 1: It appears that at Cherokee, within the last 124; 2: 178 ff.) recorded certain eighteenth cen- decade in any case, the potters were confronted tury practices in Louisiana. On the other hand with a lively and gradually increasing demand for Lederer (1672), the first European to publish their vessels. To meet the situation, and thus about the Catawba and the Cherokee, did not properly to capitalize on the opportunities, pro- mention their pottery at all. A century later duction had to be accelerated. Consequently, Smyth (1784: 193) referred to Catawba pottery some of the details of technique suffered and the as "an ill-formed kind of half-baked earthen general care became rather superficial. Although ware."86 This statement, obviously, is valueless promising local talent clearly manifested itself for the present purpose. from time to time-as exemplified by Mrs. Welch Commenting on modern Cherokee potters, and others-its potentials evidently did not Holmes (1903: 143) described them as skillful and stimulate any craft consciousness among the stated: Therein lies the fundamental differ- artisans. Their ware has several points of analogy with the ence between contemporary Cherokee and Ca- ancient-stamped pottery of the South Appalachian tawba potters. The Catawba women, and in- province. Their ware retains more of the character- deed the "nation" at large, are proud of their istic elements of form than does that of the Catawbas craft; they derive a definite sense of satisfaction and the stamps they use in decoration are identical from practicing it, and its economic value, al- in many respects with those found used in the entire though an asset, is certainly modest. The region extending from southern Florida to Virginia. Cherokee had lost their own native methods over (It is to be remembered that Holmes did not two decades back when Ewi Katalsta ceased to observe either Catawba or Cherokee potters at be active. They subsequently resumed pottery- work. His judgment was based on notes taken making through Catawba tutelage, which be- by Palmer and Mooney, and on vessels collected came more pronounced than ever before. Ulti- by them. His lack of field observations was a mately, Catawba technical dominance became serious, although not consciously recognized, supreme at Cherokee, and continues to be to this handicap.) And referring to former Iroquois day. However, the Cherokee never quite grasped manufacture, Holmes wrote (1903: 161): "Evi- the finesse which characterizes pottery-making at dences of the building process are obscure, but Catawba. Perhaps there has not been adequate there is no reason to suppose that other than the time yet for a thorough assimilation. Whatever usual methodswere employed."87 Cushing (1894: the the circumstance cannot be rationalization, 86 Bushnell (1906: 673) quoted this passage from Smyth overemphasized that the potter's craft at Cher- without any comment. 87 Italics those of the present writer. Obviously, 85 The products of Mrs. Welch and Mrs. Bryson can be Holmes's negative comment has no specific value. The readily recognized in the motley groups of pottery for sale obscurity in question is not to be minimized in so far as at various shops. The respective names of the two potters complete, undamagedvessels are concerned,although even appear on the bottoms, so that precise identification is in such cases certain distinguishing criteria of technique possible. are often discernible. CATAWBA AND CHEROKEE POTTERY-MAKING 103

227) considered Cherokee pottery-making more vations, which Speck (1928: 414 ff.) traced difficult and tedious than that of the "shore historically. Especially significant are his de- people," but did not substantiate his contention. tails regarding the initial preparation of the basal disk, the building of the wall, which was done by PAMUNKEY POTTERY-MAKING "adding thin layers of clay paste," direct shaping and also his statement that "the certain constituent tribes of by modeling, Formerly the was not followed in recent times" Powhatan the sense of coiling (Speck, Confederacy (in post- 1928: All this a new con- British had a "smooth" ware which 410-411). represents contacts) tribution. of the as 411 has Speck's description (1928: 411) resembled, Speck (1928: ff.) shown, method of and fuel- that of the Catawba. The of scraping, pebble polishing, Virginia category smothered corroborates the ob- this from that of the Carolinas firing previous pottery, differing servations of Pollard (1894: 18). The latter chiefly in its powdered mussel-shell temper, is author, however, spoke of "kiln baking," without perhaps to be assigned to the Chickahominy, the explaining the contraption.93 It is possible that Mattaponi, and the Pamunkey (Speck, 1928: the Pamunkey arranged their fuel in a manner 339 ff.). which may have impressed Pollard as a kiln. The smooth ware which finally usurped the style Speck's specific description (1928: 411) induces and technique at Pamunkey was known to the na- an acceptance of such a possibility: "Next comes tives of much of the east. Sherdsof the same texture the burning of the pots in the open fire hearth. in and surface are found the Cherokeeregion, among The Pamunkey cover the jars with corn-stalks the Catawba, and all over the tide-water Algonkian and of to them a habitat from the North pieces dry pine give light-gray Carolina-Virginiaboundary color. The stalks and bark are to the head of We have piled over them ChesapeakeBay. specimens to cover them in to illustrate this from the Chickahominy through burning." the country to the Nanticoke area of Delaware. Speck's comparisons of modern Pamunkey and (Speck, 1928: 411-412.)88 Catawba methods should be applicable, in view of his genealogical studies, as far back as the first The nineteenth century methods of the Pamun- quarter of the nineteenth century; this deduction key potters, who appear to have abandoned their led him (1928: 418) to the following conclusion: manufacture for local needs with the advent of "Would it not seem plausible, then, to ascribe an the railroad in years antedating the Civil War early manufacture of the smoothware to both (Speck, 1925: 409), were observed and described surviving groups?" by Pollard (1894).89 Drawing on this record, At Pamunkey, according to Speck (1928: 402- Holmes (1903: 153) added certain comparisons, 404, figs. 101, 102): namely that "this pottery corresponds somewhat Its closely in general appearance with that of the sporadic occurrence, its localized abundance, Cherokees and the Catawbas."90 and some historical circumstances, as well as the Harrington conditions referred to modern ethnological among the present Indians of (1908a: 406) Pamunkey pot- the to the conclusion that the tery as "crude for the curio hunter."9' region, point clearly attempts ware of this type came into being after the natives However, twenty years later Speck (1928:409 ff.) had changed their economic habits resulting from presented a convincing account of the tradi- contacts with the English. . . . The ware is charac- tionally remembered potter's craft at Pamun- terized by being very smooth, hard and fine-grained, key.92 This conclusively proved Catawba deri- the clay free entirely from sand and grit, yet full of powdered mussel-shell. Its color is light brown or 88 Cf. also Holmes (1889: 249-250). uniformdrab or gray. No incised or depresseddeco- 89Cf. also Mason (1887). 90 ratiobs are found in the body. A few rims only show For illustrations of Pamunkey specimens (collected any ittempts at embellishment,which then consists by Dalyrimple about 1878 (Holmes, 1903: 152)), cf. of fine Holmes in impressions or dents, sometimes of finger (1903: pi. CXXXVI), which analogies with marks. Next is the most numerous Catawba forms may be seen in the two plain bowls (front important thing: row, left and center) and the three(?)-footed mug (rear angular bottoms, parts of curved handles or lugs, legs row, center, shown with a separate bowl reposingwithin its and knobbed lids, together with evidence of flat bot- mouth). toms and the exclusive lipped rim style, are indica- 91Here, however, it is also stated that the Pamunkey tions of a modification in form, bringing them into "still make a few earthen pipes, some of which are of old correspondencewith the common European forms. form and all of which, I understand,are made by old time method to a great degree." 93 Holmes(1903: 130) rejectedthe sporadicreports of 92 Vessels and pipes illustrated in his figures 108 ff. kilnsin the Southeast. 104 VLADIMIR J. FEWKES

Here then is the secret, and, comparingthis material 1932. The traditional procedure may be out- with the historic Pamunkey ware, we are forced to lined briefly as follows. Local clay, recognized as conclude that the later is archaeological material tribal property, is utilized, invariably tempered the link between the transitional, forming pre- with calcined mussel shells in varying proportions Europeanand modern potter.94 up to one-third by volume. The constructional In his further comments, Speck states (1928: methods employ modeling, segmental procedure 424-425): with morsels and with fillets, and molding. The morsel variant depends on amorphous increments The modern Pamunkey have not quite left off of which are added to the Some of the women . . . and some paste gradually growing making pipes. with a modeled basal of the men . . . manufacture them as they were wall, starting previously made two generations ago. They dig their clay in disk. The segmental fillet-building depends the same holes along the river. They gather and upon the circuit variant of annular procedure. burn the mussel shells, and clean and mix the clay (The principle is the same as that practiced at with the powdered shell in the same proportion, Catawba.) A double mold is used in the produc- about one part of shell to five of clay. They burn tion of certain pipes, but more commonly pipes them in the traditional way by piling a heap of dry are modeled. The fine sticks and a dozen or so cornstalks to the polishing pebble, especially dry valued and often old, is in of five or six inches, to cover two or quite usually kept height enough active service inheritance. An three pipes which have been four or five days in the through family shade. Then when one covering of the sticks has impressive variety of decoration is generally exe- been burnt off, the pipes are done and ready for use. cuted; sundry impressions, rubbing, brushing, indenting, grooving, incising, etc., produce the the Pottery-making among Pamunkey appears desired effects. However, attempts at painting, to have received a fresh the last impetus during presumably aiming to imitate Pueblo examples, At the time vessels and decade. present pipes have been, I think, totally unsuccessful. The are manufactured for tourist being primarily firing of larger pieces is usually done at an open trade. The I potters use-quite unsuccessfully, fire outdoors. Pipes are fired either in a metal and crustation as think-painting (i. e., pre-fired receptacle or upon the grate of a kitchen stove. well of the color me- as post-fired applications The traditional style has been flourishing for over dium) for decoration; and they often employ a a decade, and has retained its methods and im- kiln That some South- for firing. aboriginal proved its technique in most recent years. The methods still at has eastern prevail Pamunkey school, at first adopting the circuit construction the recent field work of Mr. Theo- been shown by and using local clay, soon introduced radical a student in dore Stern, graduate anthropology innovations. Stern lists pot-molds, use of sand of Mr. Stern at the University Pennsylvania. for temper, utilization of untempered clay, im- field in 1940 and 1941 to a devoted several trips portation of factory clay, the potter's wheel, at study of pottery-making Pamunkey, working templates, paints, glazes, and the kiln. The in- active native chiefly with Paul Miles, the most fluence on form is therefore pronounced, and his work have been em- potter. The results of reflects not only the new mechanical facilities, bodied in an unpublished manuscript (1941)95 but also the pressure of tourist demand. The of the of Penn- placed in the Library University school promotes imitations of Pueblo shapes and sylvania. The paragraph immediately following decorations, and the first instructor is credited and on various this is based on that manuscript with the introduction of decorative pictographs information me Mr. Stern. personal given by purporting to represent Indian sign language. of At the present, two styles pottery-making The school-taught style of pottery-making no exist at Pamunkey; one follows native tradition, longer retains any native Pamunkey methods, is at the school while the other taught pottery but it apparently does not usurp the local craft. since maintained on the reservation by the state At the same time its economic advantage is cer- of distinct 94 At Catawba flat bottoms seem to be an aboriginal tainly importance. characteristic. However, Speck's relegation of this type Compared with the product of the Catawba of base in the Virginia-Maryland-Delaware coastal area (or its counterpart at Cherokee), the native to post-European contacts remains unchallenged. ware is marked a 95 Pamunkey by gross qualitative Mr. Stern obliged me with a copy of his manuscript, There is historic and some and me detailed verbal accounts of his several field inferiority. proof gave extant evidence of certain influences in trips. I hereby acknowledge his courtesy in allowing me brought to use his data in this paper. by Catawba potters marrying among the Pamun- CATAWBA AND CHEROKEE POTTERY-MAKING 105

key. In modern timtes, however, such instances hannock, then, it would seem less possible to have just about disappeared. The Pamunkey entertain such hopes as one may, albeit reserv- who still follow the native traditional methods edly, for some of their consanguineous and cul- obviously lack the skill, and perhaps also the zest, turally akin neighbors. And yet fresh field in- which is so characteristic of the Catawba potters. vestigation of the question is desirable before Their products seem devoid of any special care, final judgment is passed. finesse, and enthusiasm. While the techniques For the mixed descendants of the Namsamond, still preserve certain aboriginal principles, the Polomac, Powhatan, and (?) Werewecomoco, finished products do not reveal them. Even an now surviving in Virginia "in the same general expert in native American Indian pottery-mak- locality where their ancestors lived" (Speck, ing, past or present, might well be perplexed by 1925: vii), no positive records or traditions of some of the modern "traditional" Pamunkey pottery-making, past or present, have, as far as product. The tourist trade seems to be chiefly I am able to ascertain, been gathered. responsible for the current state of the Pamunkey In the Chesapeake region farther north, native craft. Despite the relatively low pecuniary gain pottery-making did not survive into modern -in contrast with Cherokee and Catawba-the times either in practice or in tradition. economic aspect is stronger than the force of In his monograph on the Nanticoke of Dela- tradition. Nevertheless, the school should be ware, Speck (1914: 36-37), dealing with local able to work out a program which would serve to archaeology, did not specifically mention the retain and improve the traditional style and at "smooth ware" simply because its general occur- the same time to enable others to better their rence in the area was not then established. This, economic status through industrialized pottery- however, was done in subsequent years, and making. Such a program should avoid com- Speck (1928: 412, 424) was the first to report and bining the two tendencies, for each has its specific to evaluate the culture-historic importance of scope, and each can satisfy the relevant demand. such pottery. After the foregoing brief survey of pottery- More recently Davidson (1935: 6 ff.) reported making at Pamunkey, it seems appropriate to the finds from the Slaughter Creek site, Delaware; inquire into the status of the craft among the his excavations brought forth, among other neighboring remnants of Indian descendants in remains, undecorated sherds with crushed shell Virginia. inclusions, i. e., Speck's "smooth ware." 97 It is About 1925 Dr. Speck collected a plain, sphe- to be hoped that further systematic work in Dela- roid, fairly smooth, and undecorated jar of ware will follow, and that it may reveal evidence Chickahominy provenience, about four inches with which to reconstruct local chronology. high and about five inches in diameter, recently Similar investigations are also desirable in Mary- made in the family of Chief O. W. Adkins.96 land. An attempt to establish the temporal The Chickahominy might still find it possible to position of the flat bottom, and above all the demonstrate pottery-making reflecting some for- chronological relation of the "smooth ware," merly used methods. must necessarily wait for dependable archaeo- A similar supposition is probably also applic- logical evidence. able to the Mattaponi and to the Adamstown or Upper Mattaponi. Only field investigations can SOME HISTORICAL RETROSPECTS determine the actual conditions; certain sporadic information seems to indicate that at least tradi- In the deeper Southeast, pottery-making ap- to have been abandoned tional knowledge of pottery-making may be pears during the nine- expected. teenth century98 by the Chickasaw,99 Chiti- to According Speck (1925: 69), "pipe making 97 Dr. Davidson informs me that he did not find any flat and ceramics, it seems, passed out of existence bottoms. among the Rappahannock before the Civil War. 98Accurate dates are, quite naturally, extremely difficult . . . It is indeed unfortunate that some to ascertain. The Caddo, not included here in this rela- vestiges have made of clay-working did not continue until a later tion, may pottery as late as the nineteenth century. However, direct evidence seems to be absent in at least in as have day, memory, they among the relevant documentary sources. Nor does one find any Pamunkey and Mattaponi." For the Rappa- alleviating data in records devoted to the various known tribal components of the Caddo nation. Ford 96 Information from (1936: Dr. Speck. For an illustration of 72 ff.) deals with historic Caddo pottery; his dates go back the specimen, cf. Speck (1928: fig. 113). to the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. In a similar 106 VLADIMIR J. FEWKES macha,100 Choctaw,10' Koasati,102 Natchez,103 to Catawba practices appear originally to have Pascagoula,104Seminole,105 and Tunica.106. De- been possessed by the Chitimacha,107Choctaw,l08 tails of technique and other aspects comparable and Natchez.109 In the case of the Choctaw, moreover, there seems to be a parallel in the manner Ford (1936: 40 ff., 72 ff., and 98 ff.) considers the esoteric peculiarity of the imposed restriction case of the Choctaw, Natchez, and Tunica. Fairly accu- regarding the witnessing of the firing process rate dates on the termination of the potter's craft among 1909: to Holmes these three are vide (Bushnell, 13). According peoples available; infra. (1903: "one in the U. S. National 99 Holmes (1903: 130), i. e., "if the labeling of certain 143), specimen specimens in the National Museum is correct." Museum labeled 'Seminole' is identical with 100Swanton (1911: 347): "Pottery continued to be made Catawba ware." [according to the author's Chitimacha informant] until The technique of eighteenth century Louisiana about eighty years ago." Especially significant is Swan- as Du Pratz 1: ton's remark: "The a monster potters, presented by (1758, 124; important part played by 2: 1: pot in the [Chitimacha] flood legend indicates that the art 178 ff.) and by Butel-Dumont (1753, 154; was an old one among these people." The recollection of 2: 271 ff.), allows little comparison with the the absence of tempering material and of the exclusive Catawba.110 Notable exceptions exist in two employment of fingers on the interior of the vessel revealed points specifically brought out by Du Pratz by Swanton's informant is indeed interesting and valuable. 2: the use of a and 101Cf. Holmes (1903: 130), with the qualification regard- (1758, 179): polishing pebble ing the National Museum labels; also p. 102. Swanton its careful preservation during migrational move- (1931: 40) states: "We have no information from early ments; and the removal of constituent sand from writers regarding their [Choctaw] pottery except the mere the clay used for paste."' Butel-Dumont's ac- fact that they had it." Bushnell (1909: 13): "Pottery count 2: of with fillets "six or bowls are no are remembered (1653, 271) coiling longer made, although they seven feet in seems to be without by the living [Choctaw] Indians who recall having seen length,"'2 bowls provided with three small feet; consequently bowls parallel in the Southeast. Speaking of Ewi must have been in use only a short time ago." The Katalsta, who appears to have been the last account of Butel-Dumont (1753, 1: 154; 2: 271 ff.), dealing native Cherokee potter to use coiling, Holmes with century Louisiana was considered eighteenth potters, (1903: 57) her true coiling method by Mason (1911: 105) as applying to the Choctaw, without compared an explanation of the view; however, Swanton (1931: 62) regards it, with convincing deductions, as an observation 107E. g., the "peculiar pipe, into which a number of stems made among the Natchez. could be inserted" (Swanton (1911: 349)). This is strongly 102 Harrington (1908a: 406). suggestive of the Catawba "peace pipe." 103The Natchez probably made pottery as late as the 108 E. g., the three-footed vessel, the use of grease on nineteenth century (cf. Swanton, 1911: 81). The account freshly fired specimens, the absence of temper in paste for of Butel-Dumont (1753) and that of Du Pratz (1758, 1: pipes, the incised decoration, and the lustrous finish (cf. 124; 2: 178-179) seem to be the earliest and at once the Bushnell, 1909: 12-13). 109 best available, even if deplorably incomplete, records on E. g., greasing of vessels after firing (personal infor- the subject. The use of color (Du Pratz, 1758, 1: 124), mation from Dr. Swanton). The sporadic cases of burnt, presumably for monochrome painting, and the manufac- crushed bone tempering medium, noted in a few sherds ture of figurines used in temples (Swanton, 1911: 159 ff.), collected at Catawba, must be viewed with reserve. bespeak an originally well-rooted pottery industry among 10 Holmes (1903: 57, 102) qualified both of these in- the Natchez; Holmes (1903: 102) spoke specifically of the stances as "inadequately described," yet considered them high status of the Natchez arts and industries. to be "brief but valuable records of the practice of the 104Swanton (1911: 303), quoting Margry: "They have art in this section." "But," he added, "we are not defi- plates made of wood and others of earthenware; they nitely informed which of the various people were referred are all very well made, although by the hand of sav- to in their accounts." As already pointed out, Swanton ages. The women of the savages also make large earthen assigned the two sources to the Natchez, while Mason pots, almost like big kettles, which hold perhaps forty considered Butel-Dumont's description as applicable to the pints, in which they have their hominy cooked for two or Choctaw. Extremely interesting and important, I think, three families .... These pots are of clay (terre grasse) and is Butel-Dumont's record (1753, 2: 271 ff.) of true coiling, of a round shape, almost like wind-mills." The form which, as far as I am aware, is the historically first notation comparison has a multiple suggestive value; I venture to of this method in the Southeast. consider the possibility of the shape illustrated in Holmes 111 It is of further interest to note the reference to the (1903: pl. LVIa-specimen from Bear Point mound, Ala- use of a "bois plat" upon which the women worked. The bama, p. 106), which, however, resembles the body of a flat wooden surface may, quite conceivably, have had some modern churn as well. effect upon the plane of the bottom, possibly a flattening 105 Holmes (1903: 130), i. e., "if the labeling of certain one. On this point Du Pratz is silent; it seems well, specimens in the National Museum is correct." however, to recall the flat base in ancient Catawba pottery. 106 Swanton'(1911: 315, 319), quoting Gravier: "Earthen- 112 A single fillet of such length would be very difficult ware pots, quite well made, especially little glazed [?] to prepare and to manipulate. Perhaps the author had pitchers, as neat as you would see in France." "Little in mind the computed measurement of several fillets used earthen pots . . . used for religious purposes." in the construction of a given vessel. CATAWBA AND CHEROKEE POTTERY-MAKING 107

with that of the "potters of Louisiana," but gave and readily distinguishable. The most recent no tribal names. One is led to the inference that accomplishments are permeated with the same Holmes (1903: 57) here relied on the work of elements of techniques which were current at the Butel-Dumont, which he excerpted at length in reservation in the eighties.117 These were rooted translation.113 then-although minimized by Holmes (1903: For the modern Yuchi in Oklahoma, formerly 143)-as they are now, in aboriginal antecedents. of the Southeast, there is Speck's ethnological It must be stressed again that Holmes wrote study (1909) from which the following quotations about the Catawba potters on the basis of Pal- on pottery-making are germane to the present mer's and Mooney's records, and from examina- purpose: "The clay is washed to reject grit . . . tion of museum specimens, rather than from the lengths or sticks of rolled clay are coiled actual field observation. That probably explains around on . . . the . . . base and so built up his failure to grasp the technique in the light of until the proper height and form is obtained" then existing conditions and retrospective values. (pp. 25 ff.).114 The scraping with the edge of a An impressive continuity of basically native mussel shell, rubbing and polishing, the manner forms amid modern Catawba ware is demonstra- of progressive firing (with frequent turning), the ble from extant collections, and is also supported rejection of the grit, the preparation of the base by certain archaeological comparisons. I real- disk, and the exclusively female operators (in the ize, of course, that the "ancient" evidence is not manufacture of vessels) (pp. 25 ff.) parallel the adequately datable to permit far-reaching retro- Catawba practices. According to Speck (p. 28), spective reconstruction of a chronological value. the modern Yuchi vessels resemble more the The inherent limitations, in view of the existing Chesapeake-Potomac group than "they do the deficiencies, are obvious. My deductions in this highly ornamented and complex forms of the respect, therefore, are not necessarily applicable Southern Appalachian groups." The pipes, still to the pre-Columbian time scale. Nevertheless, made by men, and of the same paste as the pots, it is significant to note that the various samples are hand modeled; plain and effigy forms are of archaeological material found in sites within common (pp. 28 ff.). Here too, then, in certain the Catawba territory show germane similarities points of technique, and in the plain shapes, a to the modern product, and that they apply alike comparison with Catawba pipes can be drawn.115 to form, textural quality, surfacing, firing, and constructional technique (i. e., annular building). CONCLUDING REMARKS AND It remains for future archaeological investiga- COMMENTS tion to ascertain the history of Catawba pottery- making as an integral part of their material cul- With the Catawba, pottery-making not only ture. So far as the past is concerned, it is evi- survives along traditional lines, but is quite com- dent that ample material remains exist in the monly practiced. With the exception of changes hitherto very little explored sites in the Catawba in the form, modern influences are negligible116 locus. Naturally, an archaeological reconstruc- 113 He also gave a similar treatment of Du Pratz's pub- tion must arise from such tangible evidence as lication. 114 may Al- I am to Dr. for the additional justify retrospective interpretations. obliged Speck following in itself is not nor ex- information. The rolls were of irregular length, yet ap- though pottery adequate, plied in the manner of the Catawba circuit procedure. clusively dependable for this task, it seems The Yuchi were no longer making pots by 1908, i. e., the reasonably presumable that a study of the exist- date of his study here quoted. ing collections, and especially fresh field work, 115 It is interesting to note the survival tendency in pipe- should establish a index with making in contrast to that of pots. This already has been comprehensive shown to be true of the Pamunkey and the Choctaw. which an objective plan may be formulated. 116 Cf. Holmes (1903: 143): "But an examination of It is well known that at the present time the numerous ancient sites and a number of mounds in the archaeological history of the Catawba remains region occupied by the Catawba in early historic times, untouched. Yet it is clear that the forms of vessels western in virtually yields distinctly some of their of features [this is a propos of Western and Eastern Siouan contemporary pottery this people discloses comparisons], and in cases there appear also pretty well- the thick walls and peculiar color and polish of modern defined characteristics of the historic Catawba work... Catawba ware, and are well within the Catawba habitat, Specimens found on the older dwelling sites of the people even if not from sites inhabited by them in historic times." resemble the modern pottery in color and finish, but they 117 Cf. Palmer's observation of 1884, incorporated in are of better workmanship, and the shapes resemble less Holmes (1903: 55), and those of Mooney, also published closely those of the whites. All are flat-bottomed, have therein (ibid.: 53 ff.). 108 VLADIMIR J. FEWKES many characteristics of the ware gathered at finish, and color tally with the comparable exam- sites which are attributable, either traditionally ples from the Catawba and Cherokee areas. or through sources, to former Catawba occupa- In South Carolina, I feel, the logical and per- tion.ll8 The manufacturing techniques of the haps also most promising start toward an under- two categories of ware are almost identical. standing of Catawba archaeology should be with Analyses of the history of yet other elements the known sites situated in the country of the characteristic of the cultural attainments of the contemporary, albeit ethnically and culturally Catawba seem plausible of accomplishment. changed, congeners. Old collections necessitate They should aid in the retrospective tracing of careful examination, but, above all, more field the last remnant of the Eastern Siouan-speaking work is imperative. The results thus far at- group. The recent works of Speck (1935) and tained by the University of North Carolina Swanton (1923, 1935, 1936)119reveal new evi- explorations certainly inspire hopeful expecta- dence of intraregional as well as extraterritorial tions. The surviving pottery technique and the distribution of Eastern Siouan peoples in ab- continuity which so prominently mark the craft original times.120 Toponymy and other linguis- of the Catawba should provide valuable aid in tic traces indicate their former existence quite far future inquiries. The usefulness of pottery in afield from the northern section of South Caro- attempts leading to reconstructive studies of cul- lina. Archaeologically, there is as yet very little ture history is a stimulating factor in the case of in the way of adequate light with which to aid in the Catawba. However, the investigator will these endeavors in so far as the Catawba are find other material remains equally helpful in the concerned. preparation of a repertory (in so far as extant The recent archaeological explorations in the evidence may suffice and permit), with which to Southeast have considerably advanced the under- comprehend events of the past. Subsequent standing of culture historical events in areas lying procedure should apply such data in cognizance to the south of the modern Catawba habitat. of those leads already established by Mooney, At the same time, however, a comprehensive Speck, Swanton, and others. regional system of chronology is yet to be form- The dangers of entertaining extraterritorial ulated."1 In North Carolina systematic arch- comparisons before the local developments are aeological research began in 1936, while in South adequately reconstructed certainly need no elab- Carolina no such effort has yet been made. oration. Yet it seems in point to refer to some Turning northward from the Catawba locality, of the similarities between modern Catawba and one meets first with a pronounced archaeological modern Pueblo processes of manufacture. The lacuna in inland Virginia, where pottery remains latter are well known from Guthe's splendid have received scanty attention thus far. How- study (1925). In 1929 I sent some Catawba ever, in Tidewater Virginia, at least from the specimens to the Museum of Anthropology at the Chickahominy River, and in an area extending University of Michigan and supplied a brief northward into Maryland and Delaware, there is description of the technique. Dr. Guthe's letter the "smooth ware" described by Speck (1928: to me, dated March 8, 1929, confirmed several 399 ff. and especially 412). Its fabric, surface similarities. With Dr. Guthe's permission, I am now able to his comment as rewritten 118 As the quote by Cf. Speck (1928: 413). previously stated, him for this University of North Carolina archaeological survey has purpose: recently identified several historic Catawba sites. It was The of Catawban to the to examine the material at similarity pottery making my privilege deposited Chapel method used in the Southwest is striking. The steps Hill through the courtesy of Mr. Joffre L. Coe. The sherds show close resemblances to the modern ware in you have outlined are practically duplicated in the forms, surface finish, color, the flat bottom, and construc- Pueblo area. In building a vessel the strips of clay tional technique. to be added are shaped as ropesand do not form rings 119Also Dr. Swanton's personal information; his paper until they have been applied to the vessel. In the presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Anthro- Southwest there are usually two additional steps, pological Association, Andover, Massachusetts, Decem- namely slipping and painting, between your seventh ber 29, 1935; and his lecture before the Archaeological [drying] and eighth [firing] steps. Instead of using Society of New Jersey in Trenton, New Jersey, January 18, the domestic as the course of the heat, the 1936. fireplace Pueblo build an oven of dung cakes, which are 120 also Bushnell (1934, especially pp. 8-9, and people Cf. used as fuel, and the firingis done out of doors. The map 4). in South- 121 Ford and Willey (1941) attempted an interpretative irregularblack spots would be explained the synthesis which clearly indicates the many existing gaps. west as a result of contact between the vessel and CATAWBA AND CHEROKEE POTTERY-MAKING 109 some object, such as dung or wood, which would taught technique. So long as these two condi- cause a deposit of carbon. The Pueblo potters secure tions persist at the reservation, the continuity of their beautiful black ware by smothering the oven the craft as it now exists should prevail. The and the vessels within it immediately after firing, craft is now rather static, although quite lively; with a quantity of new, pulverized fuel obtained by a similar status was noted over cakes. This fifty years ago.123 crushing dung process is closely similar the old whose to that which mention. The method of Certainly, masters, pride and dex- you inserting are their show an handles is the same as that used in making horizontal terity respected by pupils, loop handles in the Southwest. I do not know of any ardent desire to preserve the standards by im- cases of moulds being used among the Pueblo Indians. parting their knowledge and experience to the younger generation. Catawba pottery-making, Pottery-making at Catawba is demonstrably a common possession of the "nation," illustrates an old cultural heritage propagated by a con- an interesting case of cultural continuity which scious evaluation of its economic expedience and demonstrates the role of a direct traditional sur- importance. While its domestic utilitarian func- vival. Furthermore, Catawba potters married tion has diminished with the substitution of among the Cherokee124appear to have consist- modern metal utensils, the ware is produced not ently preserved their own techniques. And they merely for the sake, of profit. The element of instructed local talent in such manner that the the potter's satisfaction with her skill and the contemporary Cherokee craft is now dominated aesthetic feeling derived from her endeavors are by Catawba practices.125 likewise prominent factors. The artisan cer- It will be recalled that Holmes (1903: 143) de- tainly taxes her individuality, and a meticulous pended largely on the criterion of form in so far care governs the manufacturing process. Pa- as he concerned himself with historical retro- tience, dexterity, prudence, and gratification are spects of Catawba pottery. Yet, as already responsible for the final product which reflects quoted, he recognized certain comparisons of the artistic as well as utilitarian values. product of the historic Catawba in archaeological It is evident that the individual potter knows sites within their early historic habitat. It is little or nothing of the principles of chemistry and difficult, therefore, to appreciate his comment physics which inevitably play important roles in (1903: 143): "The modern Catawban pottery has the various manufacturing processes. Yet it is been so modified by post-Columbian conditions equally true that some of the properties and that few of the original characteristics are left, changes which may be attributed to such princi- and comparison is fruitless." I have stressed ples are recognized and respected through the the point that modern commercial influences teaching of experience. Questioning on the part appear to have affected only theform of Catawba of the inquiring observer may not always bring pottery, and that "ancient" forms are still cur- satisfactory answers; the artisan, however oblig- rently produced. With respect to technique, no ing, often wonders why "obvious" matters should appreciable differences exist between the two call for elucidation. Whether the final product categories of ware. Unfortunately, the designa- represents a sophisticated vase form, a set of bookends, or an ash tray, its appearance and 123 Palmer visited the Catawba in 1884, at which time quality are of the same nature as the general run he took notes on their pottery-making and later tendered of the The them to the National Museum (cf. Holmes, 1903: 55). purely native-inspired pieces. color, this to be the first record of the and the mottled Historically, appears lustre, effect, which render the Catawba craft. Holmes's account contains excerpts from Catawba ware so characteristically individual Palmer's work; the technical details tally with my obser- and recognizable, are constantly present. vations, but there are no interpretative comments. I have It seems, then, that artificial not examined Dr. Palmer's original field notes to be able despite wholly to state their full nature. The to outside forces, which have been notes, according Holmes, especially promi- should be in the National Museum; my attempts to con- nent since contact with the whites, the potter's sult them in Washington were unsuccessful. craft of the Catawba is being conservatively per- 124 First noted by Mooney (1900: 165) and Holmes (1903: petuated 122 in consequence of the two basic fac- 53). (Not mentioned by Harrington.) According to tors for its existence: the and Speck (1913: 330), "half dozen or so persons of Catawba responsible supply blood . . . in 1913 . . . and mixed with the of the and the custom- were, living quality necessary clays, Cherokee." Two of these were women practicing pottery- making in the Catawba tradition (information from Dr. 122 Mooney (1894: 74), referring to the Catawba reser- Speck). vation population in the year 1889, wrote: "The women 125 Cf., in this connection, the cases of Susan Owl and still retain their old reputation as expert potters." Ewi Katalsta (supra). 110 VLADIMIR J. FEWKES

tion "ancient" has no satisfactory connotation, assurance proffers at least some stimulating in as much as the pottery of the Catawba is still support. unsubstantiated in point of chronology. None- The mosaic which I have here attempted to theless, it seems significant that an impressive conjure up is certainly neither complete nor degree of continuity is definitely suggested by adequately balanced. Its very foundation is dis- the known meager, but positive, evidence. torted owing to the pronounced lack of uni- The cultural and temporal position of Catawba formity in historical perspective, and the indi- pottery-making offers an important and promis- vidual components plainly reflect unequal values. ing subject of research. The chief needs toward The endeavors and results here described are further appreciation, understanding, and inter- tantamount to no more than a mere scanning of pretation of the subject, seem to be the following: the horizon, and the potential opportunities are certainly not exhausted. Yet it is to be hoped 1. Elucidation of certain phenomena of the that this paper may be of some service in further firing process whereby certain mottled effects are investigations in the northern periphery of the attained. Southeast. I firmly believe that Catawba 2. Investigation of the question of historical pottery-making, recent and ancient, furnishes a priority of the ring variant as against the circuit substantial part-basis for a point of departure variant of annular construction. toward a broader appreciation, understanding, 3. Study of all material remains from former and interpretation of the culture history of this Catawba sites. important area. 4. Formulation of a index aris- comprehensive ADDENDUM: COILING ing from (3), with which to reconstruct, so far as is possible, the totality of the former cultural ex- The motivation for this note on coiling inhered pression of the Catawba. in a dilemma which faced me in considering the 5. Reconstruction of chronological sequence choice of a suitable term for the Catawba ring and formulation of analogies with adjacent re- variant of annular construction. In my early gions in order to establish relative dating. field notes, and for some time thereafter, I called the process "pseudo-coiling." My search in The technicalities presented here are based on literary sources dealing with the North American tangible evidence; and the interpretative data field failed to reveal a parallel phenomenon;126 rest on observations and inquiries gathered in the but I did notice that "ring building" was equated field. If I have failed, in this brief presentation, with "coiling." That led me to investigate "coil- to justify every reasoning, the fault may well ing" more in detail, and I noted yet other inhere in my incomplete understanding of certain definitions such as "moulding," "strip building," aspects of Catawba pottery-making. To deal "adding circles," "pressing or coiling process," with the contemporary craft is simple enough, etc. Eventually I decided to call the afore- since recourse to inductive means is available. mentioned Catawba variant exactly what it is, So far as past events are concerned, the difficul- i. e., ring building, and to submit the so-called ties increase the more one projects one's aims "coiling" to a scrutiny. The result is the present into antiquity. Examination of literary sources discourse, and its purpose is to reveal the laxity dealing with the Catawba reveals a striking in description (if not in concept) of the process, to similarity with the contemporary fundamentals indicate the untenable looseness in terminology, underlying the individual processes. The ring and to outline a classificational grouping of the building variant, however, does stand out as a various methods of fillet construction. signal exception; but it by no means appears to Of the several variants of pottery construction, be a very recent phenomenon. the process called "coiling" is most frequently Purely archaeological considerations of Ca- found-in literature. Whether directly stipu- tawba pottery-making suffer from serious short- lated as such, or merely inferred, the term is comings, among which the lack of appropriate rarely applied without ambiguity. Obviously, exploration and adequate appraisal of extant re- coiling denotes a building process and must not mains are particularly acute. Consequently, be confused with other steps of pottery manu- contentions must rest retrospective provisionally 126 Thompson (1930: 95) reports the occurrence of true on rather uncertain premises; yet such knowledge ring building among the modern Maya potters at San as can be applied with a reasonable margin of Antonio, British Honduras. CATAWBA AND CHEROKEE POTTERY-MAKING 111 facture, even if its function be an aid in such accomplished either with a single fillet (appar- aspects as form-giving (shaping) or embellish- ently a rare phenomenon) or with a series of ment. Sources on pottery technique are quite fillets successively connected to constitute a con- devoid of a standard definition of the pheno- tinuous chain. In either case the paste medium menon and its distinguishing criteria. Although is fashioned first, and its application depends on a "coiling" is often explicitly contrasted with other purely manual manipulation in which the potter's means of constructional procedure, considerable hands must be free to effect the placement and confusion exists in terminology and in classifica- bonding. The fillet, single or chained, is carried tory segregation. It cannot be said that the on spirally, and in such manner that each loop term "coiling" connotes a recognized inclusive (irrespective of the shape of its course) is equiva- designation, i. e., that it embraces all varieties of lent to the circumference of the wall under con- pottery construction which depend on the use of struction at a given height. However, the fillet paste in the form of a fillet ("rope," "rod," itself does not terminate as it completes the cir- "strip," "coil"). On the contrary, the cus- cumference, rather it is carried on into the subse- tomary reference to "coiling" lends itself, as a quent volution. Owing to the unavoidable rule, to one of two interpretations: overlapping which results from the continuous course of the fillet (single or chained), the plane 1. Continuous with a fillet or operation single of a given loop is necessarily an uneven one and con- with several individual fillets, successively often slanted. Whether the construction begins nected and a forming spiral. with or without a previously fashioned base 2. Construction with the use of several fillets, (bottom), and whether the fillets are completely progressively applied, and individually bonded, obliterated or not, coiling inevitably involves linked. but not successively unbroken linkage in carrying the paste medium around on a course. When the These modes comprise perhaps the most com- spiral operator the base that monly recognized variations. They are, how- begins by coiling (bottom) first, entails convolute the fillet is then ever, rooted in quite different principles. The process coiling; carried around and the first depends on carrying the paste medium plano-spirally, manipula- tion constructs a more or less flattened disk. A around in the manner of a superimposed spiral similar base be model- regardless of the actual number of fillets em- (bottom) may procured by i. direct in hands ployed. The other involves concentrically placed ing, e., by shaping (combined, with an on a solid sur- individual fillets; this is illustrated by the circuit perhaps, impact planed, or it be achieved the and ring variants of the Catawba. face); may by pressing paste within or a contrivance Lexically, the word coiling fails to provide a upon shape-giving (sherd, i. a satisfactory denomination. Its etymology is pot, basket, weighted bag, etc.), e., pseudo- mold (as from a true mold within quite unclear, its meaning ambiguous; as injected distinguished which or which to a into terminology, it reflects ill-chosen upon produce vessel, figurine, pottery With borrowing. Dissatisfaction with so loose a term applique ornament, pipe, lug, handle, etc.) the the wall- has often been voiced or implied; yet the cata- convolute, base-producing variant, chresis continues. In view of the circumstance erecting process continues without interruption. On the other a modeled base that the word "coiling" is so thoroughly im- hand, previously planted in American literature, and especially by reason of its application to prehistoric Pueblo pottery by Holmes (1886: 257 ff.), it would seem futile to consider a substitute. However un- palatable the misnomer may seem, it does carry a connotation which is objectively measurable; its chief criteria can be stipulated with precision and clearly defined. It may be useful to choose a collective term under which to include coiling, circuit procedure, and ring procedure; fillet build- ing seems to serve the purpose. For the needs I am the present guided by FIG. 32. Over-all coiling (left); coiling the sides upon a following understanding of coiling in the potter's flat base (center); and vessel with coiling completed craft: Coiling implies a building process which is (right). 112 VLADIMIR J. FEWKES

they always occur in like combination. How- ever, those which invariably do distinguish a case of coiling as such, are sufficiently well pronounced to warrant-indeed to compel-differentiation from other fillet-using processes. And, quite conceivably, a potter may, in accordance with certain conditions, combine two or more modes of construction in the course of erecting a single vessel. In the Southwest, it is commonly alleged that FIG. 33. Dried and fired pieces, broken to show methods Pueblo pottery was made by "coiling," while the of construction. Hohokam ware, in contrast, was made by "the paddle and anvil method" (cf. V. J. Fewkes, (bottom) delays coiling until the wall itself is 1941b). Roberts' initial attempt (1935: 20) to begun. The fillet (single or chained) is then dispel this popular confusion appears to have of carried in the manner of a vertically superim- gone unheeded, perhaps chiefly because the posed (or perhaps juxtaposed) spiral. For, hav- casual manner in which it was voiced.l27 Gifford ing completed the course necessary for fully de- (1935) obviously missed his opportunity in com- scribing the requisite circumference, the fillet is menting on the praiseworthy effort of Roberts, by not terminated (by bonding its margin, or by failing to elaborate the fundamentally different breaking off the surplus length), but is retained functions of "coiling" on the one hand and of as an integral part of the subsequent loop (or "the paddle and anvil method" on the other loops). In other words, the fillet (single or hand.128 However, Roberts appropriately re- chained) is retained beyond the length equivalent iterated his warning when, comparing Hohokam to the circumference of the wall, and the potter and Anasazi wares, he stated (1937: 20): proceeds with construction by carrying, from The pottery made by the two patterns differedin volution to volution, the appropriately fashioned certain respects. Both groups used the coiling medium of paste throughout the coiling opera- method but the finishing process varied. The Ana- tion. When convolute procedure is turned into sazi smoothed the surface of their pots with scrapers a spirally wound course, a case of over-all coiling and polishingstones; the Hohokamcompleted theirs obtains; otherwise a combination of coiling and by employing a paddle and anvil. another method is at Imbri- (or methods) play. "Coiling," or rather fillet building, as applicable is not an cation, although common, necessarily to pottery, connotes a constructional process index characteristic of leads to coiling. Coiling which, by virtue of logic as well as of physical the construction of either a blank to (subject law, unconditionally requires manual manipula- or an final form. separate shaping) essentially tion. The potter's hands simply must be free In the former case the of the desired form shaping for the handling, placement, adjustment, and becomes an task which of entirely separate is, bonding of the fillets. The use of the paddle and course, independent of the constructional steps. anvil leads to deliberate alteration of either a The form-giving manipulation, accomplished partially or a completely built, fully plastic, either or with tools purely manually (anvil, pad- embryonic vessel. Such alteration may involve: dle, is detached spatula, spoon, trowel, etc.), fully thinning of wall; compacting of paste; bonding of from is inconceivable to "coil with coiling. (It tectonic segments; obliteration of junctions; an anvil, paddle, stick," etc.) It is plausible, of course, to produce embellishment concurrently 127 Cf. also Roberts (1936: 527) for a somewhat revised with coiling. This may consist of seams, over- version. 128I shall have occasion to refer later to Gifford'spaper laps, protuberances, indentions, corrugation. of which a 1928, deals with the "two methods" in question. (Corrugation, specialized tecto-decorative pro- Yet it seems well, in this connection, to recall that he cess, logically necessitates concurrent form- recognized (1928: 353) "two methods of making coiled giving.) pottery . . . in the Southwest." "The principalcriterion Viewed in the tecto-functional sense of its of method," continued Gifford,"is the use or non-use of a wooden and a stone or anvil in the implications, is paddle pottery shaping coiling proper distinguished by vessel." (Italics in these quotations are by the present an ample number of characteristics. Naturally, writer.) The fallacy is self-evident;it was simply restated these characteristics are not constant; nor need by Gifford (1935). CATAWBA AND CHEROKEE POTTERY-MAKING 113

smoothing of surface; shaping of final form.129 tedly, no pretense of an exhaustive treatment is However, no matter what the ultimate effect here maintained. Although I have deliberately may be, the paddle and anvil, either in their dual restricted my inquiries to North America (with role or independently, cannot, again by virtue of very few references to Middle and South Amer- logic and of physical law, be utilized as an aid to ica), the present discourse aims at a sampling the constructional process proper. Yet it is con- rather than at a thorough treatise. Such aspects ceivable that bonding and adjustment of fillets as time and space, historical perspective and cor- might, if desired, be accomplished with the use of relation, as well as specific cultural considera- a paddle, stick, anvil, etc., although these pro- tions, are quite outside the scope of the task at cesses are most commonly achieved by plain hand. My endeavors at the moment are cen- hands. In any event, the manipulation of the tered on a description of technicalities revealing paste segment, as it enters the building process, sundry criteria of various modes of construction indispensably requires that the potter's hands depending on fillets. be free. And once the paste becomes a tectonic It is convenient at this point to deal with the component of the growing vessel, its subsequent selected citations.131 alteration, no matter how attained, no longer Wissler (1938: 69): constitutes construction. It is, therefore, a error either to or to As a rule all the New World potters used the coil methodological compare i. slender rods of were rolled contrast with the use of "the method, e., clay out to "coiling" paddle convenient lengths and the vessel built and for the two are rooted in different up spirally. anvil," In some vessels from the Pueblo area the original technological principles (cf. V. J. Fewkes, 1938: traces of the coils were retained as decorative mo- 197). Perhaps the circumstance that consider- tives, but, as a rule, the surfaces were afterwards able laxity has existed in constructional ter- scraped smooth and to the requiredthinness. minology contributed to the general confusion just considered; but the fact cannot be minimized base-disk. Coiling in ancient Cherokeeware was inferred that authors have often failed to be in by Holmes (1903: 163). explicit the excavations of their data. During the Etowah mounds "bits of presenting (Vide infra.) coil," "discarded ends," and an example of a "rim finish A limited number of citations, all but one with a coil" are said to have been found in the deposits applying to the Americas, is here assembled as (Ashley, 1932: 122 ff.). Ashley also stated (p. 109) con- documentary evidence. The comments must cerning the mode of manufacture: "This method [that of the of the the one most not be construed as aiming at criticism, but predecessors Cherokee], commonly used in the Southeast, was coiling-the building of the side rather as a means toward illustrating the urgent by placing strips of clay in spiral form, a base of the same need-as I see it-of precise distinctions. I may clay being used as a foundation or nucleus." (Evidently, add that I am fully aware of the limitations in- the linked coiling variant is implied.) herent in an to reconstruct According to Claflin (1931: 19), "There is unmistakable attempt pottery evidence on several of the textile-markedsherds from fabrics e., fired [Stalling's technique fragmentary (i. Island Mound, Georgia]that the coiling method of manu- pieces); naturally, indubitable criteria can best facture was in use." (Claflin did not present any eluci- be illustrated from extant practices of pottery- dation as to the nature of the evidence, nor the manner of making. Moreover, I am concerned primarily construction.) with the for this reason I Among the hitherto unpublishedarchaeological pottery fillet-using processes; from the Southeast in the shall mention other means of construction in Peabody Museum, Harvard only University, I noted repeated examples of coiling by linked support of the distinction between the technicali- fillets, but none by one fillet alone. The specimens were ties falling within the scope of my task. It be- from Georgia,Florida, Alabama, Louisiana,and Tennessee. comes necessary, of course, to extend this Most of the cinerary urns from two burial mounds at inquiry near beyond the limits of the Southeast.130 Admit- Cox, Darien, Georgia, now in the Irene Mound Col- lection at Savannah, display ample evidence of all-over coiling by linked fillets. 129 (Unpublished.) Incidentally, the various possibilities of using the The Southeast is here understood in the sense of the paddle and anvil render the alleged "diagnostic marks of geographicaldefinition given in Speck (1907: 289). the method" of doubtful value indeed. 131 The order in which these citations appear has no 130In the Southeast apparently only the Natchez, as particularbearing on the subject. Indeed, it would prob- observed by Butel-Dumont (1753, 2: 271 ff.) (tribal identi- ably be'difficultto arrangea "logical"progression. It will fication after Swanton, 1911), employed the single fillet become apparent, however, that some grouping has been (alleged length six to seven feet) process, beginning, it reached, in as much as works of a general nature are con- seems, with coiling the base (bottom) first. sidered first; sources on the Southwest are arranged in a The Cherokee, as has been shown, practiced coiling by chronologicalorder; and interpretativecompilations appear linked fillets, but proceeded upon a previously modeled last. 114 VLADIMIR J. FEWKES

The "convenient lengths" or "rods" indubitably vessels published that could be adduced in proof of signify coiling by linkage of individual fillets; and the presence of the coiling method. In a clay vessel the spirally carried building procedure leaves no from Huamachuco . . . the building-up coils seem, doubt as to the principle involved in the con- however, possibly to have been left unfinished.139 struction.l3 But Wissler . . . says that it [coiling] was used by Linne did not circuit from the side of shaping by means of a mould, and the distinguish building same is stated in the case of Ancon. . . . Prof. true To from his well-known work Uhle, coiling. quote when questioned, stated his absolute opinion [sic!] (1925: 78-80): that all archaeological Peruvian clay vessels, other The [coiling] process has too often been described than those of the Chimu culture, were made by the to call for any closer explanation here. In America coiling method.'40 the vessels are built from the bottom upward, whilst The involved is self-evident. here and in inadequacy there, other places, the building is com- In distinct contrast to Linne's criticism menced from the mouth cracks (1925: portion. Frequently of the German term I occur in the between the coils, and the 79) "Spiralwulsttechnik," joints presence consider this nomenclature of horizontal cracks in primitive pottery is surely by far more appro- satisfactory proof of the technique used.133. . . The priate and expressive than the English usage of coils are usually the length of the vessel's circum- coiling. Selecting a remote geographical exam- ference, each "story" consisting of one roll of clay.'34 ple for the purpose of illustrating the usefulness At Cobreas . . . a woman potter made each "story" of the descriptive value of its connotation, I in three sections, joining each to its neighborand to quote Schurig (1930: 65): "Die Wulsttechnik, a clay roll underneath. The Guat6, on the contrary, baut aus diinnen runden Lehmwiilsten, . . . built up their vessels of a continuous coil, spirally spiralig gewunden die Gefasse auf." Here, it laid on.135. . . It has been mentioned in the fore- seems to me, there is no ground for speculation; that the coiling method obtains, or has ob- going the spirally carried manner of building, depend- tained, over the whole American continent.136 . . . the word ing on thin fillets, unquestionably linked as the Terminologically, "Spiralwulsttechnik" is would not seem particularly well chosen, as, judg- spiral winding signifies, explicit. ing from the description given, there is only one Harrison (1928: 31-32): the who builds in a continuous tribe, Guat6, spiral.137 Of the building methods . . . one of the processes . . . The as has been described in the fore- others, has not only a striking individuality of its own, but going, by level courses of coils. The method [i. e., has a wide and distribution. This is the in interesting true coiling] may possibly have been used Porto method, characteristic of America, Rico. coiling especially but also occurring in . . . widely scattered regions. . . . The characteristic feature is the And commenting on Schmidt, with reference to preliminary in the culture area of the preparation of rolls of clay. ... In the process of pottery technique high the these rolls are coiled Linne held shaping pots spirally upon Andes, (1925: 80-81): each other,141the diameter of the spiral-or sometimes There is hardly any alternative: here [in the Inca the circles 142-increasing or diminishing to suit the region, archaeologicallyspeaking] the techniquemust varying width of the pot43 at its different levels . . . have been that of coiling.38 . . . As has been said 139 Perhaps in a manner similar to that shown in Linne before, from time of the discovery of Peru no descrip- (1925: fig. 10). tion exists as to pottery making. Nor have I seen 140 Cf. the warning of Shepard (1936: 440). (Italics are those of the present writer.) 132 With respect to Wissler'scontention that all the Ama- 141 I. e., true coiling, accomplished, in this case, by the zon tribes had the coiling method, cf. the following quota- linkage of several "rolls." tion from Linne. 142 Presumably, such "circles" form individually closed 133 Strictly horizontal "cracks"indicate parallel planes of "rolls,"each separatelyterminated upon a horizontalplane individual annular fillets, whereas in true coiled pieces a either by previously cutting the rolls to a uniform length, slanted plane is usual. or by pinching the ends off as the circuit is completed; 134 This is again proof of circuit building, rather than true whether the ends of these rolls are joined by overlapping, coiling. or by simply connecting the meeting termini, the resulting 135Evidently Linne was not without examples of true bonding does not disrupt the plane continuity of the hori- coiling. zontally laid circuit. This, then, certainly is not true 136 This is a sweeping statement-in view of the am- coiling. (Italics are those of the present writer.) biguity of Linne's understandingof the method. 143 I. e., in the case of the form being shaped, provision- 37Farabee (1922: 86 ff.) implied linked coiling for the -ally or definitely, simultaneously with the building of the Conebo and the Sipibo. wall; otherwise a cylinder may be built first, its form sub- 138 I. e., either true coiling, or annular building? (Italics sequently altered, and the final shape brought out by a are those of the present writer.) separate manipulation. Cf. the practice of the Catawba CATAWBA AND CHEROKEE POTTERY-MAKING 115 it is very rarely that the finished pot shows any signs However, J. Stevenson (1883: 375, 329), also of its spiral or circular origin; 144 nevertheless, some writing of the Zuni, spoke of "additions of strips of the old wares of the Pueblo and other Indians [?] of clay," and expressly said that "traces of the of North America, and the Choroti 145and others of addition of each . . . were removed before in strip South America, have the coils left evidence as the another . . was added." This left basis of the decoration.146 .strip some doubt as to whether circuit building or linked An inconsistency is again demonstrated. coiling was meant, although the use of several "Coiling" is invariably associated with Pueblo strips of paste was clearly established. The pottery-making, either explicitly or implicitly. uncertainty, however, may be said to have been The following quotations illustrate this. removed by the statement of Mrs. M. C. Steven- Holmes (1886: 273-275): son (1904: 375): "The vessel is then formed by the successive addition of of The ancient Pueblo potter rolled out long, slender strips paste long fillets or ropes of clay, varying in width and thickness enough to-encircle the bowl." This, unquestion- to suit the size and character of the vessel to be ably, identifies the process as circuit building. constructed. . . . When they were properly trimmed J. W. Fewkes (1909: 53), by his reference to and smoothed, the potter began by taking the end of "corrugated or coiled ware," a practice with a single strip between his fingers, and proceeded to which one commonly meets in American litera- coil upon itself, gradually forming a disk. At first ture,149 implied linked fillets. the fillets overlapped only a little, but as the disk Kidder (1915: 414), speaking in broad terms, grew large and was rounded upward to form the body said: "The of ollas were constructed of the the imbrication became more upper parts vessel, pro- the method." true nounced. The fillet was . . . by regular coiling Evidently, placed obliquely and was was exposed on the exterior side to probably one half coiling meant, without, however, specifying of its width. Strip after strip was added, the ends whether any one or all possible variants of the being joined so that the continuity might not be broken methods were intended to be signified. until the vessel was completed.'47 Nelson (1916: 168) used the designation "Cor- rugated or Coiled Ware" in with both Holmes referred to this as the dealing (1903: 372) indented and material, for he said: "process known as and remarked plain expressly 'coiling',"'48 "Some bowls [his Type I] show traces of that "the e., the support [i. base-retaining means, coiling." or the puki; cf. Guthe, 1925: 31] was not a mold Spier (1917: 207), referring to "coils," in deal- in the ordinary sense." This account Holmes of ing with corrugated ware, for may well be considered a classic implied "coiling" description of that category of pottery alone. "ancient Pueblo" coiling. Morris (1917: 24-25): Cushing (1886: 489) described the process of a Zuni potter thus: "She coiled around and around But to lay spiral coil upon coil in uniform thick- a center to form the bottom, then spirally upon ness, to regulate the length of the coils so as to pro- itself, now widening the diameter of each coil duce the desired slopes of the vessel walls, and at the same time more and more, then as she to make each pressureof the thumb mold contracting pro- its minute until the desired and form portion of the design which is workedout gressed upward height in the demands an were attained." There is no coiling, initial accuracy of move- specific indication ment, and a control of a as to whether one or complicated technique several fillets of paste were worthy of an artist and not at all with used. compatible the bungling skill of a beginner. (supra) and that of the Pueblo of San as de- Ildefonso, This scribed and illustrated by Guthe (1925: 31 ff., pls. 12b, equates coiling with corrugation for decora- 13-15). tive purposes.150 144This is perhaps true of megascopicobservation; how- ever, microscopic examination often reveals dependable 149 Vide infra, Nelson (1916); Morris (1917); Kidder criteria of technique. A medium-power,wide-field micro- (1925); and cf. Shepard (1936: 553, note 1). scope should suffice for such a purpose. 150 As Kidder (1936: 300, note 3) points out, it was Morris 11 Linne (1925: 79) inferentially excluded the Choroti (1917) who "first called attention to the difficulty of from the users of his "continuous coiling" method. making corrugated pottery. His paper conclusively re- 146 Such cases perhaps may be said to illustrate tecto- futed the then widely held theory that corrugated wares decorative, single or multiple fillet coiling, provided that were older and more primitive than smooth-surfaced the building process is continuous and carried on spirally. pottery." The significance of these observations inheres 147 Italics are those of the present writer. in their potential value toward chronologicalreconstruc- 148 Holmes (1889: 249) denied coiling and implied annu- tions in areas in which plain and corrugatedcoiling are in lar construction for the Potomac-Tidewater Virginiaarea. evidence. Kidder (1936: 297 ff.) is cautious and abstains 116 VLADIMIR J. FEWKES

Kidder and Guernsey (1919: 141-142): placed by a continuous thin fillet of clay applied spirally; the junctions between the successive laps Corrugated pottery was built up by winding round of the fillets were left unobliterated, not only at the in and round on itself a long, thin fillet of clay which, neck, but over the entire vessel; and the fillet itself is from its at well made pieces, continuous beginning was also notched or pinched or otherwise indented to of vessel to its termination at the the bottom the rim; produce various ornamental effects. . . . Thus was fillet a of more in some large jars this attains length made the well known coil or corrugated cooking-ware than 200 feet.15l The laying up of this coil is in itself so characteristic of all the archaic true Pueblo a very difficult matter, and when it is considered that ruins." 152 it was often also notched, indented, waved or other- wise ornamentally modified during the building pro- Here the "rings" may signify either several fillets cess, it will be realized how far removed this tech- used in true coiling, which itself is given as nique must have been from the first attempts of a synonymous with corrugation, or the circuit nascent art. In the making of smooth-faced pottery method of construction. That the modern any irregularity may be rubbed down or filled in, any Pueblo of San Ildefonso use the circuit variant fault of outline corrected humoring the plastic by of building is well demonstrated by Guthe's walls into in no shape; corrugated ware, however, detailed mistake could be corrected, and from beginning to report. 31 calls this end the coil must have been laid on with a sure hand Guthe (1925: ff.), however, process and the base foundation "mould or and steady eye that must have come from long prac- "moulding," tice, not only in the handling of clay, but in its mixing puki." to the for this delicate exactly proper consistency Very briefly the process is as follows: The potter We think that it is no to work. exaggeration say first forms a pancake-shaped pat of paste from six to that a olla large, ornamentally indented, corrugated eight inches in diameter; this she presses into the skill for its construction than required more any mould or puki, to form a base.153 Then the walls of made that has ever been other form of hand pottery the vessel are built up by the addition of successive in ancient or modern times. produced ropes, or rolls, of paste laid one upon another. ... If the roll is not long enough completely to encircle the This quotation furnishes an excellent illustration pat, another is made and placed on it in a similar of the delicate in coiling procedure requisite manner. When the edge has thus been completely en- which combines corrugation. circled, the unused remainder of the roll is pinched off Kidder (1925: 7-8): and tossed back on the mass of paste on the canvas. . . . When the flattening [of the applied roll] has The Makers . . . built up their ves- post-Basket been finished, the has made a second complete sels to the walls successive rings puki by adding growing revolution, and the the two ends of the roll of ... In times it became the junction of clay. pre-Pueblo is in front of the potter. . . . When fashion to leave unsmoothed the last few again directly purposely one roll has been completely welded on, flattened out, rings at the neck of certain small cooking vessels. and incorporated into the vessel, another roll is-formed, . . . This was the beginning of the elaborate coiled or and is applied in exactly the same manner. Thus the technique, later so widely used. . . . The corrugated building proceeds to the height at which the shaping broad rings of the pre-Pueblo ware were re- plain, is begun."54 (Guthe, 1925: 31-35.) from direct deductions. He states: "Whether this in- There is no direct mention of coiling; yet Guthe dented or came after the corrugationpreceded development Binns 69 ff.) for the of is as unknown. Presumably, however, coil- (1925: 35-36) quotes (1910: coiling yet of how modern ing was an outgrowth of indenting, in order that the express purpose "showing closely regular sequence of the indentations should not be inter- studio-practice, undoubtedly evolved experi- rupted. At all events, both techniques made apparently mentally, resembles Pueblo Indian methods."155 an almost simultaneous appearance. The next step, the 152 corrugating of the entire surface of the vessel, including Italics are those of the present writer. The implica- the base, was probablytaken after the practiceof indenting tions of this quotation suggest somewhat of a nucleus for had become well established." (Cf. also Kidder, 1936: chronologicaldifferentiation of the several constructional 386-387, quoted infra.) With clarification of the con- processesinvolved. Indeed they seem to provide a tempt- structional methodology in pottery-making it should be- ing lead with which to pursue further inquiries regarding come possible to establish the relative time position of the the time relationship of circuit building, combination of several variants of coiling, and of the circuit mode not only circuits and coiling of neck, and all-over coiling. Cf. in the "Anasazi ceramic family" (Kidder, 1936: 590), but Kidder (1916: 255). elsewhere as well. In the case of the East, specifically 153Cf. Holmes (1886: 372) for the statement that this is with the Catawba, the ring building process is to be in- "not a mold in the ordinary sense." cluded in such considerations. 154Italics are those of the present writer. 151Such a fillet is composed of a considerablenumber of 155While Binns (1910: 70) intended to describe true individual links. coiling, and had partially done so, he did not exercise CATAWBA AND CHEROKEE POTTERY-MAKING 117

The resulting ambiguity is misleading, as will lumps at intervals upon the edge,159 a much more presently be exemplified by a concrete case in effective way, and one which has been and is still point.156 However, to continue with the Pueblo being used by almost all peoples in the pre-wheel first. stage of pottery making, is to build by means of a small roll of clay sufficiently long to encircle the whole Morris (1927: 198): edge and thus raise it evenly.160 Such is the coiling The By the end of the post-Basket Maker period, all method. term is really a misnomer, for to coil means to or types of San Juan pottery, indigenous to the area manipulate cylindrically spirally a con- under consideration, had passed their point of origin tinuous element. "Ring building" would more ac- . . . and corrugated ware, while not actually repre- curately describe the process as generally carried sented, was present in the banded neck pots. out, even in the Southwest.l61 But in a part of that area, during later Developmental Pueblo times, it These specimens should be useful for tectonical became customary to construct cooking vessels of a analysis and chronological placement of the single strand of clay, which began at the base and, method. coiling upon itself spirally, continued to the orifice. The strand was of course not made its full Bunzel (1929: 6-7): length before work began; it was added to from time to As a result . . . of the complete absence of the time; but so carefully was each new increment joined potter's wheel in pre-Columbian America and the that it is seldom possible to perceive a junction. The failure of its native adaptation subsequently . . . all coiling element may therefore properly be said to pottery is still made by coiling technique 157 . . . by have been continuous.'62 adding narrow rounds of clay to a base set in a mold. Kidder continues (1936: 386-387): The technique employed at San Ildefonso . . . is typical of the whole area. . . . The walls are built The so-called "coiling" method of making pottery by adding rounds of clay. has been described by Holmes,163 Morris,164 and others;165and, as employed by the modern potters of This is another example of qualifying the Pueblo San Ildefonso, by Guthe.l66 Briefly, it consists of circuit building method as "coiling." the building of a vessel by the addition to its growing Kidder: (1936: 297-298): wall of successive ring-like strips of clay; or, and this is true coiling, by laying up spirally, a single long strip. To understand the of this significance peculiar This general method was probably used by the pre- treatment "the of surface embellish- [i. e., practice historic Pueblos and by their cultural ancestors, the ment of the structural coil"-thus by manipulation Late Basket Makers. I say probably because the discussion of the so- involving corrugation] requires junctions between the rings or between the laps of the called method of . . . To "coiling" pottery making. coil were normally removed from all vessels except achieve and to them with re- larger pieces provide cooking pots by scraping and smoothing. Upon the stricted orifices it is to build from a necessary upward exterior of cooking pots the coils were often allowed base made with the hands or prepared (either pressed to remain; and were manipulated decoratively. But into a the addition of successive increments mold) by that most, if not all, non-culinary ware was also built of clay.158 Although this may be done by placing 159 I. e., constructionby the addition of either amorphous sufficient discrimination when he said: "A roll of clay is dabs (Kidder's Jumps) or specifically shaped morsels of taken, one end laid in the center of the bat and the rest is paste. coiled around it in a spiral line. [Thus far, this is true 160 This is exactly the chief determinantof circuit build- coiling.] . . . In raising the walls it is best to pinch of the ing, i. e., that mode of procedurein wall erection in which roll of clay when one circle has been completedand the new each individual roll of paste equals, in its length, the cir- roll shouldbe begunat anotherpoint so that all thejoints will cumferenceof the growing vessel at the plane upon which not be at the same place. This plan is betterthan coiling a the fillet is being applied. Cf. the Catawba procedure. long roll in a spiral for in this case one side of the piece will 161This would then be confused with the ring-building be higherthan the other." (Italics are those of the present variant of annular construction. writer.) No doubt can exist as to the meaning of the last 162 There follows footnote 1: "Regardingthe above state- two sentences quoted: the "better plan" is none other than ment Miss Shepard comments: 'I believe the two ends circuit building, expressly preferred to spirally carried were welded in place on the pot .... Actually, I have coiling. found a good many examples of these welded ends.'" 156 Cf. the citations of Gifford 163 157 (1928), infra. Cf. my quotation, supra. Bunzel (1929: 6) allows the exception of modeling 164 Cf. my quotation, supra. only. 165 Cf. my quotations of Cushing, Harrison, Linne, and 158 This statement disregardssectional building achieved Wissler, supra. by means other than coiling. Cf. the Catawba method of 166 Cf. my quotations of Guthe, supra. Note Kidder's ring or circuit erection of two or more portions of the body direct reference to "coiling" at San Ildefonso as against and their subsequent joining to produce a complete form. Guthe's "moulding." 118 VLADIMIR J. FEWKES up with strips is strongly indicated both by the clean In order to illustrate the process usually called horizontal fractures which sometimes occur; and, "coiling with paddle and anvil," I quote from a even more clearly, by the presence of unobliterated pertinent work of Rogers (1936: 9), dealing with in the interiors of certain with orifices too rings pieces the technique of the Southern Dieguefio: small to have permitted introduction of the hand. All modern Pueblo pottery is also built with rings; it is Coils average about twelve inches in length regard- thereforeto be inferred that the same practice obtainedfor less of the size of the piece under construction .... the decorated wares of Pecos. There is, indeed, some The [first] coil is fastened to the base by pushing a actual evidence to that effect, and the fragments small section of it over and on to the outer wall of which yield it, also provide interesting information as the base with the left thumb, at regular intervals of to how the work was done.167 one inch, while the right hand feeds the coil in a clockwisedirection. . . . If the coil is not sufficiently Miss Shepard (1936: 552) writes of corrugated long to go around the base once it is spliced with part ware: of another coil. . . . Spiral coiling, as in the Pue- bloan technique, is unknown; and each coil is a unit In many types of Pueblo culinary ware the struc- concentricto its the tural coils have been and predecessor. After bonding pro- carefully preserved regu- cess is completed the coil is beaten flat with the larly dented. ... It is possible to recover much of paddle."' the detail of construction by close observation and systematic experimentation.168 Obviously, the tectonic principle of this method on the circuit variant of annular con- Miss Shepard (1936: 440, 441) uses the term depends struction, the unit either a or a com- "moulding" in a collective constructional sense, being single whereas with reference to and posite fillet. The paddling itself is a distinctly "Moulding Shap- which follows the ad- ing" of the modern Pueblo potters she says separate step placement, "Guthe's of justment, and bonding of the fillet. The potter, (1936: 448): description pottery with at San Ildefonso furnishes an excellent then, does not "coil the paddle," but merely making the fillet flat to the construc- of the observations which should be beats subsequent example tional The tectonic made in methods in coiled manipulation. components recording building are not coils in the true sense of the word. ware."169 Kidder, as already quoted, clearly A revealing example of confusing the process of stressed the difference between coiling and "ring" construction proper with subsequent manipula- building. However, even in his "Discussion" tion, appears in Spier (1928: 139) :172 (1936: 590) we read: "Anasazi pottery was made by coiling."170 Cylinders, 2 cm. in diameter, are rolled out be- tween the palms and coiled in a clockwise direction 167 Italics are those of the present writer. on a tray basket, patted on top the while with a 168 There follows an excellent account of Miss Shepard's small, smooth stick to make them adhere. ... detailed studies of the manufacture of indented and corru- When the flat coil reaches a diameter of 20 cm. the gated wares of Pecos, which deal with the criteria of the sides are built up by coiling in the same manner; the original manipulation. In footnote 1, p. 553, Miss Shepard potter supportingthem with a smooth, round pebble justly comments: "There is some looseness in the use of inside while the exterior is paddled. the term coil and corrugated. They are here used in the following sense: coil refers to a process in pottery making This citation shows that the basal is built by vide part [the process obviously implying construction, infra]. The use of the stick, for the A vessel is considered coiled if it is built by successive rolls plano-coiling. pur- of clay placed either in rings or spirally [emphasis added] pose of bonding, is clearly a post-constructional irrespective of subsequent smoothing and without refer- process. The wall construction, although speci- ence to the method of shaping, whether by hand, a gourd fied as "coiling in the same manner," could not, rind tool or with paddle and anvil." The stipulated obviously, be attained by plano-coiling. Spier's segregation of construction from shaping is noteworthy. On the other hand, it is apparent that Miss Shepard was not immune to the general confusion regarding construc- which involve entirely different principles of manipula- tional methods, for she included annular manipulation tion, i. e., constructionproper (Anasazi) and post-construc- under coiling. tional conditioning (Hohokam). Coiling as a tectonic 169 Italics are those of the present writer. It will be procedure is well recognized in Hohokam pottery (cf. recalled that Guthe did not qualify the process as coiling. Roberts, 1937: 20). Its paddle and anvil technique, now 170 This, the author stipulates, distinguished the Anasazi generally accepted, does not preclude the possibility of ceramic family from the Hohokam group, which is said coiling or of annular building. (Cf. V. J. Fewkes, 1938: to be characterized by the paddle and anvil method. It 197; 1941b.) seems in point to note that the distinction rests on the 171Italics are those of the present writer. consideration of two wholly separate steps of manufacture 172Cf. also V. J. Fewkes, 1941b: 162-193. CATAWBA AND CHEROKEE POTTERY-MAKING 119

text does not allow the reader to perceive the true Gifford (1928: 355) conditionally assumed coil- tectonic principle involved. Yet it may be pre- ing for the Paiute, deriving his source from sumed that either an annular or a true coiling Lowie's brief reference (1924: 225) to the subject. method was observed by Spier. At the time of Lowie's investigations, the Paiute Gifford (1928), in his study of the Southwest, were no longer actually making pottery, al- conceived of two major categories of pottery though the craft was in the memory of one woman technique: "coiling without the paddle and an- whose recollections Lowie recorded (1924: 225). vil"; and "coiling with the paddle and anvil."173 Gifford's assumption appears to be based on the His work furnishes an example of the danger of following passage (Lowie, 1924: 225): "The coiled applying the term "coiling" in a loose sense. technique was employed." From the vague state- "Coiled pottery made without the paddle and ments given by Lowie's informant it is not possi- anvil," says Gifford (1928:354), "is characteristic ble to reconstruct the probable building method of Pueblo culture, both ancient and modern,174 followed by the Paiute. Nor can the circum- and is also made by the Navaho."'75 The scribed reference to "coiled technique" be used, original source on the Navaho, cited by Gifford, since it lacks proof of the diagnostic criteria. reads as follows: Lowie, however, refers (1924: 226) to specimens of Shoshonean in the The paste is rolled out into long, slender pieces or pottery Peabody Museum, ropes; this done, a flat, round cake of the desired Harvard University, and in the Museum of the circumferenceis made of a lump of the mud, and American Indian, Heye Foundation, New York. serves as the bottom of the pot around which one Through the courtesy of the Peabody Museum, of the rolls of mud is woundand madefast by pressing I have examined the vessels in Cambridge, and and gently kneading with the fingers. . . . Another am able to furnish the following data regarding roll is added and fastened in the same way, by which their history and manufacture. There are three processthe potteris enabledto give the pot the desired vessels in the collection, all labeled Paiute. Two and size.76 shape of these, each "restored from old sherds," are This description plainly identifies the process as both numbered 12131. The third, numbered circuit building. Speaking of his own observa- 9448, is described in the catalogue entry as a tions among the Cocopa, who use the paddle and "cooking pot, to sit in sand, made in imitation anvil-in thinning the wall-Gifford writes (1928: of old pots." All were collected by Dr. E. Pal- 355): "The . . . cylinder of clay . . . proved to mer, the "imitation" vessel in 1875, and the "old be just of the right length for one circuit of the edge sherds" in 1887. There are no notes relating to of the growing vessel. . . . The process of adding this pottery in the records of the Peabody Mu- concentric coils was continued until the vessel was seum aside from the brief notations accompany- complete."177 This in itself is ample proof of ing the catalogue entries. The restoration of the circuit building, and not coiling.178 two vessels from the "old sherds" was done in Cambridge by the late Mr. S. J. Guernsey. The 173 Cf. also V. J. Fewkes, 1941b: 163. restored specimens, one with approximately one- 174 Citing Goddard (1927: 86), apparently the following the other with one-half "Round after round of rolled into a quarter, approximately passage: clay, slender of cylinder, is applied." This suggests circuit building, which plaster work, as well as the intact "imitation" is certainly characteristic of the modern Pueblo technique. pot, are of a roughly conical shape, each with an 175 There follows a lengthy quotation from Guthe (1925), obtusely pointed bottom. The two restored which has already been discussed. Gifford accepted vessels reveal evidence which Guthe's as without sundry positive "moulding" "coiling" comment. indicates the of construction. 176 Franciscan Fathers (1910: 289); italics those of the following manner present writer.-Cf. also Tschopik (1941: 23 ff.) and Keur The base appears to have been modeled in plain (1941, especially pp. 52 ff.). hands and within a made of a 177 shaped support Italics those of the present writer. Gifford (ibid.) piece of skin, the lower terminal and identified the gathered expressly wall-thinning function of the paddle vertical folds of which left clear on process. Gifford (1933: 318 ff.) reiterated this in a tanta- impressions the bottom. The lizingly stinted account of Cocopa pottery-making. Cf. body of the wall was built by V. J. Fewkes (1941b: 163). exterior molding over a form consisting either of 178 The presence or absence of the paddle and anvil does a weighted skin or a carrier type basket smeared not affect the manipulation incidental to the placement, with some substance to adjustment, and of the tectonic In (pitch, potter's paste?) bonding components. attain smoothness. The medium handling the paste medium during these processes, the paste appears potter's hands must be free. Cf. Gifford (1933: 318 ff.) to have been added in the form of irregular strips, for an illustration of this principle. the overlaps and bonding of which are plainly in 120 VLADIMIR J. FEWKES

evidence. Finger stroking on both surfaces is It will be recalled that Ewi Katalsta, the Chero- clearly identified by broad streaks and minute kee potter observed at work by Harrington striations. The specimen having only about one 1908b: 223), did not demonstrate coiling,l82 but quarter of plaster restoration shows a complete circuit building.183 continuity of its wall from base to rim. Its Gifford (1928: 357) also misinterpreted the in- measurements are: maximum height, 0.393 m.; teresting constructional procedure reported by maximum diameter, taken inwardly at the rim, Lothrop (1927), by referring to it as "an unusual 0.315 m.; average wall thickness, 0.006 m. The combination of shaping and coiling,l4 with the "imitation" pot apparently had its basal part bottom of the pot formed last. In this method and approximately the lower third of its body no paddle or anvil is used, the entire shaping modeled in hands, whereas the rest of the wall being done with the hands."185 The Guatajiagua was constructed by adding irregular morsels of example, unique in several respects,186depends paste, but without the use of a mold. Overlap- essentially on hand modeling. Only in the for- ping of the paste additions, bonding, and finger mation of the bottom and sometimes, though stroking, are again fully in evidence. The inte- not always, in the adjustment of the rim, does rior surface, however, appears to have been the potter employ the circuit technique;187 she smoothed down with some soft vegetable fibres, then uses either a single or a composite fillet, perhaps a bunch of grass blades, which left well- which does not exceed the circumference of the defined traces aligned in more or less horizontal vessel at the plane of its attachment.188 There or oblique bands.'79 There is no evidence of coil- can be no doubt, however, that the principle ing in any of the three vessels. of coiling is totally absent. Under his distribution of "the non-paddle The foregoing citations should suffice for the method of coiling," Gifford (1928: 356) included present purpose. My next concern is to suggest the Catawba. As has been shown, the con- a classification of manual construction methods temporary Catawba are totally unacquainted in primitive pottery-making. This is done here with coiling. And there is no evidence to indi- in full cognizance of my personal limitations in cate that they ever used it in former times, or coping with the task. The conceptions are that they acquired it in the course of their con- rooted largely in empirical criteria, and there is tacts with the Cherokee. Harrington's account no intent whatsoever to propose any set stand- (1908a) of Catawba pottery-making, which ards. Admittedly, my own observations of pot- Gifford cites (1928: 356), does not stipulate the ters at work provide the most useful sources; circuit process, but the reader cannot fail to these are augmented by dependable literary recognize its existence.180 records. In dealing with the archaeological ma- Gifford (1928: 357) accepted Harrington's find terial, only obviously recognizable criteria have (1922: 194, fig. 33) of a pottery anvil in Tennessee been taken into consideration. It must be as a sufficient indication that the ancient Chero- stressed that I am here concerned primarily with kee practiced "coiling" of the paddle and anvil the phenomena and tasks of the North American variety.181 For the modern Cherokee, Gifford continent. also followed (1928: 357) Harrington (1908b). 182 Which, it is true, is characteristic of the aboriginal 179 This vessel, while plastic, cracked in drying; the de- Cherokee method, but which no longer survives with the fect was somewhat alleviated by an interesting method of contemporary Cherokee potters. mending which consisted of applying potter's paste, of the 183Griffin (1935: 19-20) considered the Catawba and same nature as that used in the original construction, over Cherokee methods as "identical examples of coiling." and along the rift. 184 Not specifiedby Lothrop. 180 Harrington stated (1924: 271): "I was interested then 185 Italics those of the present writer. [1908] to observe that the Catawba used the coil method." 186 E. g., the constructional procedure, the difficult pos- This was based on Harrington, 1908. Some of the potters ture maintained by the potter, the guidance of shaping at Catawba still remember Harrington's field work at the achieved with the aid of her toes, and the final step taken reservation, and they agree that coiling was not practiced in closing the small orifice of the bottom (cf. Lothrop, within their memory. This is significant, for Mrs. Sally 1927). Gordon, now past seventy years of age, corroborated the 187 Lothrop (1927: 113) expressly states that the rim is statement; her integrity and dependability are well estab- "built up by adding coils." This, apparently, induced lished. Gifford (1928: 357) to speak of the technique of the 181 The wooden paddles illustrated by Harrington (1922: Guatajiagua potters as a "combination of shaping and fig. 33) are modern specimens. Harrington did not ex- coiling"-actually modeling supplemented with circuit and press his opinion as to the manufacturing technique in morsel building. either of his two groups of archaeological pottery. 188 Personal information from Dr. Lothrop. CATAWBA AND CHEROKEE POTTERY-MAKING 121

Empirically, spatially, and temporally viewed, (b) Linked (chained) fillet (fig. 32). there are two broad possible manners of con- Example: Anasazi corrugated ware structing a pottery vessel exclusively by the hands: (Kidder-Shepard, 1936: 297-298, 552- 553). A. By modeling, wherein the potter produces the II. Methods depending on morsel components. vessel by direct shaping from a lump of paste, Examples: Much of the ware made by the without necessarily using any additional ma- modern descendants of the Gay Head In- terial (fig. 3). dians, Martha's Vineyard, Massachusetts B. By segmental building, wherein the potter (V. J. Fewkes, 1941a: 67). Perhaps also uses one or more tectonic components, in the some of the archaeological laminated pottery form either of a fillet or of a morsel, depends of the Woodland, i. e., that made without on a progressive and orderly procedure, and the use of a mold (Fewkes, 1937: 145). uses additional paste as the desired vessel grows (fig. 5). The scheme just outlined (cf. also V. J. Fewkes, 1940: 142) is, of course, subject to modification The involved in is self- principle modeling and elaboration. Its framework, however, has evident from the stated definition. Two main proved itself adequate in a series of of be attained sampling categories product may by literary sources for classificatory purposes. In modeling: some of these, details concerning the diagnostic I. Vessels, i. e., receptacles capable of accom- characteristics of constructional technique were modating certain contents. found to be either recondite or ambiguous. Yet II. Appendages, such as lugs, handles, spouts, with very few and rather insignificant exceptions decorative features (e. g., knobs, nodules, it has been possible to interpret these cases in warts, ribs, ridges), and figurines (anthropo- terms of the classification just discussed. morphic, theriomorphic, etc.). These may Coiling in pottery-making is not a very simple have: process. Whether its origin can be traced to basketry technique190or not,19l the manipulation 1. A solid body. does not suggest a rudimentary stage in pottery 2. A hollow body. manufacture. It is, of course, imperative to The methods of segmental construction may agree with Morris (1917: 24 ff.) and with Kidder be classified as follows: and Guernsey (1919: 141 ff.) that corrugation represents a signal advance in I. Methods on fillet coiling. Logically depending components. considered, the plain, mode of 1. Annular hand-modeling procedure. construction appears to be the most elementary; Circuit variant. (a) empirically, it is perhaps to be viewed as the fillet (i) Single (fig. 5). most simple, most widely spread, and most pro- modern Catawba Examples: practice fusely surviving method of modern Pueblo pottery-making. (vide supra); practice And it is the modeling technique which best (Guthe, 1925: 31 ff.). serves initial efforts in fillet. pottery-making-again (ii) Composite empirically viewed. The circuit it modern Yuma building, Example: practice seems to me, is also a rather I 1936: simple procedure; (Rogers, 9). should have no hesitation in it as an variant regarding (b) Ring (fig. 6). antecedent of coiling in the Southwest if the sam- modern Catawba Examples: practice ple material which I have examined in this rela- (vide modern supra); Maya practice tion is on 1934: representative enough. Ring building, (Thompson, 95). the other the observer 2. hand, impresses as a Coiling. specialized development. (a) Single(?) fillet. It would be futile to attempt to rationalize the A possible ex- although questionable likely historical priority of modeling over circuit ample, the alleged method of the building, for it cannot be done on an equal tem- eighteenth-century Natchez (Butel-Du- poral and spatial basis.'92 Such a question is mont, 1753, 2: 271 ff.).189 190 Cf. Mason (1902: 160; 1911: 98). 191Cf. the caution expressed by Morris (1917: 29). 189 Positive of a 192 proof historical example of the indubitable Certain regions, however, such as the Southwest, do use of a fillet does single not seem to exist. offer a more promising ground in this respect. 122 VLADIMIR J. FEWKES

inseparable from that regarding the origin of matter of coiling at this length. In as much as pottery itself. That opinions are nowise in ac- the Catawba do not, and to my best knowledge cord with respect to this perennially interesting never did, resort to coiling, it was imperative to but virtually intangible subject, is all too well include a critical examination of the subject. known. The technologist, it appears, rather inclines to support multiple origins, sometimes BIBLIOGRAPHY to the discomfiture of the diffu- perhaps quite M. E. 1932. A of the ceramic art of sionist. The consternation of the side ASHLEY, study the opposing Etowans. Etowah Papers 3: 107 ff. New Haven. -that favoring a single origin-is not substan- BARBER, E. A. 1878. Anthropological news. Am. Anti- tially alleviated by recourse to convergence, the quarian 1 (2): 110ff. alleged criteria of which are often superficial and BINNS, C. F. 1910. The potter's craft. New York. R. L. 1929. The Pueblo New York. irreconcilable with spatial and BUNZEL, potter. temporal aspects. BUSHNELL, D. I., JR. 1906. The Sloane collection in the In any event, it seems that it is not so much the British Museum. Am. Anthropologist 8 (4): 671 ff. technologist who insists on his view, but often 1909. The Choctaw of Bayou Lacomb. Bur. Am. rather his interpreter. Ethnol. Bull. 48. 1934. Tribal east of the The student of pottery technology is con- migrations Mississippi. Smithsonian Misc. Coll. 89 (12). cerned not with matters which escape tangible BUTEL-DUMONTDE MONTIGNY,G. M. 1753. Memoires approach, but with positive criteria and objective historiques sur la Louisiane [etc.]. 2 v. Paris. methodology. Pottery studies are, by the very CLAFLIN,W. H., JR. 1931. The Stallings Island Mound, nature of the subject, endeavors of a composite Columbia County, Georgia. Papers Peabody Mus. and diverse necessi- Am. Archaeology and Ethnology 14 (1). character; they inevitably CUSHING,F. H. 1886. A study of the Pueblo pottery tate a host of heterogeneous considerations. It as illustrative of the Zuni culture growth. Bur. Am. is imperative to be as technical as necessary, for Ethnol., Fourth Ann. Rept.: 467 ff. in dealing with the complex material the student 1894. The germ of Shoreland pottery. Mem. In- must be and exhaustive. The ternat. Cong. Anthropology: 217 ff. Chicago. exacting signal D. S. 1935. Notes on Creek. often DAVIDSON, Slaughter value of pottery in culture history has too Bull. Archaeol. Soc. Delaware 2 (2): 1 ff. been stressed to require a review in the present Du PRATZ,LE P. 1758. Histoire de la Louisiane [etc.]. writing. It was not until very recently that 3 v. Paris. technological research has really been realized as FARABEE,W. C. 1922. Indian tribes of eastern Peru. Papers Peabody Mus. Am. Archaeology and Ethnology a distinct aid to archaeology. But a full dose of 10. the new discipline, still in an experimental stage, FEWKES, J. W. 1909. Ancient Zuni pottery. Putnam is not a palatable one for many an archaeologist; Anniversary Volume: 43 ff. New York. some are baffled thereby, others quite distrustful FEWKES, V. J. 1937. Aboriginal potsherds from Red as to how far the details should be River, Manitoba. Am. Antiquity 3 (2): 143 ff. pursued. 1938. Review of "Pottery of Pecos, II, by A. V. Whatever the reaction, the new discipline seems Kidder and A. O. Shepard, New Haven, 1936." Am. to be here to stay, for its utility-although yet Jour. Archaeology 42 (1): 195 ff. to be tested in several respects-is, on the whole, 1940. Methods of pottery manufacture. Am. An- It is desirable that tiquity 6 (2): 172 ff. quite patent. particularly 1941a. A on the future work be directed the lines of a preliminary report pottery making along at Gay Head, Martha's Vineyard, Massachusetts. broad approach rather than concentrated on dis- Am. Antiquity 7 (1): 67 ff. proportionate details. In other words, less of a 1941b. The function of paddle and anvil in pot- vertical and much more of a horizontal expansion tery making. Am. Antiquity 7 (2), pt. 1: 162 ff. in research should more bene- FORD, J. A. 1936. Analysis of Indian village sites collec- technological prove tions from Louisiana and Mississippi. Louisiana ficial to archaeology. Dept. Conservation, Anthropol. Study 2. The constructional aspect is a constituent part FORD, J. A., AND G. R. WILLEY. 1941. An interpreta- of the technology of pottery. As such it de- tion of the prehistory of the Eastern United States. serves attention commensurate with that devoted Am. Anthropologist 43 (3): 325 ff. FRANCISCAN FATHERS. 1910. An to other attributes of a it ethnologic dictionary given pot. Moreover, of the Navaho language. Saint Michaels, Arizona. lends itself to an objective determination; more GIFFORD, E. W. 1928. Pottery making in the South- precisely so, of course, upon direct observation west. Univ. California Publ. Am. Archaeology and of the process, but also, with growing success, in Ethnology 23 (8): 353 ff. the of 1933. The Cocopa. Univ. California Publ. Am. study fragments. Archaeology and Ethnology 31 (5): 257 ff. It is in response to such thoughts as have just 1935. Pottery making in the Southwest. Am. been touched upon that I have gone into the Anthropologist 37 (3): 535. CATAWBA AND CHEROKEE POTTERY-MAKING 123

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STEVENSON, M. C. 1904. The Zuni Indians. Bur. Am. 1936. Early history of the eastern Siouan tribes. Ethnol., Twenty-third Ann. Rept. In: Essays in anthropology presented to A. L. SWANTON, J. R. 1911. Indian tribes of the lower Missis- Kroeber: 371 ff. Berkeley. and coast of the Gulf of Mexico. sippi Valley adjacent THOMPSON, J. E. 1930. Ethnology of the Mayas of Bur. Am. Ethnol. Bull. 43. southern and central British Honduras. Field Mus. 1923. New on the of the Siouan light early history Nat. Hist. Publ. Anthropol. Ser. 17 Jour. Acad. Sci. 13 33 ff. 274, (2). peoples. Washington (3): The memoirs of Lieut. 1931. Source material for the social and cere- TIMBERLAKE, H. 1765. Henry monial life of the Choctaw Indians. Bur. Am. Ethnol. Timberlake (who accompanied three Cherokee In- Bull. 103. dians to London in the year 1762). London. 1935. Notes on the cultural provinces of the WISSLER, C. 1938. The American Indian, ed. 3. New Southeast. Am. Anthropologist 37 (3): 373 ff. York.