© August 2018 Compiled by the Youth Development Institute of South Africa for the National Youth Development Agency - Reporting to the Presidency, Republic of South Africa

Disclaimer The report was prepared using official statistics, nationally representative surveys, and research from various sources. The findings, interpretations, views, and conclusions expressed in this report represent neither the policies of the NYDA, nor those of partner institutions who contributed to the report. The NYDA does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in the report and accepts no liability for the consequences of its use. The NYDA is not liable for any views expressed or misprints in the report.

i TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... ii LIST OF FIGURES ...... iv LIST OF TABLES ...... vii FOREWORD ...... ix PREFACE ...... x Minister in the Presidency, Dr N.C. Dlamini-Zuma ...... x EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ...... xii Executive Chairperson of the NYDA Board, Mr S.J. Mtsweni ...... xii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ...... xviii CHAPTER 1: CONTEXT AND METHODOLOGY ...... 1 1.1 INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1.2 BACKGROUND ...... 2 1.3 METHODOLOGY...... 5 1.4 LIMITATIONS ...... 6 CHAPTER 2: SOUTH AFRICAN YOUTH DEMOGRAPHICS ...... 8 2.1 INTRODUCTION ...... 8 2.2 YOUTH DEMOGRAPHICS IN SOUTH AFRICA ...... 8 2.3 YOUTH MORTALITY ...... 12 2.4 YOUTH POVERTY LEVELS ...... 13 2.5 YOUTHS WITH DISABILITIES ...... 18 2.6 YOUTH-HEADED HOUSEHOLDS ...... 20 2.7 CONCLUSION ...... 22 2.8 IMPLICATIONS ...... 23 2.9 RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 23 CHAPTER 3: YOUTH ECONOMIC PARTICIPATION AND TRANSFORMATION ...... 25 3.1 INTRODUCTION ...... 25 3.2 YOUTH ECONOMIC PARTICIPATION AND THE POLICY ENVIRONMENT ...... 26 3.3 YOUTH PARTICIPATION IN THE LABOUR MARKET ...... 28 3.4 YOUTH ENTREPRENEURSHIP ...... 37 3.5 CONCLUSION ...... 46 3.6 IMPLICATIONS ...... 46 3.7 RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 47 CHAPTER 4: EDUCATION, SKILLS, AND SECOND CHANCES ...... 48 4.1 INTRODUCTION ...... 48 4.2 EDUCATION AND SKILLS DEVELOPMENT CONTEXT ...... 49 4.3 YOUTH EDUCATION AND SKILLS DEVELOPMENT ...... 54 4.4 BASIC ENROLMENT AND PERFORMANCE ...... 56 4.5 EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT AMONG THE YOUTH ...... 62 4.6 EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC FACTORS ...... 65 4.7 THE QUALITY OF EDUCATION RECEIVED BY THE YOUTH ...... 67 4.8 HIGHER EDUCATION AND TRAINING...... 71 4.9 CONCLUSION ...... 75 4.10 IMPLICATIONS ...... 76 4.11 RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 77 CHAPTER 5: HEALTHCARE AND COMBATING SUBSTANCE ABUSE ...... 79 5.1 INTRODUCTION ...... 79 5.2 SELF-PERCEPTION OF HEALTH AND WELLBEING...... 80 5.3 LIFESTYLE DISEASES ...... 80 5.4 MARGINALISED COMMUNITIES ...... 82 5.5 SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR ...... 82 5.6 TEENAGE PREGNANCY...... 84 5.7 TERMINATION OF PREGNANCY ...... 86 5.8 HIV AND AIDS ...... 87 5.9 MENTAL HEALTH ...... 91 5.10 ACCESS TO MEDICAL AID ...... 92 5.11 SUBSTANCE ABUSE ...... 94 5.12 TRAUMA, INJURIES, AND VIOLENCE ...... 96 5.13 VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN ...... 97 5.14 HEALTH BEHAVIOUR OF OUT-OF-SCHOOL YOUTHS (OSYs) ...... 99 5.15 YOUTH MORTALITY AND MORBIDITY ...... 100 5.16 CONCLUSION ...... 106 5.17 IMPLICATIONS ...... 107 5.18 RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 108 CHAPTER 6: NATION-BUILDING AND SOCIAL COHESION ...... 110 6.1 INTRODUCTION ...... 110 6.2 CIVIC AND POLITICAL PARTICIPATION ...... 110 6.3 INTEREST IN PUBLIC AFFAIRS ...... 113 6.4 YOUTH PARTICIPATION IN CIVIC AND COMMUNITY NETWORKS ...... 115 6.5 SOCIAL MEDIA AND YOUTH PARTICIPATION ...... 116 6.6 YOUTH VOLUNTEERISM ...... 116 6.7 YOUTH SOCIAL INTEGRATION, NATIONAL IDENTITY, AND CULTURAL DIVERSITY ...... 117 6.8 VULNERABLE YOUTH GROUPS ...... 119 6.9 CRIME AND YOUTHS IN CONFLICT WITH THE LAW ...... 119 6.10 YOUTH PARTICIPATION IN SPORTS AND RECREATIONAL ACTIVITIES ...... 122 6.11 CONCLUSION ...... 123 6.12 IMPLICATIONS ...... 124 6.13 RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 124 CHAPTER 7: NATIONAL YOUTH SERVICE (NYS) ...... 126 7.1 INTRODUCTION ...... 126 7.2 POLICY ENVIRONMENT ...... 128 7.3 MODELS FROM OTHER COUNTRIES ...... 130 7.4 YOUTH SERVICE IN SOUTH AFRICA: HISTORICAL BACKGROUND ...... 131 7.5 BUDGET AND TARGETS ...... 132 7.6 IMPLEMENTATION OF NYS PROGRAMME ...... 136 7.7 POST-2014 STATUS OF NYS ...... 136 7.8 CONCLUSION ...... 137 7.9 IMPLICATIONS ...... 138 7.10 RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 138 CHAPTER 8: EFFECTIVE AND RESPONSIVE YOUTH DEVELOPMENT INSTITUTIONS ...... 140 8.1 INTRODUCTION ...... 140 8.2 NATIONAL LEVEL ...... 144 8.3 PROVINCIAL AND LOCAL LEVEL ...... 145 8.4 CONCLUSION ...... 146 8.5 IMPLICATIONS ...... 146 8.6 RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 146 CHAPTER 9: YOUTH WORK IN SOUTH AFRICA...... 148 9.1 INTRODUCTION ...... 148 9.2 ROLES OF YOUTH WORKERS ...... 149 9.3 ROLE PLAYERS IN THE FIELD OF YOUTH DEVELOPMENT ...... 150 9.4 STATUS OF YOUTH WORKERS IN SOUTH AFRICA ...... 150 9.5 PROBLEMS AND CHALLENGES FACING YOUTH WORKERS ...... 153 9.6 POSSIBLE AREAS THAT COULD BENEFIT FROM YOUTH WORK ...... 154 9.7 CURRENT YOUTH WORK TRAINING ...... 154 9.8 STATUS OF YOUTH WORK TRAINING ...... 157 9.9 RECOGNITION/ACCREDITATION OF QUALIFICATIONS ...... 157 9.10 CONCLUSION ...... 158 9.11 IMPLICATIONS ...... 158 9.12 RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 159 CHAPTER 10: CONCLUSION ...... 160 10.1 CONCLUSIONS ...... 160 REFERENCES ...... 163

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Population of South Africa by age group and gender in percentages (2011 Census and Mid-year Population Estimates 2017) ...... 10 Figure 2: Proportion of youth (15 to 34) and the proportion of the general population by province: 2017 ...... 11 Figure 3: Total distribution of youth (15 to 34) by population: 2017 ...... 11 Figure 4: Proportion of youth by gender in each province in 2011 and 2016: 15 to 34 ...... 12 Figure 5: Distribution of youth by geographic type: 2014 ...... 12 Figure 6: Population mortality in all age groups: 2004 to 2015 ...... 13 Figure 7: Levels of poverty by age group: 2006, 2009, 2011, and 2015 ...... 14 Figure 8: Poverty incidence of households by age of household head: 2006, 2009, 2011, and 2015 ...... 14 Figure 9: Percentages of youths who are beneficiaries of social grants: 2015 and 2016 ...... 15 Figure 10: Orphan types: 1996, 2001, 2011, and 2016 ...... 15 Figure 11: Percentage of youths living in households that reported hunger by province: 2015 and 2016 ...... 16 Figure 12: Percentage of youths (15 to 34) living in formal, informal, and traditional housing: 2010 to 2016 ...... 17 Figure 13: Proportion of youths with disabilities by age groups: 2011 and 2016 ...... 19 Figure 14: Disability prevalence by sex: 2011 and 2016 ...... 19 Figure 15: Percentage of youth-headed households by province: 2015 and 2016 ...... 20 Figure 16: Distribution of households headed by youths aged 15 to 24 and 25 to 34 by province: 2016 ...... 21 Figure 17: Percentage of youth-headed households by race: 2015 and 2016 ...... 21 Figure 18: Percentage distribution of youth-headed (15 to 34) households by geographic type: 2009 and 2014 ...... 22 Figure 19: Percentage of youths (15 to 24 and 25 to 34) who are not in employment, education, or training (NEET): 2012 to 2016 ...... 28 Figure 20: Main sources of income for youth-headed households: 2015 and 2016 ...... 29 Figure 21: Percentage of youths living in households without an employed member: 2010 to 2016 ...... 29 Figure 22: Labour force participation among youths and adults: 2010 to 2016 ...... 30 Figure 23: Youth (15 to 34 years) expanded and narrow unemployment rates by gender: 2010 to 2016 ...... 31 Figure 24: Youth (15 to 34 years) unemployment rate by province: 2010 to 2016 ...... 32 Figure 25: Youth unemployment (15 to 34 years) by population group: 2010 to 2016 ...... 33 Figure 26: Narrow youth (15 to 34) unemployment, absorption rate, and labour force participation rate by education level: 2015 and 2016 ...... 34 Figure 27: Employment rates among graduates and diplomates compared to total working age population: 2000 to 2015 ...... 35 Figure 28: Graduate and diplomate narrow unemployment and narrow unemployment rates: 2000 to 2015 ...... 35 Figure 29: Youth unemployment rate by population group by level of education: 2018 ...... 36 Figure 30: Total early-stage entrepreneurial activity (TEA) in South Africa by age group: 2001 to 2015 ...... 37 Figure 31: Share of youth (15 to 34 years) entrepreneurs by gender: 2009 and 2014 ...... 38 Figure 32: Age distribution of small businesses: 2015 and 2016 ...... 39 Figure 33: Youth-owned businesses by province: 2015 and 2016 ...... 40 Figure 34: Level of education of business owners: 2015 and 2016 ...... 40 Figure 35: Skills training resources for small business owners in South Africa: 2010 ...... 41 Figure 36: Awareness of organisations that give support and advice to small businesses ...... 42 Figure 37: Motivation to start a business ...... 43 Figure 38: Obstacles to growing a business ...... 43 Figure 39: Business registration by age groups ...... 44 Figure 40: Source of start-up capital: 2013 ...... 45 Figure 41: Business owners' financial recordkeeping by age ...... 45 Figure 42: Non-personnel funding per learner by school quintile ...... 51 Figure 43: Percentage of those aged five and older attending school and not paying tuition: 2002 to 2016 ...... 52 Figure 44: Number of university and TVET college students assisted by NSFAS (including loans and bursaries/scholarships)...... 53 Figure 45: Youth activity by age: 2016 ...... 55 Figure 46: Percentage of persons aged five and older attending an educational institution by province and by type of institution: 2016 ...... 57 Figure 47: Participation rate in secondary schools between 2002 and 2015 (GER) ...... 57 Figure 48: Enrolment of seven- to 15-year-olds by race: 2002 to 2011 ...... 58 Figure 49: Enrolment of 16- to 18-year-olds by race ...... 58 Figure 50: Progression of learners from Grade 7 to 12 (2008 to 2012) and Grade 8 to 12 (2008 to 2013) ...... 59 Figure 51: Grade repetition rates by province: 2016 ...... 60 Figure 52: Reasons for dropping out of school for boys and girls (seven to 18 years): 2016 ...... 60 Figure 53: Percentage of those dropping out citing lack of money for fees (ages seven to 18): 2002 to 2015 ...... 61 Figure 54: Nature of problems experienced by all youths attending public schools by province: 2016 ...... 62 Figure 55: Percentage distribution of the highest educational level attained by the youth: 2015 and 2016 ...... 64 Figure 56: Distribution of 25- to 34-year-olds by educational attainment: 1996 to 2016 ...... 65 Figure 57: Percentage distribution of the highest education attained by youths by population group: 2016 ...... 65 Figure 58: Percentage of schools within different pass percentage categories by quintile ...... 66 Figure 59: Reported access to resources by type of school: 2016 ...... 66 Figure 60: Grade 6 reading achievement by region ...... 68 Figure 61: TIMSS Maths achievement: 2015 ...... 69 Figure 62: Performance in TIMSS Maths and Science Grade 9 assessments by school type: 2011 and 2015 ...... 69 Figure 63: Proportion of Mathematics performance in Grades 3, 4, and 5: 2011, 2012, 2013, and 2014 ...... 70 Figure 64: Proportion of first language performance in Grades 3, 4, and 5: 2011 to 2014 ...... 70 Figure 65: Students enrolled in public higher education by race: 2015 ...... 71 Figure 66: Number of students enrolled in HEIs from 2010 to 2015 ...... 72 Figure 67: Number of students enrolled in public HEIs by field of study: 2010 to 2015 ...... 72 Figure 68: The rate of graduation by race: 2002 and 2016 ...... 73 Figure 69: Undergraduate success rate at public HEIs by population group: 2015 ...... 73 Figure 70: Enrolments in public TVET colleges: 2010 to 2015 ...... 74 Figure 71: Enrolments in public CET institutions: 2011 to 2015 ...... 74 Figure 72: Number of students in CET colleges by programme: 2012 to 2015 ...... 75 Figure 73: Severe obesity among men and women by age: 2016 ...... 81 Figure 74: Prevalence of hypertension by sex and age: 2016 ...... 82 Figure 75: Females aged 14 to 19 years who reported falling pregnant: 2012 to 2015 ...... 85 Figure 76: Trends in HIV prevalence from 2002 to 2012 ...... 87 Figure 77: HIV prevalence by age and gender: 2012 ...... 88 Figure 78: HIV prevalence by population group: 2012 ...... 89 Figure 79: Estimates of HIV prevalence rates: 2010 to 2017 ...... 90 Figure 80: Percentage distribution of those who have ever tested and who have never tested for HIV by gender and age: 2016 ...... 90 Figure 81: Condom use and multiple partners in South Africa by age and gender: 2016 ...... 91 Figure 82: Medical aid coverage: 2011 and 2016 ...... 93 Figure 83: Membership of medical aid schemes by population group: 2016 ...... 93 Figure 84: Medical aid coverage by age: 2016 ...... 94 Figure 85: Percentage of smokers by various tobacco products, frequency, and age: 2016 ...... 95 Figure 86: Alcohol consumption and risky drinking behaviour by gender and age: 2016 ...... 96 Figure 87: Sexual violence by age group: 2016 ...... 98 Figure 88: Percentage of women who have ever experienced sexual violence by province: 2016 98 Figure 89: Percentage of women who have ever experienced physical violence and the frequency of violence in the last 12 months by age: 2016 ...... 99 Figure 90: Mortality among youths (15 to 34) by age group: 1999 to 2015 ...... 101 Figure 91: Comparison of deaths among male and female youths (15 to 34): 1999 to 2015 ...... 102 Figure 92: Number of deaths amongst youth (15 to 34) by population group: 1999 to 2013 ..... 102 Figure 93: Number of deaths among youths (15 to 34) by province: 1999 to 2013 ...... 103 Figure 94: Percentage distribution of natural and non-natural deaths by age: 2015...... 104 Figure 95: Percentage of youths who suffered acute diseases compared to the general population: 2016 ...... 106 Figure 96: Voting history among the voting population by age group: 2013 ...... 113 Figure 97: Interest in public affairs among youths (18 to 35 years) by race, gender, and geographic location: 2015 ...... 113 Figure 98: Comparison of South African youths’ (18 to 35) interest in public affairs with the rest of Africa: 2016 ...... 114 Figure 99: Views on youth and the electoral process: 2013 ...... 114 Figure 100: Youth (18 to 35) civic participation: 2015 ...... 115 Figure 101: Percentage of youth (18 to 35) active participation in civic organisations: 2016 ...... 115 Figure 102: Settings of self-reported circumcision by male respondents aged 15 years by province: 2012 ...... 116 Figure 103: Approval of racially integrated neighbourhoods by age group: 2006 to 2010 ...... 118 Figure 104: Age-sex structure of the street homeless respondents in the study: 2010 ...... 119 Figure 105: Youth victimisation rates by age group: 2011...... 121 Figure 106: Design linkages ...... 140 Figure 107: SAIYDS institutional arrangements ...... 144 Figure 108: Gender breakdown of youth workers in South Africa ...... 151 Figure 109: Distribution of youth workers in South Africa by gender ...... 151 Figure 110: Distribution of youth workers by race ...... 152 Figure 111: Distribution of youth workers by age...... 152 Figure 112: Experience in youth work ...... 153

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Mid-year population estimates by age groups: 2008 to 2017 ...... 9 Table 2: Comparison of indicators for basic living conditions for youth, children, and the general population: 2006 to 2016 ...... 17 Table 3: Unemployment rate by education level: 2018 ...... 36 Table 4: Percentage distribution of persons aged 16 to 64 years by disability status and labour market: 2011 ...... 36 Table 5: Youth entrepreneurs by gender, age group, and geo-type: 2009 and 2014 ...... 38 Table 6: Percentage of individuals running non-VAT-registered businesses: 2015 and 2016 39 Table 7: School facilities by province: 2016 ...... 52 Table 8: Total learners writing and passing Grade 12: 1995 to 2016 ...... 63 Table 9: Learners achieving 40% or above in Mathematics in Grade 12: 2011 to 2016 ..... 63 Table 10: Percentage of learners achieving university endorsement by province: 2004 to 2016 ...... 64 Table 11: Number of disabled persons aged 20 and above by level of education: 2011 ..... 67 Table 12: Median age of sexual debut (IQR – interquartile range) by socio-demographic characteristics ...... 83 Table 13: Sexual behaviour of learners: Grades 8 to 11 ...... 84 Table 14: Age-specific and total fertility rates, general fertility rate, and crude birth rate: 2016 ...... 86 Table 15: High school learners who had an abortion or whose partner had an abortion .... 87 Table 16: Youth risk behaviour in the six months prior to SANYRBS 2011 ...... 97 Table 17: Ten leading underlying natural causes of death for youth (15 to 35): 2013 ...... 104 Table 18: Ten living underlying natural causes of death amongst the youth (15 to 34) .... 105 Table 19: South African voters' roll by age group: 2006 to 2016 ...... 111 Table 20: Voters turnout by age group: 2006 to 2016 ...... 112 Table 21: Socialisation between population groups by age: 2013 ...... 117 Table 22: Statistics for sentenced offenders by age group: 2006 to 2008 ...... 120 Table 23: Statistics for correctional service offenders by crime category (awaiting trial detainees [ATDs] and sentenced) and age group: 2011...... 120 Table 24: Statistics by crime category and age: 2011 ...... 121 Table 25: Reasons for non-participation in sports by age group ...... 122 Table 26: Motivators for participation in sports by age ...... 123 Table 27: Legislative and policy frameworks ...... 128 Table 28: Programmes implementation by sectors ...... 131 Table 29: Number of participants within the NYS projects ...... 132 Table 30: Targets from 2007 to 2010, in three categories ...... 135 Table 31: Summary of role comparison amongst social providers ...... 149 Table 32: South African key structures that focuses on youth development ...... 150 Table 33: HEIs offering youth work qualifications ...... 155 Table 34: Student enrolment 1997 to 2008: Huguenot College and Stellenbosch University 157

FOREWORD His Excellency, the President of the Republic of South Africa, Mr C.M. Ramaphosa

Since the dawn of democracy, South Africa has adopted world-acclaimed youth development policies and has made commendable progress through carefully crafted programmes. The need for youth empowerment can never be overemphasised. Our beloved late Nelson Mandela, in his presidential inaugural speech, described youths as “the valued possession of the nation. Without them there can be no future. Their needs are immense and urgent”. Indeed, if the youth is empowered and developed, our country will be on the path to prosperity. As a government, we remain committed to this important aspect of the development of the South African population.

Youth development in South Africa is largely guided by the National Youth Policy (NYP 2015-2020), which is based on a series of legislative and policy frameworks that have been developed since 1994. These include the now repealed National Youth Commission (NYC) Act (No. 19 of 1996), which laid the foundation; the White Paper for Social Welfare (1997); the National Youth Policy (NYP, 2000 and 2009-2014); National Youth Development Policy Framework (2000-2007); and the National Youth Development Agency (NYDA) Act (No. 54 of 2008).

According to the NYDA Act of 2008, the president of the Republic is required to table a Status of Youth Report (SYR) before Parliament every three years. We are fulfilling that obligation and at the same time I am fully confident that this SYR will assist policymakers and implementers to make informed decisions in executing the policy imperatives in the NYP approved by Cabinet in 2015. One of the cherished ideals and principles of our government is accountability. Through publishing the SYR, we are, therefore, demonstrating to all South Africans that their government remains committed to development and to the democracy they fought so hard to enjoy.

Therefore, I request all South Africans to study this report and use it in planning for youth development interventions. If all of us invest adequately in youth development, the impact made by such interventions will be evident when we report again in three years.

Mr C.M. Ramaphosa His Excellency, the President of the Republic of South Africa PREFACE Minister in the Presidency, Dr N.C. Dlamini-Zuma

The Status of Youth Report (SYR) is a legislated document that must be produced by the National Youth Development Agency (NYDA). It is to be tabled before Parliament by the president of the Republic before it is released to the public. It is mandated by the NYDA Act of 2008, which was promulgated by the South African Parliament as Act number 54 of 2008. This SYR provides an analysis of the youth context and status in South Africa, and it also acts as a background document and basis for future regular assessment of the status of the youth in the country.

The SYR uses various forms of research methodologies. For the SYR 2018, the review of existing literature and secondary data, mainly from national surveys, as well as the processing and analysis of vital statistics from Statistics South Africa (Stats SA) constituted the methodology. This SYR builds on the platform built by the extensive work undertaken by NYDA as part of the production of the Youth Context Report and the Preliminary Status of Youth Report in 2012. The production of the Youth Context Report, undertaken by a team from various eminent research bodies in the Republic, involved the review of secondary literature and data, and a series of focus group interviews with heterogeneous groups of youths in South Africa was conducted in five provinces (two focus groups per province). The provinces and individuals who participated were carefully selected to closely represent the views of youths from various backgrounds in South Africa. The Western Cape and Gauteng were selected because they are largely prosperous and urban provinces, and the Eastern Cape, KwaZulu-Natal, and Limpopo were selected due to their largely rural character and the high incidence of poverty in these provinces. Individuals were also selected to represent the diversity of youths in the country: the unemployed, the employed, graduates, pre-Grade 12 dropouts, entrepreneurs, the disabled, all races, and other important categories in the South African context.

The report shows that more still needs to be done on various fronts and by a wide range of stakeholders. Youths are in the majority in the country, but they equally comprise the largest proportion of the unemployed population in the country. Levels of youth participation in business are not encouraging. There continues to be many hurdles to youth participation in business. Although there have been some positive developments in the past few years, the education and skill levels of youths still require improvement. Health and wellbeing are also an area of concern and the burden of disease on the youth is largely preventable given that it is largely driven by underlying socio-economic issues.

This report is a valuable resource in decision making for policymakers and implementers of youth development programmes in public, private, civic society, and other sectors alike. It is central to an evidence-based approach in conceptualising and designing interventions in youth development.

We are grateful to all partners who contributed to the development of the SYR and are confident that it will inform future planning.

Honourable Minister Dr N.C. Dlamini-Zuma, MP Minister in the Presidency

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Executive Chairperson of the NYDA Board, Mr S.J. Mtsweni

The Status of Youth Report (SYR) was compiled through a rigorous process of research and data analysis on the South African youth population. A comprehensive picture of elements that are key to youth development is necessary to plan better, implement better, and monitor and evaluate youth development interventions better at all levels. It is also important to understand the context in which young people thrive. Importantly, conducting research provides the opportunity to identify gaps and changes in trends and issues that need to be further explored.

This report covers issues relating to the key policy imperatives and areas identified in the National Youth Policy (NYP) 2015-2020. These are economic participation and transformation; education, skills, and second chances; healthcare and combating substance abuse; nation-building and social cohesion; and effective and responsive youth development institutions. In addition to these policy imperatives, the document extensively covers youth demographics and vulnerable youth groups such as disabled youths, youths in conflict with the law, and youth-headed households; the National Youth Service (NYS); and youth work. Below are some of the key findings of this report.

Secondary data from Statistics South Africa (Stats SA) and other research bodies were used to develop this report. Where published up-to-date data for the identified variables were not available, official statistical data were sourced from Stats SA. Data from various studies and surveys were used to update the variables in the preliminary status report. The inherent limitation of the use of data from different studies is that the studies were designed for different purposes. Consequently, certain youth development questions required for planning, implementation, monitoring, and evaluation of youth interventions might not be addressed. Some of the studies used for this literature review were once-off, which makes it impossible to draw comparisons over a period or to update data as contained in the preliminary report.

Demographic data are a useful indicator of the human population, as they provide a body of information for future planning and evaluative assessments on different population group performances. The data presented in this report show that South Africa is a youthful country, with an estimated 66,1% of its population aged below 34 years. Youths between the ages of 15 and 34 constitute an estimated 20,4 million or 36,1% of the estimated 56,52 million total South African population. Data further show that there was a slight change in the population structure from 2011, where the age categories 20 to 24 and 25 to 29 were higher than other youth age categories to a situation in 2017, where the age categories 25 to 29 and 30 to 34 years were higher than other categories. This change suggests a slight decrease in new labour market entrants. It also suggests that short-term interventions should pay more attention to the age categories 25 to 29 and 30 to 34 years. The age structure of South Africa has not been sufficiently taken advantage of to ensure that the latent human resources of the youth are being harnessed to provide the skills and human capital required by the economy of South Africa.

More than half (57,5%) of the youth reside in three provinces, namely the Western Cape (11,2%), KwaZulu-Natal (20,1%), and Gauteng (26,2%). There are two provinces with a generally large coloured youth population, namely the Western Cape (just over 50%) and the Northern Cape (about 35%). This is due to historical population settlements in South Africa. Gauteng and the Western Cape have significantly larger white youth populations, compared to the other provinces, while the Free State has a white youth population that is larger than the national average for white youth populations. Nationally, black African youths constitute about 83% of the youth population. In the Eastern Cape, Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Mpumalanga, and Limpopo, the proportion of the youth population is higher than the total provincial proportions of the total population. In general, the distribution of male and female youths is evenly spread throughout the provinces. Except for Gauteng, KwaZulu-Natal, and Western Cape, the proportion of the youth population to the general population in provinces has increased from 2011 to 2017.

The majority of South African youths live in urban areas as opposed to rural areas. More older youths live in urban areas than younger youths, probably because of the effect of migration as older youths look for economic opportunities in other parts of the country. It is therefore important that geographic dynamics are considered when planning for youth development.

Trends in mortality rates indicate that these rates are high at infancy, then decrease between the ages of five and 14, and begin to steadily increase from the ages of 15 to 19. The highest mortality incidences occur roughly between 30 and 34 years. High levels of mortality in this age group may be attributed to the prevalence of infectious diseases, road/traffic accidents, injuries, and violence within the age group.

Poverty levels among youths aged between 18 and 24 years is at 58,6% and 63,7% for children between 0 and 17 years. Data in this report reveal that African youths are more likely to live in poor households than youths from other population groups. Hunger is one of the indicators of poverty. In 2016, KwaZulu-Natal (21,5%), the Northern Cape (19,2%), and the Western Cape (16,7%) had the highest number of youths living in households that reported hunger. Limpopo (4,8%), Mpumalanga (12,1%), and Gauteng (12,1%) had the lowest number of youths living in households that reported hunger.

According to available data, the proportion of youth-headed households is evenly spread throughout the provinces; with Limpopo, Mpumalanga, and the North West slightly higher than the other provinces, and the Western Cape slightly lower than the other provinces. An estimated 19,8% of households are headed by youths aged 15 to 24 years in South Africa. African (20.5%), white (18.1%), coloured (12%), and Indian/Asian (10%) youths aged 15 to 24 years head households. The proportion of households headed by youths aged between 15 and 24 years has decreased noticeably for whites and Indians between 2015 and 2016. Social grants play an important role in alleviating poverty and an estimated 10,4% and 10,2% of youths benefited from social grants in 2015 and 2016 respectively. Socials grants have been credited with improving school attendance, among others. There was a considerable increase in the population of youths reported to be living in formal dwellings between 2010 (77,6%) and 2016 (81,1%), although this represents a slight drop from 81,5% in 2014. There was also a slight decrease in youths reported to be living in traditional and informal dwellings over the same period. The percentage of those reported to be living in traditional dwellings decreased from 11,2% in 2010 to 7,9% in 2016, while the percentage of those reported to be living in informal dwellings decreased from 10,9% in 2010 to 10,4% in 2016, although it is a considerable increase from 2014.

Access to piped water in dwellings or yards by South Africa’s youth population has slightly increased from 67,9% in 2006 to 69,2% in 2016; compared to the general population, which also increased slightly from 67,2% to 69,4%. The number of youths living in houses with flush toilets has increased at a reasonable pace between 2006 and 2016. The percentage of youths living in households with flush toilets was reported to be 63,7% in 2006; increasing substantially to 82,7% by 2016. Such increases were also observed for the younger children and the overall population. Between 2006 and 2016, the proportion of youths living in dwellings where the municipality removed refuse and waste was reported to have increased marginally from 58,1% in 2006 to 59,2% in 2016. There was a steady increase in the proportion of youths living in houses connected to electricity mains. In 2006, some 80,3% of young people were living in houses with electricity. This figure increased to 87,9% by 2016. From 2006 to 2016, the proportion of youths living in electrified households was almost similar to that of the general population.

Youths with disabilities ranged between 2,6% for the 15 to 19 and 20 to 24 age groups to 2,7% for the 25 to 29 age group. The 30 to 34 age group was reported to have a 3,4% disabled population. Data show that disability prevalence has increased slightly from 7,5% to 7,7% from 2011 to 2016.

The study found that in general there is limited participation of youths in the economy. An estimated 7,5 million young people (15 to 34) are reported to be not in employment, education, or training (NEET). At the age of 15, the majority of young people are in an educational institution, at around 97%. This percentage declines to about 57,5% by the age of 19. Employment is an important source of livelihood for most economically active people in South Africa. Unemployment therefore has a major impact on the lives of people who rely on wages for survival. Unemployment among the youth has been consistently higher than among the general population. On average, the labour participation of youths (15 to 34 years) has been at an estimated 49% from 2010 to 2016, compared to an average of around 67% among adults during the same period. Between 2010 and 2016, unemployment was particularly high for youths between 15 and 24 years old, at just over 49% on average, followed by those between 25 and 34 years old, at around 28,5% on average. Narrow unemployment among the youth for the period 2010 to 2016 averaged just over 36%, with the highest rates being experienced in 2012 and 2016. The provinces with the highest youth unemployment in 2016 were the North West, Free State, and Mpumalanga with 44,9%, 46,5%, and 42,7% respectively. The data also show that the level of education is indirectly related to unemployment; with those with less education more likely to be unemployed than those with higher qualifications.

African and coloured youths are more likely to be unemployed and/or not participating in entrepreneurship, as compared to whites and Indians. Youth unemployment among the coloured youth declined to its lowest (27,1%) in 2008 and increased steadily over the period to its highest (35,3%) in 2014. In 2015 it declined to 31,1% and then rose to 34% in 2016. Unemployment levels among Indian/Asian youths showed an increase from 12,5% in 2010 to 19,7% in 2011, before declining again in 2012 and rising steadily to 20,4% by 2016. Among white youths, unemployment was consistently low – averaging just below 10% for the period 2004 to 2012, except in 2013 when it peaked at 12,5%, and declining by 9,9% in 2016. An estimated 25,2% of youths (15 to 34 years of age) was reported to be living in households without an employed member in 2016, down from 27,5% in 2015.

While entrepreneurship is seen as a possible solution to unemployment and lack of participation in the economy, data indicate that youth participation in entrepreneurship is relatively low. South African total early-stage entrepreneurial activity (TEA) in the 25 to 34 age group was 9,2%, which was less than half the African average, as well as considerably lower than the average for efficiency-driven economies (18%). There is a correlation between education levels and the level of TEA – with a 67,4% TEA rate for those who have completed secondary education and beyond, while the level of TEA for those without education is 4,4%. Young men are more likely to be entrepreneurs than young women, and youths in the age group 25 to 34 years and adults aged between 35 and 44 years are more likely to be involved in entrepreneurship than all the other population groups. These two age groups account for between 50% and 60% of all early-stage activity in South Africa. Gauteng and KwaZulu-Natal had the highest number of youth business owners and together they contributed about 48% in 2015 and around 45% in 2016 of the total youth business owners in South Africa.

The centrality of education and training to youth development and development in general cannot be emphasised enough. Education is one of the areas identified by the National Development Plan (NDP) to contribute to the development of the country. The rationale is that education and training will equip the youth with the necessary knowledge and skills to contribute to the economy in a meaningful way. However, as matters stand, education has not sufficiently improved the ability of young people to participate in the economy. Although enrolments rates have improved at both basic and higher education levels, the success rates are still low by international standards. The dropout rates are also high between Grade 10 and Grade 12 and at higher education level. The success rate is also influenced by socio-economic dynamics like race and economic status. There is still more work to be done to improve the quality of education, especially at the basic education level. Studies cited in this report show that on quality matters, South Africa still has a long way to go. Regional and international studies on performance have placed South Africa at the bottom. The Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS, 2015), for instance, showed that 61% of South African learners do not exhibit the minimum competency in basic mathematical knowledge required at Grade 5 level. The study further ranked South Africa 47th out of the 48 countries that participated.

Grade 12, which to a large extent serves as one of the indicators of how well the education system is doing, has showed tremendous improvement since 1994. The attainment of Grade 12 increases the chances of the holder to participate in the economy. The Western Cape, Gauteng, and the Free State have consistently achieved at a level higher for Grade 12 than the other provinces, while Limpopo and the Eastern Cape have consistently performed below the other provinces. Despite efforts by the government to make university education in South Africa more accessible to the most disadvantaged youths, the enrolment mix remains skewed and unrepresentative of the racial grouping of the population. There has, however, been a steady increase in the undergraduate success rate across all the population groups between 2002 and 2016. Funding is an important element of making higher education accessible. Since 2013, the National Student Financial Aid Scheme (NSFAS) has funded over 400 000 students at both universities and Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) colleges per annum with the highest number in 2016 at 451 306. However, this is not sufficient, and the former president set up a fees commission to investigate all issues pertaining to fees at higher education level. Based on the report of the commission, the then president announced free higher education for students from households with annual income of R350 000 and below.

The South African healthcare system is still largely dominated by biomedical, clinically based healthcare services, where the cost of treatment is higher than disease prevention and the promotion of healthier lifestyle choices among the population. Non-natural deaths mainly affect the age groups 15 to 19 (44,7%) and 20 to 24 (46,3%). Gauteng, Mpumalanga, and the Northern Cape have relatively high percentages of youths suffering from acute diseases, while Limpopo, the Western Cape, and KwaZulu-Natal have the lowest. South Africa has one of the highest human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) prevalence rates in the world, with the most affected subpopulation being the youth. Condom usage has increased over the years and it is particularly high in the male age group 15 to 19 (87,9%), followed by males in age category 25 to 29 years (66%). The highest condom usage among females is in the age group 20 to 24 years at 64%, followed by the age group 25 to 29 years at 63,3%. Males of all age groups are more likely to have multiple partners compared to females of all ages. Youths in the age category 20 to 34 are more likely to drink alcohol than many of the age categories. Between 2015 and 2016/2017, sexual offences against women increased from 31 665 to 70 813, which represents an increase of 53%. It is estimated that 138 women are raped per 100 000, which gives South Africa one of the highest rape rates in the world.

Depression and suicide are also some of the challenges that face the youth. KwaZulu-Natal (33,7%) had the highest provincial prevalence of out-of-school youths (OSYs) with sad or hopeless feelings. Gauteng (25,7%) had the highest prevalence of OSYs who had ever considered attempting suicide. The Western Cape had the highest prevalence of OSYs who had made a plan to commit suicide (26,7%) and who had made one or more suicide attempts in the six months preceding the survey (39,2%).

Obesity is increasing rapidly in South Africa. South Africans consume large amounts of kilojoules, much higher than the World Health Organization’s (WHO) recommended daily consumption of 8,700 kilojoules. This puts South Africans at risk of being obese, especially the youth as they develop bad eating habits at a young age. Data show that women in all age categories and people above 35 years are more likely to be severely obese.

A society like South Africa that has a legacy of discrimination can benefit from social cohesion and nation-building. Despite the international popularity of social cohesion as a concept in academic and policy arenas, there is nonetheless no standard method to measure social cohesion in groups and societies. Social ties and social capital are created through, among others, youth involvement in public affairs and community activities such as sport, community crime prevention, and community volunteerism. In turn, these tend to enhance nation-building. This report only focused on a few dimensions of the concept, namely political and civic participation, social integration, participation in sports, and vulnerable youths. Youth participation in civic matters is lower than the other age groups. This is manifested in youth participation in elections, political organisation, and community organisations, for example. Data show that rural youths are by far more likely to be interested in civic and public affairs than urban youths. Women are less likely to be interested in public affairs than men. Youth participation in civic and political matters is increasingly using alternative platforms such as social media. Non-participation of youths in the traditional ways of participation like elections should therefore not be viewed as apathy; it only shows youths’ preference for different platforms to participate in civic matters.

The NYS is a programme aimed at providing the youth with an opportunity to contribute to their communities while learning. The NYS is defined as a structured programme that engages youths in strengthening service delivery, promoting nation-building, fostering social cohesion, and assisting youths to gain occupational skills necessary in order to be able to access a sustainable livelihood. The design and implementation of the NYS programme failed to explicitly define outcomes so that its benefits can be measured accurately. There are insufficient data on the NYS, which makes it difficult to provide an accurate and complete up-to-date status of the NYS. However, since 2015 there were deliberate efforts to revive and strengthen the programme to improve coordination and to massify the programme. A target has been set to reach one million young people by 2020.

The critical success factor for the implementation of youth development programmes, of which the South African Integrated Youth Development Strategy (SAIYDS) is central, is effective and responsive youth development institutions. SAIYDS is an instrument for implementing policy imperatives recommended in the NYP. South Africa adopted an integrated and mainstreamed approach to youth development. This means that all state organs at all spheres of government are expected to contribute to youth development. This is to be done through making youth development a priority in all state organs’ budgets and programmes. In addition, the private sector and civil society are expected to be part of integrated and mainstreamed youth development, and this could be made easier through maximising the coordination and liaison role of the NYDA.

Youth workers are an important element of youth development. To date, youth work is not recognised as a professional practice in South Africa. At present no qualifications (or registration with a professional body) are required for individuals to be referred to as youth workers. There have been efforts to create a professional body that will professionalise youth work. There is, however, ongoing debate about whether this process should be regulated. Although the professionalisation of youth work is being pursued, there has been limited information in the public sector about the status of the process. Academic institutions have initiated training programmes on youth work, but these efforts have not yet yielded results that are seen by most academic institutions as attractive for investment purposes. This view is based on the small number of youth work practitioners enrolled in these institutions and the fact that some of these institutions are discontinuing the training programmes. In many countries in sub-Saharan Africa and Britain, youth work is promoted under the Commonwealth Youth Programme (CYP). The CYP views young people as key partners in development and recognises that young people’s skills are essential for the future of the Commonwealth. Higher education institutions (HEIs) can play a critical role in the development and professionalisation of youth work, as they provide formal and informal training of youth workers. South Africa has hosted two conferences on the professionalisation of youth work, and one of the resolutions was to speed up professionalisation. Limited data and literature are available on youth work in South Africa.

I wish to acknowledge the role played by the technical team members who participated in the conceptualisation and planning of the Status of the Youth Report (SYR). I also wish to thank the research institutions that partnered with the NYDA in conducting the research used to compile the preliminary report, namely the Human Science Research Council (HSRC), the Medical Research Council (MRC), Stats SA, and the Population Unit of the Department of Social Development (DSD). Grateful thanks is also extended to the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) for funding some aspects of writing and production of the preliminary report in 2012, including research internships for two young unemployed female graduates, who are now permanently employed by the NYDA after their internship. I also acknowledge the role of the Youth Development Institute of South Africa (YDISA) in updating the preliminary report to produce the final SYR.

Mr Sifiso John Mtsweni Executive Chairperson of the NYDA Board

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

ABET Adult Basic Education and Training AET Adult Education and Training Aids Acquired immune deficiency syndrome ANA Annual National Assessment APTCoD Accelerated Professional and Trade Competencies Development ARV Anti-retroviral ASGISA Accelerated and Shared Growth Initiative for South Africa ATD Awaiting trial detainee BBBSSA Big Brothers Big Sisters of South Africa BMI Body mass index B-Tech Bachelor of Technology CBO Community-based organisation CEO Chief executive officer CET Community Education and Training COP Conference of the Parties CYP Commonwealth Youth Programme DBE Department of Basic Education DCS Department of Correctional Services DHET Department of Higher Education and Training DoE Department of Education DoH Department of Health DoL Department of Labour DPW Department of Public Works DSD Department of Social Development DTI Department of Trade and Industry ECD Early Childhood Development FBO Faith-based organisation FET Further Education and Training GDP Gross domestic product GEAR Growth, Employment and Redistribution GER Gross enrolment ratio GHS General Household Survey GYTS Global Youth Tobacco Survey HEI Higher education institution HIV Human immunodeficiency virus HOD Head of department HSRC Human Science Research Council IANYS International Association for National Youth Service IDC Industrial Development Corporation IEC Independent Electoral Commission IGL Inter-governmental Liaison IJR Institute for Justice and Reconciliation ILO International Labour Organization IQR Interquartile range kJ Kilojoule LFS Labour Force Survey LGBTQ Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transsexual, queer/questioning MEC Member of the Executive Council MPCC Multi-Purpose Community Centre MRC Medical Research Council MTEF Medium Term Expenditure Framework NACCW National Association of Child Care Workers NAFCOC National African Federation Chamber NARYSEC National Rural Youth Service Corps NDoH National Department of Health NDP National Development Plan NEET Not in employment, education, or training NERPO National Emergent Red Meat Producers' Organisation NGO Non-governmental organisation NGP New Growth Path NPO Non-profit organisation NQF National Qualification Framework NSFAS National Student Financial Aid Scheme NYDA National Youth Development Agency NYC National Youth Commission NYP National Youth Policy NYS National Youth Service NYSU National Youth Service Unit OSY Out-of-school youth PIRLS Progress in International Reading Literacy Study PPP Public-private Partnership QLFS Quarterly Labour Force Survey RDP Reconstruction and Development Programme SABS South African Bureau of Standards SACMEQ Southern and Eastern African Consortium for Monitoring Education Quality SADHS South African Demographic Health Survey SAIYDS South African Integrated Youth Development Strategy SANAC South African National Aids Council SANHPIBS South African National HIV Prevalence, Incidence and Behaviour Survey SANLI South African National Literacy Initiative SANYRBS South African National Youth Risk Behaviour Survey SAQA South African Qualifications Authority SARB South African Reconciliation Barometer SARS South African Revenue Service SASAS South African Social Attitudes Survey SAYWA South African Youth Workers Association SEDA Small Enterprise Development Agency SEFA Small Enterprise Finance Agency SES Socio-economic status SESE Survey of Employers and the Self-Employed SET Science, Engineering, and Technology SETA Sector Education and Training Authority SME Small and medium enterprise SONA State of the Nation Address SRSA Department of Sport and Recreation South Africa Stats SA Statistics South Africa SYR Status of Youth Report TB Tuberculosis TEA Total early-stage entrepreneurial activity TIMMS Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study TSA Technikon South Africa TVET Technical and Vocational Education and Training UK United Kingdom UN United Nations UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UNFPA United Nations Population Fund UNISA University of South Africa USA United States of America VAT Value-added tax VOSESA Volunteer and Service Enquiry Southern Africa VPS Voter Participation Survey WEF World Economic Forum WHO World Health Organization YDISA Youth Development Institute of South Africa

CHAPTER 1: CONTEXT AND METHODOLOGY

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Globally, youth development and employment are critical success factors for any nation aspiring to develop its citizenry for future competitiveness. It is important that the youth is prepared for the fourth industrial revolution. Failure to prepare the youth may be a breeding ground for resistance. The revolutions in Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, and Syria a few years ago are examples of what underdeveloped and underserviced young people are capable of mobilising. To ensure that such uprisings do not occur, and that South Africa is developed for the benefit of people of all ages, youth development is an imperative that must be addressed at all levels of our economy and by all sectors of society. South Arica has taken a mainstreamed and integrated approach to youth development, which places the youth at the centre of development.

Prioritising the development of young people remains one of the South African government’s commitments. Youth empowerment and development is seen as a pathway to prosperity in South Africa, as the president of the Republic indicated in the 2018 State of the Nation Address (SONA). The National Youth Development Agency (NYDA) is a product of the NYDA Act (No. 54 of 2008), with an obligation to address youth development issues in all spheres of government (national, provincial, and local). Its mandate is to ensure that all sectors of society prioritise youth development and contribute towards identifying and implementing lasting solutions that address youth development challenges. The NYDA was established to mainstream and integrate youth development in all sectors of society.

As part of its responsibility, the NYDA is required by its founding act to produce accurate and current information and data on the general status of young people in the country every three years. In order to better plan, implement, monitor, and evaluate youth development interventions at all levels, it is crucial to have a comprehensive picture of elements that are key to youth development.

In 2012, the NYDA, in terms of its mandate under Act No. 54 of 2008, started the process to develop the Status of Youth Report (SYR), which is a legislated document that must be produced and tabled by the president of the Republic before Parliament. The NYDA, in partnership with the Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC), Statistics South Africa (Stats SA), the Medical Research Council (MRC), the Population Unit of the Department of Social Development (DSD), and the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), started the process towards the development of the SYR by developing the South African Youth Context Report, as a precursor to the development of the SYR. The South African Youth Context Report, developed through literature review and secondary data analysis to consolidate existing information on the youth population of South Africa, helped to identify gaps, changes in trends, and issues that need new information to be collected. This report provided the cornerstone to the subsequent development of this SYR. The NYDA, using the South African Youth Context Report as a basis, successfully produced a preliminary SYR, which was subsequently updated in 2016/2017 to produce this report. This SYR, after its presentation to Parliament by the president, will be made available to

1 different sectors of society involved in youth development programmes. This SYR presents information about the youth, which will allow all actors interested in youth development to have a complete picture of the youth in South Africa. Accurate and up-to-date demographic and socio-economic information on the youth is required in order for different stakeholders to play a meaningful role in youth development. This information will enable the identification of the key issues affecting young people; craft appropriate policies and strategies; as well as plan, implement, monitor, and evaluate youth development interventions. This will in turn enable the development of evidence-based and relevant youth development interventions.

This report considers the following questions:

• Who are the youth? • Where are they? • What do they do? • What are their key challenges? • What opportunities are available for them? • What interventions are necessary to support the youth and create opportunities for them?

The report covers issues relating to the key imperatives and areas identified in the National Youth Policy (NYP) 2015-2020, which are economic participation and transformation; education, skills, and second chances; healthcare and combating substance abuse; nation- building and social cohesion; and effective and responsive youth development institutions. In addition to the themes in the NYP (2015-2020), the report covers youth work and the National Youth Service (NYS). These themes address the development priorities as set out in the National Development Plan (NDP). In order to provide the overall context within which youth development should be viewed, the document covers youth demographics and vulnerable youth groups such as disabled youths, youths in conflict with the law, and youth-headed households.

1.2 BACKGROUND

South Africa, like most developing countries, has a relatively young population with an estimated 70% of the population under the age of 35 years of age. The population growth rate of the youth cohort (14 to 35 years old) is higher than the general population, although, overall, South Africa’s population growth rates have declined over the past 20 years. The fertility rate is also significantly lower than that of other countries in the region. Fertility rates by population group in South Africa show that fertility is higher among black Africans, who constitute over 80% of the total population, compared to the fertility rates among whites, Indians, and coloureds. Both birth and death rates are key variables used by demographers in defining the demographic transition period of a country’s population. South Africa’s demographic profile shows a population age structure that is young. This provides an opportunity to explore and implement policies and programmes that derive maximum benefits from the youthful population.

Since South Africa has a bulging youth population, it tends to devote most of its resources to this population group with key fiscal priorities such as education, health, and social grants for children and others accounting for most of the consumption expenditure. These

2 interventions have not, however, yielded the expected economic gains from the resources invested. Literature also indicates that countries with high proportions of young or old dependants tend to spend a large amount of their resources on these age groups, thus limiting economic growth (Rand Corporation, 2002). With its current population structure, South Africa could create opportunities by creating a conducive policy environment, which would include sufficient flexibility in the labour market to allow for expansion through the creation of adequate employment opportunities, macro-economic policies that permit and encourage investment, access to adequate saving mechanisms and confidence in domestic financial markets, access to reproductive health services and facilities, and an environment where high-quality health and education are possible. Analysing and understanding youth demographics therefore form the basis of structuring policies and programmes that will support the country’s positive economic growth.

South Africa’s labour surveys have consistently shown the challenge of unacceptably high levels of unemployment compared to countries of similar economic size. This has persisted even during periods where economic indicators have shown that the country’s economy was growing. Unemployment is magnified in the youth population, where it has remained at over 70% of the total unemployment for a long time. Part of the reason is that the increase in the population of the working age group has not been matched by the expansion of job opportunities created by the economy. This creates a large population of young people classified as the labour force who are unemployed for extended periods of time. The magnitude of the challenge is amplified when an expanded definition of unemployment, which includes “discouraged work seekers”, is used. The phenomenon of unemployment can result in a variety of political and socio-economic challenges such as high crime rates, an underperforming economy, and political instability.

South Africa’s poor education performance, in the context of significant investment in education and training, seems to exacerbate the inability of the labour force to support economic growth. The quality of the education system has a direct link to the high levels of unemployment and inequality in the country. Economists and demographers assert that high population growth rates accelerate the supply of new entrants into the labour market. In relative terms, the labour force temporarily grows more rapidly than the population dependent on it, freeing up resources for investment in economic development and family welfare. South Africa can take advantage of the fact that the labour force in the country is growing faster than the population that depends on it. This could be done by, among others, integrating development policies pertaining to labour, education, and skills development in order to create more opportunities for young people. Given the skills deficit among many youths leaving the school system, there is an urgent need to expand second-chance opportunities, technical and vocational forms of training, adult literacy programmes, and other post-school educational opportunities. Labour market interventions will remain limited by massive pre-labour market inequalities in the form of differential school quality. Indeed, it is important to improve quality in schools that cater for impoverished youths by improving instructional leadership and school management and attracting high-achieving graduates into the teaching profession. Since inequalities are evident early in primary school, interventions are necessary as early as possible, including Early Childhood Development (ECD).

Globally, health indicators are used to define the quality of life and development status of nations. These indicators include infant and maternal mortality, morbidity rates (measuring the prevalence of certain diseases, especially communicable and preventable diseases such as tuberculosis [TB], diarrhoea, and sexually-transmitted diseases, including 3 human immunodeficiency virus and acquired immune deficiency syndrome [HIV/Aids]), and life expectancy. All these indicators are outcomes of a complex social, economic, and development web. The World Health Organization (WHO, 2010) defines health in a more comprehensive manner; such that development, economic achievement, and better social life status are part of the health and wellbeing of societies.

Despite the financial resources invested in South Africa’s health systems, the health indicators are depressing. South Africa has one of the highest number of people living with HIV/Aids in the world, with the prevalence the highest among young people. The mortality rates are higher in young people, as shown by data from the General Household Surveys (GHSs). Infant mortality rates are higher here than in countries of similar economic and development trajectory and size. Globally, the country has the highest rate of inequity with regard to access to health services. The public system serves the vast majority of the population but is chronically underfunded and understaffed. The wealthiest 20% of the population use the private system and they are served far better. A publication in the American Journal of Public Health by Stuckler, Basu and McKee (2011) compared the Western Cape and Limpopo provinces in terms of inequities in the health system. They found that “in 2007, the Western Cape had substantially greater health infrastructure than did Limpopo: 60 private hospitals, 55 public hospitals, and 1 246 doctors for a population of 4,8 million, compared to only 6 private hospitals, 44 public hospitals, and 882 doctors for a population of 5,7 million in Limpopo. While people in the Western Cape can expect to live a full decade longer than those in Limpopo, given their much lower burden of disease, by 2007 Limpopo had been allocated only US$101 per person on health, or 53% less than the amount allocated to the Western Cape at US$155 per person”. Chances that this scenario might have changed substantially for the better since the study was conducted are highly unlikely, given that there has not been substantial and deliberate intervention to reverse the skewed access to health.

Health behaviour indicators, which are the building blocks of a productive and economically healthy nation, are showing signs of distress. Studies conducted on health behaviour have shown that young people are starting to have sex at an early age, resulting in high incidences of pregnancies among schoolgirls. Alcohol use is very high among both in-school and out-of-school youths (OSYs), while the use of tobacco products is very high among school-going youths. There seems to be a significant proportion of young people showing signs of mental and emotional instability, such as suicidal tendencies resulting from exposure to stressful situations. Violence and trauma have increased and are far above the global average, and young people who find themselves in these conditions have been influenced by drugs and/or alcohol. Obesity and other lifestyle diseases are also emerging as a serious threat to young people.

Social cohesion, nation-building, civic participation, and a national youth service are concepts that, when applied appropriately, have the potential to create positive youth social capital. Given South Africa’s history as a fragmented society, programmes that seek to create trust and national pride among the population can significantly improve how groups view one another. The youths of South Africa hold the key to creating a nation of people who share the same values, have a positive attitude towards their country and its democratic principles, and see the positive role they can play in making the country better. Indeed, youths must participate actively in the political and governance structures of the country in order for this to be a reality.

4 South Africa’s youths provided the necessary impetus to change the political landscape of the country during the apartheid years. These efforts were a hallmark of the vibrant and socially inclusive networks that created the social capital to withstand the political challenges of the period. However, these levels of youth social cohesion and civic participation have not translated into economic capital at community and individual levels. The outcomes of social cohesion and civic participation need to shift from focusing on social inclusiveness only, to including economic and developmental participation at all levels of society. The NYS programme is a platform for the youth to create economic and developmental capital through which young people can realise the attainment of better livelihood.

The NYS programme was conceptualised as both a social cohesion tool and a skills development programme. However, the design and implementation of the programme failed to explicitly define these outcomes so that its benefits could be measured accurately. Therefore, the contribution of the NYS programme to youth development in terms of sustainable youth economic activities and its influence on social cohesion are very difficult to quantify. Furthermore, the available literature on the NYS is very limited and provides only anecdotal information, making it difficult to properly assess the effect of this programme on young people’s lives. In order to attain all the intentions envisaged by the NYS and other interventions noted above, there is a need for effective and responsive youth developments institutions. The NYS programme was evaluated in 2014 and several gaps were identified. Based on this, an NYS Task Team was established to strengthen and revive the NYS programme. Subsequently, new programmes were initiated and the norms and standards were developed to guide the development and implementation of NYS programmes.

Youth work is important in structuring how young people are serviced by all sectors of society. Professionalising this work is therefore crucial in supporting youth development interventions. The current dilemma is in balancing the demands of the profession and the markets that service the profession. The NYS programme is very clear in its assertion that youth work must be professionalised. The challenge is how to achieve this. There have been efforts to create a body that will professionalise youth work. However, there are still debates on whether this process should be regulated. Academic institutions have initiated training programmes on youth work, but these efforts have not yet yielded results that are seen by most academic institutions as attractive for investment. The small number of youth work practitioners enrolled at some of these institutions and the fact that some of these institutions are discontinuing the training programmes are a cause for concern.

1.3 METHODOLOGY

The South Africa Youth Context Report provided the cornerstone for the preliminary SYR as the primary source document of this SYR. The South Africa Youth Context Report reviewed relevant literature and analysed secondary data on the youth. Secondary data used to compile the context report included official statistical data and data from various reports compiled by Stats SA, the HSRC, MRC, FinScope, and Afrobarometer, among other research bodies.

Updating the preliminary SYR included utilising secondary data from Stats SA and other research bodies. Where published up-to-date data for the identified variables were not available, official statistical data were sourced from Stats SA. Data from various sources were used to update the variables in the preliminary SYR. 5

The approach and methodology adopted for updating the preliminary SYR involved the following key steps:

• Identifying all the variables covered by the preliminary SYR; • Sourcing of secondary data for updating the identified variables; and • Reviewing and analysing the secondary data.

This report updates the 2012 version. The preliminary SYR was produced by the NYDA in partnership with the HSRC, Stats SA, the MRC, the Population Unit of the DSD, and the UNFPA.

The report is structured into nine chapters that address the key imperatives of the NYP (2015-2020). These chapters are as follows:

• Chapter 1: The context and methodology – provides a brief descriptive context of the report, data sources used, and the report structure. • Chapter 2: Youth demographics – provides the demographic structure of youth, demographics of segments of vulnerable youth groups, and the implications. • Chapter 3: Economic participation and transformation – covers youth participation in the labour market and youth entrepreneurship. • Chapter 4: Education, skills, and second chances – covers basic education, higher education and training, and skills development, and the links between education, skills, and economic opportunities. • Chapter 5: Healthcare and combating substance abuse – covers mortality and morbidity, health behaviour and practice, HIV prevalence, pregnancy, nutrition, obesity, and other primary healthcare issues. In addition, it covers substance abuse. • Chapter 6: Nation-building and social cohesion – covers youth participation in social development and related activities in communities, including participation in political processes, sports, youth leadership, and youths in conflict with the law. • Chapter 7: National Youth Service (NYS) – provides an overview of the NYS programme, including international perspectives of NYS programmes. • Chapter 8: Effective and responsive youth development institutions – provides an overview of institutions that play an important role in youth development. • Chapter 9: Youth work – covers an overview of youth work as a profession and the attempts to professionalise it in South Africa.

1.4 LIMITATIONS

The inherent limitation of the use of data from different studies is that the studies were designed for different purposes. Therefore, certain youth development questions required for the planning, implementation, monitoring, and evaluation of youth interventions might not be addressed. Some of the studies used for this literature review were once-off, which makes it impossible to draw comparisons over a period or to update data as contained in the preliminary SYR.

Some of the data are not disaggregated by age and in some cases the available data do not include the ages 14 and 35, which by law are part of the legal youth cohort (14 to 35 years). This gives a somewhat distorted picture of the status of young people as defined in the

6 NYDA Act (No. 54 of 2008). Attempts by the NYDA to source original datasets for purposes of disaggregation and inclusion of 14- and 35-year-olds were futile as Stats SA indicated that most of their surveys utilised the 15- to 34-year-old cohorts. Officials from Stats SA indicated that as much as they were aware that the legal definition of youth refers to those between the ages 14 and 35 years, most of their surveys utilised sample data which do not allow them to make accurate estimates when the single years 14 and 35 are included. The Stats SA officials attributed this to the fact that data are weighted using five-year age groups (0 to four, five to nine, 10 to 14, etc.) derived from the mid-year estimates. According to Stats SA, the only data source which could easily yield accurate information for the official youth age group (14 to 35 years) would be census data. The disadvantage with this “accurate” data source is that the most recent census was held in 2011 and most of the data are therefore now outdated. Although the Community Survey of 2016 provides data on some variables, it is not as comprehensive as census data. It is on this basis that this report mostly presents data for the 15 to 34 year age group as representing the youth, instead of the official 14 to 35 year youth age group.

While attempts were made to use the most updated data, it was difficult to obtain the most recent information in certain areas; especially the sections on education and skills development, social cohesion and civic participation, the NYS, and youth work. This is mainly because data on areas like social cohesion, NYS, and youth work are not collected on a regular basis. In addition, most of the official data collected by Stats SA are at least between one year and two years behind. Census data, which are by far the most accurate, are only collected on a 10-year basis. The implications of all these is that some of the data used may not necessarily reflect the status of the youth as it currently stands. Indeed, the unavailability of more recent data limits, to some extent, the conclusion s drawn. Nevertheless, the data used in this report provide a useful base to work from.

7 CHAPTER 2: SOUTH AFRICAN YOUTH DEMOGRAPHICS

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Demographic data are a useful indicator of the human population as they provide a body of information for future planning and evaluative assessments on different population group performances. These types of data are used widely in public policy, development planning, measurements of national efforts on specific population group interventions, and the monitoring of population trends. Several variables are commonly used in demographics. These include gender, race, age, income, disability, mobility (in terms of travel time to work or number of vehicles available), education level, home ownership, employment status, and even location.

Demographic trends may provide information that describes changes in a population over time; for example, the average age of a population may increase or decrease over time. Both distributions and trends of values within a demographic variable are of interest. Demographic profiling is essentially an exercise in making generalisations about groups of people. As with all such generalisations, many individuals within these groups will not conform to the profile. Therefore, demographic information comprises aggregated and probabilistic information about groups, not about specific individuals. Critics of demographic profiling argue that such broad-brush generalisations only offer limited insight and that their practical usefulness is debatable.

According to the United Nations’ (UN) World Population Prospects (2017), in 2015 an estimated 26% of the total world population was made up of children under 15 years. In Africa, children under 15 years constituted 41% of the total population and about 19% of the population was aged between 15 and 24 years (UN, 2017). The developed regions have a 24,9 child dependency rate (the number of children economically dependent on the working-age population), which is relatively low. However, in less-developed countries where child survival has improved, and fertility remains high, youth dependency is significantly greater at about 43. In sub-Saharan Africa, young people comprise more than 42% of the total population and child dependency is at 79,9 per 100 working-age persons. In countries such as Uganda, where a woman has, on average, more than six children, there is a 1:1 ratio of working-age adults to children under 14. This high youth dependency burdens governments, communities, and families as they attempt to meet the needs of large young populations.

2.2 YOUTH DEMOGRAPHICS IN SOUTH AFRICA

South African population data (mid-year estimates of 2017) estimate that the population of the country grew from 49,48 million in 2008 to an estimated 56,52 million in 2017. This estimate is in line with the 2016 Community Survey, which put the South African population at an estimated 55,65 million. The report estimated that the crude birth rate dropped from 24,8 in 2008 to 21,3 by 2017, whereas the total fertility rate is approximated to have dropped from 2,72 in 2008 to 2,41 by 2017. Life expectancy at birth was estimated at 56,1 years for both genders in 2008, then it is projected to have risen since that year to 61,2 years for males and 66,7 years for females by 2017. Both infant mortality and under-

8 five-years mortality rates have been computed to have decreased steadily between 2002 and 2017, with the infant mortality rate decreasing from 46,6 in 2008 to 32,8 by 2017, and under-five-years mortality rates decreasing from 67,6 in 2008 to 42,4 by 2017 (Stats SA, 2017b). Table 1 shows the mid-year estimates for population distribution by age and year between 2008 and 2017.

Table 1: Mid-year population estimates by age groups: 2008 to 2017 Age group 2008 2012 2017 0-4 5 433 525 5 805 728 5 866 573 5-9 4 643 169 5 121 036 5 764 576 10-14 4 884 950 4 606 190 5 093 681 15-19 5 287 581 4 950 337 4 592 001 20-24 5 245 294 5 367 988 5 031 271 25-29 4 549 236 5 197 664 5 518 305 30-34 3 757 334 4 311 589 5 253 733 35-39 3 239 797 3 528 824 4 243 537 40-44 2 772 215 2 942 922 3 392 431 45-49 2 426 007 2 543 713 2 787 590 50-54 2 027 274 2 181 893 2 376 586 55-59 1 619 558 1 794 619 2 005 845 60-64 1 205 560 1 388 529 1 604 739 65-69 889 497 983 278 1 190 825 70-74 646 880 696 303 793 616 75-79 428 494 457 408 513 955 80+ 422 898 447 415 492 684 Youth 18 839 445 19 827 578 20 395 310 15-34 Year-on-year 1,22% 1,25% 0,59% % change Total population 49 479 270 52 325 433 56 521 948 Year-on-year 1,13% 1,12% 1,08% % change Source: Stats SA (2017b): Mid-year Population Estimates

In 2017, the total population was approximated at 56,52 million, of which the youth population (15 to 34 years) was projected at 20,4 million, representing 36,1% of the total population. The report indicates that between 2006 and 2009, the youth population group experienced more rapid growth than the national average population growth, after which it started growing below the average population growth. Figure 1 shows the age-sex structure of the South African population estimates in 2017 and compares it to the 2011 census’ age-sex population structure.

9 2011 2017 Figure 1: Population of South Africa by age group and gender in percentages (2011 Census and Mid-year Population Estimates 2017) Source: Stats SA (2011a; 2017a): Census 2011; Mid-year Population Estimates 2017

South Africa is a youthful country, with most of the population below the age of 35 (see Figure 1). In 2017, many young people were in the age categories 25 to 29 and 30 to 34 years. This signals a change in the population structure from 2011 to 2017, where in 2011 the age categories 20 to 24 and 25 to 29 were higher than other age categories of youths. The age categories 25 to 29 and 30 to 34 years are in the age cohort where young people are settling into adulthood and are likely to be employed, as compared to the younger age categories. Any intervention in youth development should take the age distribution dynamic into account. The interventions should also consider the need to exploit the demographic dividend, which could accrue because of the youth bulge indicated in the pyramid. This refers to the economic benefits that could result from lower dependency ratios, which happen when the proportion of working-age population is greater than the proportion non-working age population (mainly children and the elderly). However, this does not happen automatically – it requires the state to invest in all aspects of youth development to prepare the youth to meaningfully participate in the economy.

Figure 2 shows the distribution of the youth population vis-à-vis the general population across the provinces of South Africa. According to the 2017 mid-year population estimates, more than half (57,5%) of the youth reside in three provinces, namely the Western Cape (11,2%), KwaZulu-Natal (20,1%), and Gauteng (26,2%). The Free State (4,9%), Northern Cape (2%), and North West (6,5%) have the lowest percentage of youths. In Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal, and Limpopo, the proportion of the youth population is slightly higher compared to the total provincial proportions of the total population. Limpopo and the Eastern Cape are classified as poor provinces in South Africa, as well as KwaZulu-Natal, which is a predominately rural province. This suggests that the youths in these provinces are more vulnerable than youths in other parts of the country. Due to its very large coloured population, the Western Cape is the only province that has fewer black African youths. However, if we consider that coloured and black African youth populations face similar socio-economic needs and are both classified as previously disadvantaged groups, the approach to youth development in the province would not

10 differ fundamentally from the other provinces. There are two provinces with a generally large coloured youth population, namely the Western Cape (just over 50%) and the Northern Cape (about 35%). This is due to historical population settlements in South Africa. Gauteng and the Western Cape have significantly larger white youth populations, compared to the other provinces, while the Free State has a white youth population that is larger than the national average for white youth populations.

Figure 2: Proportion of youth (15 to 34) and the proportion of the general population by province: 2017 Source: Stats SA (2017a): Mid-year Population Estimates 2017

Figure 3 shows the national picture of youths in 2017 by population group. Except for coloured people, the majority of youths are in the age categories 25 to 29 and 30 to 34 years.

Figure 3: Total distribution of youth (15 to 34) by population: 2017 Source: Stats SA (2017a): Mid-year Population Estimates 2017 Figure 4 shows the spread of youths in each province in 2011 and 2016 and by gender. In general, the distribution of male and female youths is evenly spread throughout the provinces. Except for Gauteng, KwaZulu-Natal, and the Western Cape, the proportion of the youth in provinces has increased from 2011 to 2016.

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Figure 4: Proportion of youth by gender in each province in 2011 and 2016: 15 to 34 Source: Stats SA (2016b): Community Survey 2016

Figure 5 shows that most of the youth in South Africa live in urban areas, as opposed to rural areas. The number of youths living in urban areas seems to increase with age; probably because of the effect of migration as youths look for economic opportunities outside their localities.

Figure 5: Distribution of youth by geographic type: 2014 Source: Stats SA (2016d): The Social Profile of the Youth 2009‐2014

2.3 YOUTH MORTALITY

Trends in mortality rates indicate that these rates are high at infancy, and then decrease between the ages of five and 14 years, and then begin to steadily increase from the ages of 15 to 19 years. The highest mortality incidences occur roughly between 30 and 34 years. High levels of mortality in these age groups may be attributed to the prevalence of infectious diseases, road/traffic accidents, injuries, and violence within the age group. Figure 6 shows population mortality across all age groups between 2005 and 2015.

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Figure 6: Population mortality in all age groups: 2004 to 2015 Source: Stats SA (2017c): Mortality and Causes of Death in South Africa 2015

2.4 YOUTH POVERTY LEVELS

Poverty is one of the plagues that disproportionately affects young people and children. It also affects other areas of their lives, such as opportunities to access quality healthcare, quality education, and quality skills development programmes. Consequently, poverty has implications on the ability of South Africa to exploit the demographic dividend. Although poverty is very high in South Africa compared to countries of similar economic size, it has been decreasing over time, as illustrated in Figure 7. Youths, children, and those over the age of 65 years are more likely to be poor than the other age groups. Data show that poverty levels among youths aged between 18 and 24 years are at 58,6% and 63,7% for children between 0 and 17 years.

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Figure 7: Levels of poverty by age group: 2006, 2009, 2011, and 2015 Source: Stats SA (2017e): Poverty Trends in South Africa: An Examination of Absolute Poverty between 2006 and 2015

Households headed by children and youths below the age of 24 years are more likely to experience higher incidences of poverty. The lowest incidences of poverty were in the households headed by youths in the age categories of 25 to 34 years.

Figure 8: Poverty incidence of households by age of household head: 2006, 2009, 2011, and 2015 Source: Stats SA (2017e): Poverty Trends in South Africa: An Examination of Absolute Poverty between 2006 and 2015

Household income is a proxy indicator of poverty. Stats SA’s (2016a) Social Profile of Vulnerable Groups in South Africa 2015 and 2016 reported that households headed by youths aged 15 to 24 were more likely to have a per capita income of less than R765 per month (which is defined as “low income”) than households headed by older youths across all the provinces.

14 To alleviate poverty, the government provides social grants, which many youths have benefitted from. Figure 9 shows the percentages of youths who benefit from social grants. There has been a negligible change in the proportions of youths benefitting from social grants between 2015 and 2016. Social grants play an important role and an estimated 10,2% of youths (15 to 34 years) benefit from them. Increased enrolment rates in schools and learners staying longer in school are to some extent attributed to social grants.

Figure 9: Percentages of youths who are beneficiaries of social grants: 2015 and 2016 Source: Stats SA (2016a): Social Profile of Vulnerable Groups in South Africa 2015 and 2016

Orphans are more likely to live in poverty compared to children who have one or both parents. Figure 10 shows orphan types as reflected in Census 1996, 2001, and 2011 and the Community Survey of 2016. The number of orphans increased considerably between 1996 and 2011, before declining steadily between 2011 and 2016. The increase in the number of orphans is largely attributed to HIV/Aids. The decline in the number of orphans from 2011 is mainly attributed to the government’s successful anti-retroviral (ARV) programme, which contributed to an increase in life expectancy.

Figure 10: Orphan types: 1996, 2001, 2011, and 2016 Source: Compiled from Stats SA Community Survey 2016 and Census 1996; 2001; 2011

15

Figure 11 shows the percentage of youths living in households that reported hunger between in 2015 and 2016, as reported by the Vulnerable Groups Indicators 2015 and 2016. Hunger is an important indicator as it reflects the level of poverty. In 2016, KwaZulu- Natal (21,5%), the Northern Cape (19,2%), and the Western Cape (16,7%) had the highest number of youths living in households that reported hunger. Limpopo (4,8%), Mpumalanga (12,1%), and Gauteng (12,1%) had the lowest number of youths living in households that reported hunger.

Figure 11: Percentage of youths living in households that reported hunger by province: 2015 and 2016 Source: Stats SA (2016a): Social Profile of Vulnerable Groups in South Africa 2015 and 2016

Data from the Social Profile of Vulnerable Groups in South Africa 2015 indicate that the North West, Western Cape, KwaZulu-Natal, and Northern Cape have the highest percentages of youths living in households that reported hunger in 2015. In 2016, there was a decline in the proportion of youths living in households that reported hunger in the Eastern Cape, Northern Cape, North West, and the Western Cape, while the rest of the provinces experienced a slight change. However, the percentage of youths living in households that reported hunger for South Africa seems to have not changed much from 2011, when it was at 13,1%, to 2016, at 14,2%.

From 2010, the figures for youths aged 15 to 24 who reported living in households that reported hunger decreased from 17,1% to 14,3% in 2012, whereas the figures for youths aged 25 to 35 who reported living in households that reported hunger also saw a decline from 15,1% in 2010 and reached a low 12,0% in 2012. These figures seem to correspond with the ebb and flow of the South African economy. In general, statistics indicate that youths aged 15 to 24 are reported to experience hunger far above the national average of the population reporting hunger. This suggests that younger youths (15 to 24) are more likely to live in households that experience hunger than older youths or the general population of the country.

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Figure 12: Percentage of youths (15 to 34) living in formal, informal, and traditional housing: 2010 to 2016 Source: Stats SA (2011-2017): GHS 2010-2016

There was a considerable increase in the population of youths reported to be living in formal dwellings between 2010 (77,6%) and 2016 (81,1%), although there was a slight decrease from 81,5% in 2014 (see Figure 12). There was also a slight decrease in youths reported to be living in traditional and informal dwellings over the same period. The percentage of those reported to be living in traditional dwellings decreased from 11,2% in 2010 to 7,9% in 2016, while the percentage of those reported to be living in informal dwellings decreased from 10,9% in 2010 to 10,4% in 2016, although it is a considerable increase from the 9,6% in 2014.

Access to basic amenities is a good indicator of the standard of living of a population. Table 2 provides statistics on a few indicators. These include access to piped water, access to flush toilets in houses or dwellings, access to waste and refuse removal, and access to electricity. The data compare access to these amenities between the general population and the youth population.

Table 2: Basic living conditions for youth, children, and the general population: 2006 to 2016 Access to service indicator Age cohorts 2006 2007 2012 2015 2016 Access to water 15-24 64,2 65,0 66,2 49,8 67,7 % of youths living in 25-34 72,2 73,2 72,4 50,2 73,1 dwellings with piped 15-34 67,9 68,8 69,2 69,8 70,3 water in house or yard Total population 67,2 68,2 69,4 71,0 71,2 Sanitation 15-24 59,6 62,5 72,6 81,5 82,5 % of youths living in 25-34 68,4 70,7 77,5 82,9 83,0 dwellings with flush toilet 15-34 63,7 66,3 74,9 82,2 82,7 with on- or off-site disposal Total population 63,3 66,2 75,2 83,2 83,8 Refuse/Waste 15-24 53,4 53,6 55,1 56,3 58,1 % of youths living in 25-34 63,5 63,7 63,7 64,9 65,9 dwellings with refuse 15-34 58,1 58,3 59,2 60,5 61,9 removed by municipality Total population 57,2 57,3 59,5 62,0 63,2 Electricity 15-24 79,9 81,8 87,1 89,4 89,3 % of youths living in 25-34 80,8 81,8 86,1 86,3 85,7 dwellings which are 15-34 80,3 81,8 87,9 86,7 89,9 connected to mains Total population 80,4 81,9 87,2 89,0 89,1 Source: Stats SA (2010c; 2016a): Social Profile of Vulnerable Groups in SA, 2002-2009; Vulnerable Groups Indicators 2015 and 2016 17

Table 2, which is based on the Social Profile of Vulnerable Groups in South Africa 2002- 2012 data and Vulnerable Groups Indicators 2015 and 2016, indicates that access to piped water in dwellings or yards by South Africa’s youth population has slightly increased from 67,9% in 2006 to 70,3% in 2016; compared to the general population, which increased from 67,2% to 71,2% during the same period.

The number of youths living in houses with flush toilets is reported to have increased at a reasonable pace between 2006 and 2016. The percentage of BOX 1: Youth Voices youths living in households with flush toilets was reported to be Getting access to employment is very difficult for deaf people. We face barriers. We feel like we are studying, yes, but what are 63,7% in 2006, increasing we going to use that knowledge for in future? It’s useless for deaf substantially to 82,7% by 2016. people … The government is to start complying with employment Such increases were also observed equity, making it a criminal offence not to comply. Encourage the private sector to use the services of disabled youths. The for younger children and the government must design strategies to encourage companies to overall population. use the services of young people … Parents of disabled youths must first be taught to realise the capabilities of their disabled Between 2006 and 2016, the children: they need to be convinced that their children have capabilities. proportion of youths living in dwellings where the municipality Disabled youths stay in the same environment … They don’t go removed refuse and waste was out and join organisations and they don’t know their rights … We always say that people do not understand youths with reported to have increased disabilities, but as disabled youths, we ourselves must make that marginally from 58,1% in 2006 to change; we must be there to change people’s minds. 61,9% in 2016. Reportedly, there has been a steady increase in the proportion of youths living in houses connected to electricity mains. In 2006, some 80,3% of young people were living in houses with electricity. This figure increased to 89,9% by 2016. From 2006 to 2016, the proportion of youths living in electrified households was almost similar to that of the general population. In general, the indicators above show improvement in the living conditions of young people, although their living conditions are still slightly less favourable than those of the general population.

2.5 YOUTHS WITH DISABILITIES

Persons with disabilities often face discrimination or neglect despite being the world’s largest minority. Youths with disabilities face marginalisation and they often constitute the poorest segment of the world’s youth (UN, 2007). Even though youths with disabilities “face the same issues as their peers, who do not have disabilities, societal prejudices, barriers and ignorance further exacerbate their distress” (UN, 2007). Box 1 highlights the perception that youths with disabilities are discriminated against regarding opportunities in the economy. It also indicates a lack of appreciation and knowledge of the challenges faced by this category of youths.

Figure 13 shows the percentage of individuals living with disabilities by age. It is based on population figures from Census 2011 and Community Survey 2016 data. The figure shows that disability rates tend to increase with age, although it tends to be higher in the age group five to nine years. It declines at 10 to 14 years and remains stable until age category 40 to 44, before it starts rising sharply from age 45. The 2016 Community Survey data also show that the disability prevalence in South Africa has increased slightly from 7,5% to 7,7% from 2011 to 2016. 18

Figure 13: Proportion of youths with disabilities by age groups: 2011 and 2016 Source: Stats SA (2016b): Community Survey 2016 The GHS data indicated that in 2016 disability among the youth ranged between 2,6% for the 15 to 19 and 20 to 24 age groups to 2,7% for the 25 to 29 age group. The 30 to 34 age group was reported to have a 3,4% disabled population. The proportion of the 30 to 34 age group is higher than the national government target of 2% disabled employment in the public service. Interestingly, the national population proportion of disabled people is 5,4%, according to available data.

A slightly higher percentage of women live with disabilities than men (see Figure 14). The rates of individuals living with disabilities have remained relatively stable between 2011 and 2016.

Figure 14: Disability prevalence by sex: 2011 and 2016 Source: Stats SA (2011a; 2016b): Census 2011; Community Survey 2016

Based on the data from the Profile of People with Disabilities 2011, households headed by people with disabilities are reported to be less likely to have electricity (81,3%), compared to households headed by non-disabled persons (85,1%). They will likely be using paraffin (3,0%) and candles (14,6%), compared to households headed by non-disabled persons, where the figures are 3,0% and 11,0% respectively.

19 2.6 YOUTH-HEADED HOUSEHOLDS

South Africa’s household structure or typology has changed since the advent of the HIV/Aids pandemic. The country has a higher proportion of people living with HIV/Aids than any other country in the world. This pandemic has restructured how households are maintained. Stats SA reported that the percentage of households headed by youths in the age category 15 to 24 was around 6,5% in 2002 and 6,6% in 2010, while households headed by youths aged 25 to 34, who are adults in their prime, decreased slightly from 23,1% in 2002 to 20,7% in 2010. These figures, irrespective of their stability and/or decline, indicate a significant number of young people now heading households.

Figure 15 shows the percentage of youth-headed households by province in 2015 and 2016. In provinces such as Limpopo, KwaZulu-Natal, and the Eastern Cape, over 70% of young people in this age group were reported to be living in households that can be described as low-income households. In Gauteng and the Western Cape, a lower rate of youths was reported to be living in households with low income, compared to the other provinces. This supports the view that these two provinces are economically more affluent than the other seven provinces. Available data reveal that African youths are more likely to live in poor households than youths from other population groups. According to Figure 15, the proportion of youth-headed households is evenly spread throughout the provinces, with Limpopo, Mpumalanga, and the North West slightly higher than the other provinces, and the Western Cape slightly lower than the other provinces.

Figure 15: Percentage of youth-headed households by province: 2015 and 2016 Source: Stats SA (2016a): Social Profile of Vulnerable Groups in South Africa 2015 and 2016

The Vulnerable Groups Indicators Report 2015 and 2016, published in 2017, indicates that provinces such as KwaZulu-Natal, North West, Limpopo, and Mpumalanga have a larger share of young people between the ages of 15 and 24 heading households.

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Figure 16: Distribution of households headed by youths aged 15 to 24 and 25 to 34 by province: 2016 Source: Stats SA (2016a): Social Profile of Vulnerable Groups in South Africa 2015 and 2016 Figure 17 shows youth-headed households by population group and by youth age cohorts. White and African people have high percentages of youth-headed households aged between 15 and 24 years. These households are likely to be poor as most of those heading them are more likely to be without a source of income.

In South Africa, about 19,8% of households are headed by youths aged 15 to 24 years. African (20,5%), white (18,1%), coloured (12%), and Indian/Asian (10%) youths aged 15 to 24 years head households (see Figure 17). The proportion of households headed by youths aged between 15 and 24 years has decreased dramatically for white and Indian people between 2015 and 2016. The percentage of households headed by youths aged between 25 and 34 years is higher as they are in the age group where most people start their own households.

Figure 17: Percentage of youth-headed households by race: 2015 and 2016 Source: Stats SA (2016a): Social Profile of Vulnerable Groups in South Africa 2015 and 2016

21 In line with the distribution of the youth population by geographic type, most youth- headed households are in urban areas. Figure 18 shows the distribution of youth-headed households by geographic type.

Figure 18: Percentage distribution of youth-headed (15 to 34) households by geographic type: 2009 and 2014 Source: Stats SA (2016d): The Social Profile of the Youth 2009‐2014

2.7 CONCLUSION

South Africa is a youthful country with over two-thirds of the population below the age of 35. The age cohort targeted in this report (15 to 34 years) constitutes just over 36% of the total population. Data show that there was a change in the population structure from 2011, where the age categories 20 to 24 and 25 to 29 were higher than other age categories, to a situation in 2017, where the age categories 25 to 29 and 30 to 34 years were higher than other categories. This change suggests an increased supply of labour to the already shrinking economy, which may potentially increase the unemployment rate. Youth demographics have geographic, economic, racial, and gender dimensions, which suggests that policy interventions should take these into account.

Available data show that young people are more likely to be poor and that households headed by young people are more likely to be poor than those headed by older individuals. Data in this chapter also show that although basic living conditions for young people have improved over the years, they are slightly lower than that of the general population. Young people are therefore more vulnerable compared to the adult population. Interventions like social grants are important in poverty alleviation and they have contributed to improved participation in education. A considerable number of young people live in households without an employed member and in households that experience hunger, which again underscores the importance of social grants. Youths with disabilities are more likely to be poor and unemployed than youths without disabilities. Another category of young people who are more likely to experience poverty is orphans. Data show that the number of orphans has been on the decline since 2011. Mortality rates among youths are higher and they are largely attributed to violence, accidents, and HIV/Aids. 22 2.8 IMPLICATIONS

 South Africa, like most developing countries, has a large population of young people. A large youth population group has the potential to propel economic growth opportunities, when strategically exploited. However, if not properly managed and supported, it could result in social and economic challenges.

 The youth demographic profile in South Africa suggests that the youth bulge increases the labour market pool of the country. However, another aspect of the large youth population group is that they are generally unemployed or unemployable, which could result in high levels of poverty, high dependency on the state for social grants, and a poor, ageing population on the medium and long term. This is because most of the country’s productive population is neither creating wealth nor generating savings that will support them later in life.

 Basic living conditions for the South African youth fall below the levels for other age groups of the population. Vulnerability to poverty is a cause for concern as significant proportions of young people are reported living in households that experience hunger. With this age group growing faster than the national population, the implications are that the country is likely to be faced with high dependency ratios of young people. This young population will become increasingly frustrated as they compete for a better livelihood in a shrinking economy. As there are proportionally fewer young people who are economically active, they will also experience ever-increasing poverty and inequalities.

2.9 RECOMMENDATIONS

 The demographic data show that the youth population is growing faster than the general population, even though most young people are living in poverty and their mortality rate is high. It is important that the implementation of the vision of NDP 2030 puts the youth at the centre of its developmental efforts and takes advantage of the youthfulness of the South African population.

 South Africa will do better by designing more programmes and policies to take advantage of the youthful population. These would include expanding opportunities for the young population to gain entrance to higher education and skills training institutions. These efforts can increase growth in the skills required by the labour market.

 The age structure of South Africa has not been sufficiently taken advantage of to ensure that the latent human resources of the youth are being harnessed to provide the skills and human capital required by the economy of South Africa. It is recommended that programmes and policies in South Africa focus on increasing the working age population and reducing the age at which young people start their first job.

 Although South Africa has a large labour force, most of the labour force is unemployed and, in some instances, under-employed. Focus on stimulating substantial growth of the economy, opening and relaxing labour policies to allow young people to enter the labour market at an early age, and improving the quality of education and skills are some of the avenues to tackle unemployment and under-employment. 23

 To take advantage of the fact that the country has a large youth population, South Africa needs a short-, medium-, and long-term plan to incorporate young people into the mainstream of the economy. National policies and plans need to be driven by the lived realities of the youth population.

24 CHAPTER 3: YOUTH ECONOMIC PARTICIPATION AND TRANSFORMATION

3.1 INTRODUCTION

High levels of poverty and disparity are present across all age groups, geographical locations, and population groups in South Africa. This could partly be attributed to the limited opportunities for participation in the economy and consequently the limited number of people participating in the economy.

There are many young people who should be participating in BOX 2: Youth Voices the economy of the country, but Mhlawumbe into ebabulekile eyenzekalayo umuntu omusha ufike for various reasons are not. afunde e high school afunde e university bese efika ezikampanini Major reasons include the afake isicelo sombenzibafike bafune lento engenayo ebizwa limited ability of the South ngokuthiyi experience –ulwazi umuntu angenayo ungazi ukuthi uzoyithathaphi, Uthi uyafika bathi bafuna on to three years African economy to absorb new experience kulesosizinda osifundele. Yiyo lento esibulala kakhulu entrants into the labour market, singabantu abasha. relatively low entrepreneurship Into esishaya kakhulu thina siwulusha asinawo ama amakhono, izinto among young people, and esiso senza senze imisbenzi yezadla ukuze ulusha lukwazi limited skills sets. According to ukuzezenzela izinto esosenza thina siyi wulusha sikwazi Stats SA’s Labour Force Survey ukuzisebenzela singathembel iekutheni uzoqashwa ungazenzela izinto ngezandlazakho. Yilawo makhono esiwandingayo.Ngangokuba (LFS) in 2016, there are about uhulumende awenza umsebenzi ngama FTE kolishi kodwa uma 13,5 million young people angazama u kuthi abantu abasha bacecesheke kahle ngeke between the ages of 15 and 34 badingeukuthi aze aye kwamulung uukuthi athole isinkwa. who are not employed, are discouraged work seekers, or who are not economically active. Box 2 highlights the lack of work experience as one of the factors that limit young people from accessing labour markets. The comment begins to raise questions around how young people can be empowered to access labour markets. Most of these young people do not have the necessary skills for employment or involvement in sustainable entrepreneurship.

According to the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) Report 2015/2016, the South African TEA in the 25 to 34 years age cohort (the age category where TEA usually peaks) is less than half of the African average, as well as considerably lower than the average for efficiency-driven economies (18%). The report also found some correlation between education level and the level of TEA; with a 67,4% TEA rate for those who have completed secondary education and beyond, while the TEA rate of those without an education is 4,4% (Kelley, Singer & Herrington, 2016). The exclusion of young people does not only perpetuate inequalities in South Africa, but also denies the affected young people the opportunity to rise from poverty. This scenario is potentially a security threat to the country.

There are two primary forms of economic participation, namely self-employment and employment by an organisation or an individual for a wage or salary. Many young people make a living through paid employment. However, over the years, unemployment among the youth has been consistently higher than among the general population. 25 Entrepreneurship, which is the main form of self-employment, has been an active element of economic participation strategies in most developing countries that have seen reasonable economic growth (Stats SA, 2016c). In South Africa, only 33% of the businesses surveyed in the FinScope survey of 2010 were owned by people between the ages of 16 and 34. Participation of young people in the economy through small and medium enterprises (SMEs) takes place in the context of domination of the economy by big business. The South African economy is largely driven by big business, which could potentially affect SMEs negatively, as these businesses are not able to compete fairly with big business in the open market. It is for this reason that the NDP calls for the “deconcentration of monopolised industries”.

3.2 YOUTH ECONOMIC PARTICIPATION AND THE POLICY ENVIRONMENT

Since the birth of democracy in 1994, South Africa has implemented several economic development policies and frameworks at national level. These include the Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP), Growth, Employment and Redistribution (GEAR), and the Accelerated and Shared Growth Initiative for South Africa (ASGISA).

The New Growth Path (NGP) was born out of the recognition of the limitations of the previous policies and frameworks. The main thrust of the policy was to increase the capacity of the economy to absorb labour, which is indicative of a deliberate attempt to address what has been termed “growth without employment”.

Given the fact that just over 70% of the unemployed are young people and the majority of those who have given up looking BOX 3 : Youth Voices for a job are also young, the NGP framework will be tested and Nna kenyaka go boleIa ka unemployment, experience, mebereko ye measured against its ability to mentsi e le gore ba e advertisa dinewspaipeng le mafelong a mangwe ba nyaka experience. O a bona o kereye e le gore motho o na le the create a supportive environment relevant qualifications mara a na le experience, go bolela gore ge ba for the economy to absorb nyako hira motho e ka se be moswa. Etloba motho o le gore o youths into the labour market, bereking a ba le experience. Bjale ge ba re e a nyakega, experience, ba tswanetse go naganela batho ba e le gore ke gona ba fetsa sekolo and for youth entrepreneurship. ba na le diqualifications ba ba tsentse meberekong. The NDP, or Vision 2030, was developed to buttress the gains Ka gore gona bjale re tlo re re nyaka motho o le gore o tlo eta pele company bare go hlokega experience ya mengwaga e lesome ba no of all the previous economic hira motho o mongwe e sale a bareka kgale. Baswa ba ka se tsoge e development policies and berekileka gore nto engwe le engwe ke experience. A kere baswa a frameworks. The NDP is ba na experience. intended to fire the South Nna ka gore re bolela katabay a go bereka, Ke nyaka go botsa mmuso African economy towards a gore ke lakatsa e bile ke nyaka gore motho ge a fetsa internship a be growth trajectory that will create a fewe mereko e se ka ba taba ya gore motho ba mo isa internship a fetsa internship o dula megwaga e me hlano gape. sustainable jobs and reduce unemployment in the country.

Education and skills development are central to increasing the chances of young people to participate in the economy. In addition to attempting to improve the quality of education through various curriculum reforms, the government has established Sector Education and Training Authorities (SETAs) to develop skills within the labour force. In conjunction with this, Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) colleges have skills development as their core function. Despite the restructuring of the TVET sector to make it more attractive for young people, most young people do not see TVET colleges as a first choice. 26

The government is also pursuing internships as an intervention to help prepare young people with certain qualifications for the world of work. Many government departments are currently running internship programmes. However, statistics show that many young people who undergo these internship programmes end up not being absorbed in the labour market. This suggests that the programmes either do not provide young people with sufficient skills or are irrelevant.

One of the policy interventions being rolled out by the state is the youth wage subsidy through the Employment Tax Incentive Act (No. 26 of 2013). This intervention involves state subsidies being paid to employers to encourage them to hire young people. The intervention was informed by the fact that employers tended to be reluctant to hire young, inexperienced workers. The concept of wage subsidies is also aimed at providing young people with an opportunity to earn a living and to learn on the job.

The South African government has also created various entities such as the Small Enterprise Development Agency (SEDA), established in terms of the National Small Business Amendment Act (No. 29 of 2004); the Industrial Development Corporation (IDC); and the Small Enterprise Finance Agency (SEFA) to support entrepreneurship in the country. Given the low level of only 33% of youth entrepreneurship, these organisations must do more to support entrepreneurship.

Economic charters have been drawn up to ensure that people who were previously excluded from participating in the economy are given a chance to participate. One of the categories of beneficiaries in some of the charters is young people. However, a limitation of the charters is that there are no targets for the youth. In addition, the BOX 4: Youth Voices Preferential Procurement Policy We think their role is to make us become employable, give us Framework Act (No. 5 of 2000) some skills. As early as school level, they tell us how we should makes provision for those expect the world outside, how is the world looking like, they train previously excluded from us, they equip us, and they employ us. You find that if there is an employment, it’s not like directed, we can say that it’s like participating in the economy to be kinship, you find out that, if you are employed, you want to given preference by state organs, employ your brother, and forget about the community at large. where procurement by state organs So what we are trying to say is that the government must employ people, not use kinship in employing the people, it must employ is concerned. Again, young people everybody, and equip everybody in the way that they want us to are among the designated groups build. stated in the Act. However, they are Most of the private companies use labour brokers, which are not included on the balanced score when you go to those companies asking for employment, they card and there are no specific will tell you to go to Kempton Park to register with this agency, targets for young people. which is not even there. You find that they are recruiting in Kempton Park, people from Tembisa, people from somewhere, they bring to them to the private companies in Kya-Sands to go Co-operatives could prove and work. There are people around here who do not even have particularly important for young those labour brokers to go and register with them so that we can get those employment opportunities. people, as most of them do not have enough resources to establish their own businesses. The Department of Trade and Industry’s (dti) report on co- operatives presented in Parliament in August 2010 indicated that people aged 16 to 34 comprised 40% of co-operative membership in the country. The Integrated Strategy for the Development and Promotion of Co-operatives between 2012 and 2022 produced by the dti in 2012 indicated that the survival rate of co-operatives in the country was only 27 12%. This means that co-operatives are more likely to end without realising their objectives. The same strategy by the dti also showed that the contribution of the sector to the nation’s gross domestic product (GDP) has been averaging below 1% since 2003. It is therefore crucial that ways are sought to make co-operatives sustainable and to boost their contribution to the nation’s GDP.

3.3 YOUTH PARTICIPATION IN THE LABOUR MARKET

Youth participation in the labour market is crucial for economic growth and for the development of young people. There are about 7,5 million young people (aged 15 to 34) who are NEET (see Figure 19). At the age of 15, many young people are in an educational institution, at about 97%. This percentage declines to 57,5% by the age of 19. Between the ages of 22 and 24, the total number of youths who are NEET (averaging about 53%) surpasses the combined number of those who are attending an educational institution and those who are employed in the same age category.

Figure 19: Percentage of youths (15 to 24 and 25 to 34) who are not in employment, education, or training (NEET): 2012 to 2016 Source: Stats SA (2012-2016): QLFS Datasets Employment is an important source of livelihood for most economically active people in South Africa. Unemployment, therefore, has a major impact on the lives of people who rely on wages for survival. It is estimated that, although young people constitute some 25% of the working age population in the world, they constitute 47% of the unemployed population. Global youth labour participation declined from 53,6% in 2000 to 45,8% in 2016 (International Labour Organization [ILO], 2016). Labour participation also has a gender dimension, with the participation of young men at 53,9% and the participation of young women at 37,3% in 2016. In 2016, the youth labour force participation rate in sub- Saharan Africa was estimated at 54,2%. According to ILO (2016) data on unemployment, South Africa falls in the bottom 10 countries in the world. This is a major concern, given that unemployment has been shown to be a key contributing factor to poverty and inequality in South Africa. It is estimated that wage income constitutes an estimated 70% of the total income. About 85% of income inequalities in South Africa are attributable to wage income (Leibbrandt, Woolard, Finn & Argent, 2010). Unemployment not only denies the unemployed the opportunity to make a living, but it also deprives the economy of the productive potential of those who are unemployed.

28 Salaries constitute the main source of income for youth-headed households, comprising over 66% in 2015 and 2016 (see Figure 20). The second big source of income for youth- headed households is remittances, which are visibly higher among rural households.

Figure 20: Main sources of income for youth-headed households: 2015 and 2016 Source: Stats SA (2016a): Social Profile of Vulnerable Groups in South Africa 2015 and 2016

The LFSs by Stats SA have shown that young people constituted over 70% of the unemployed during the period 2010 to 2016. This means that these young people rely on someone in their household to provide for them. However, this is also dependent on whether there is a person generating income in the household. As employment is the main source of income, it is crucial to examine the number of young people living in households without an employed member. Figure 21 shows the percentage of individuals between 15 and 34 years living in households without an employed member between 2011 and 2016.

Figure 21: Percentage of youths living in households without an employed member: 2010 to 2016 Source: Stats SA (2010-2016): Quarterly Labour Force Survey (QLFS) datasets 29

Young people who are reported as living in households without an employed member averaged about 28% from 2010 to 2013. The proportion peaked in 2012 at 28,3% before it began to fall to 25,2% by 2016. When disaggregated, the data show that young people in the 15 to 24 age category are more likely to live in households without an employed member than young people in the age category 25 to 34. This could be because youths in the age group 25 to 34 years are more likely to be employed than youths in the age category 15 to 24 years.

According to Stats SA’s LFS data, youth unemployment accounts for just over 70% of the total unemployed population. Although young people aged 15 to 34 years account for a larger share of the working-age population than adults, their labour market participation is considerably lower than that of adults. Figure 22 shows that the share of youths among the employed has not improved much over time.

Figure 22: Labour force participation among youths and adults: 2010 to 2016 Source: Stats SA (2010-2016): Quarterly Labour Force Survey (QLFS) Datasets

Figure 23 shows youth employment and unemployment rates between 2010 and 2016 as measured by Stats SA’s QLFS data. Data from the QLFSs show a consistent pattern where unemployment among young people has been consistently higher than in the other age groups between 2010 and 2016.

The data show a decline in unemployment as age increases, which suggests that young people are more likely to be unemployed, compared to the older age groups. Unemployment is particularly high for youths between 15 and 24 years old, at just over 49% on average, followed by those between 25 and 34 years old, at 28,5% on average.

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Figure 23: Youth (15 to 34 years) expanded and narrow unemployment rates by gender: 2010 to 2016 Source: Stats SA (2010-2016): LFS and QLFS Datasets Stats SA distinguishes between narrow unemployment and expanded unemployment; with the former excluding those who have given up searching for employment and only includes those who are still actively searching, while the latter includes discouraged work seekers. Figure 23 shows that narrow unemployment has remained consistently high among the youths (15 to 34 years), peaking at 38,8% in 2012 before taking a slight dip between 2013 and 2014. It then started rising in 2015, reaching 37,7% in 2016. According to the QLFSs, narrow unemployment for the period 2010 to 2016 averaged just over 36%, with the highest rates experienced in 2012 and 2016.

Figure 23 shows a gender dimension to unemployment where, in general, women in both age categories are more likely to be unemployed than men. For the age category 25 to 34, the gender difference in narrow unemployment was on average 6% over the 2010 to 2016 period.

Figure 23 also shows expanded unemployment, which includes discouraged work seekers, and this expanded unemployment rate averaged 65% over the period 2010 to 2016 in the age category 15 to 24 years and averaging 40% in the age category 25 to 34 years. This variance between the average narrow and expanded unemployment shows that a significant number of youths have become discouraged and have stopped actively searching for employment. The level of despondency among young work seekers shown by the expanded unemployment rate for the period 2010 to 2016 is a challenge to the various sectors involved in youth development in South Africa.

31 In addition to large numbers of unemployed youths, many young people who are employed are vulnerable to unfavourable conditions of service. Many people employed as casual labourers are young people. The notion of casualisation of labour tends to create uncertainties, as people are employed on a temporary basis. In most cases, casualisation of labour also means lower salaries. People employed under these conditions are, in most cases, also not benefiting from employee benefits such as pension and medical aid.

BOX 5: Youth Voices

Ndicinga ukuba nezinga lemfundo yethu apha emaphandleni liyasichaphazelela ngohlobo lukuba umzekelo xa unojonga kwizikolo ezazisakhuba ngoModel C banazo iLabs, nezixhobo zokufunda ezaneleyo. Imfundo yethu apha ezilalini yohlukile kunemfundo efumaneka ezidolophini, umzekelo abantwana abafundayo bayasokola xa kumele kwenziwe iexperiement. Kufuneka kuyoqeshwa izixhobo zokufunda kuqala kuba azikho ezikolweni lonto ke ithi ithathe ixesha elide. Naxa sizama ukufaka izicelo zokufunda kwizikolo zeModel C kubanzima kuba bafunda izifundo zabo nge-higher grade sibe thina apha ezilalini izifundo sizifunda nge-standard grade. Lonto ke yenza kubelula ukufumana neebursaries kubantu abenze uhigher grade ezifundweni kunathi esenze ustandard grade. Ndicinga ukuba umgangatho wemfundo nawo kufuneka iphuculwe.

Ndingasho ndithi nokungafumani lwazi oluphangaleleyo ebahlalini. Silulutsha kodwa asifumani okanye asinalwazi luphangaleleyo olwaneleyo. Ngamanye amaxesha ungafumanisa ukuba zikhona iibursaries zokuya ezikholweni kodwa akukho bantu basixelelayo. Asiwazi umnyango esinokuthi singena kuwo ukuze sifumane uncedo lwebursaries.

Figure 24 shows youth unemployment across South Africa’s provinces between 2010 and 2016.

Figure 24: Youth (15 to 34 years) unemployment rate by province: 2010 to 2016 Source: Stats SA (2010-2016): QLFS Datasets

Between 2010 and 2016, youth unemployment figures in the Western Cape, Limpopo, and KwaZulu-Natal have remained consistently below the national average. The Western Cape experienced an increase in youth unemployment; from 27,6% in 2010 to 33,2% in 2013, before it took a slight dip in 2014 and 2015, and then rose slightly to 31,6% in 2016. KwaZulu-Natal experienced a steady increase from 27,1% in 2010 to 35,2% in 2016. In Limpopo, youth unemployment fell from a high of 39,1% in 2010 to 30,6% in 2016.

32 The Free State, Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal, North West, and Northern Cape experienced the highest increases in youth unemployment between 2010 and 2016, with the Northern Cape experiencing the sharpest increase in unemployment between 2010 and 2015, jumping about 6% from 39,3% in 2010 to 45,1% in 2015, before declining to 39,3% in 2016. Youth unemployment increased in six of the nine provinces between 2010 and 2016, and declined in Mpumalanga, Limpopo, and the Free State. The three provinces with the highest youth unemployment in 2016 were the North West, Free State, and Mpumalanga, with 44,9%, 46,5%, and 42,7% youth unemployment respectively.

Figure 25 shows the youth unemployment between 2010 and 2016 disaggregated by population group. Black Africans experienced the highest level of unemployment among the different racial groups over the period 2010 to 2016. Black African youth unemployment was above the national unemployment rate from 2010 to 2016. Narrow youth unemployment among black Africans declined from a high 39,9% in 2010 to 39,4% in 2012, before increasing steadily to 41,6% by 2016. Black Africans represent over 77% of the working population, which means that, in real numbers, a substantial number of African youths are unemployed.

Figure 25: Youth unemployment (15 to 34 years) by population group: 2010 to 2016 Source: Stats SA (2010-2016): QLFS Datasets

Youth unemployment among the coloured youths declined to its lowest (27,1%) in 2008 and has been steadily increasing over the period to its highest (35,3%) in 2014. It then declined to 31,1% in 2015 and rose to 34% in 2016. Unemployment levels among Indian/Asian youths showed an increase from its highest ever (12,5%) in 2010 to 19,7% in 2011, before declining again in 2012, and rising steadily to 20,4% in 2016. Among white youths, unemployment was consistently low, averaging just below 10% for the period 2004 to 2013; except in 2013, when it peaked at 12,5%, and declining to 9,9% by 2016.

Based on the data generated by Stats SA’s LFSs, the level of education is directly proportional to employability. Figure 26 shows that between 2015 and 2016, unemployment among youths (15 to 34) who had no formal schooling was 30,7% and 28,3% respectively.

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Figure 26: Narrow youth (15 to 34) unemployment, absorption rate, and labour force participation rate by education level: 2015 and 2016 Source: Stats SA (2015; 2016): QLFS Datasets

Young people with only some primary schooling, completed primary education, and with only some secondary education are the most affected by unemployment. However, the unemployment rate among those with Grade 12 is still high. The unemployment rate is the highest among those youths who have some, but not completed, secondary education, averaging just over 43% between 2015 and 2016. Young people with a tertiary education showed the lowest rate of unemployment at 21,1% in 2015 and at 22,1% in 2016. The youth labour participation rate is at its highest among youths with a tertiary education, followed by those with Grade 12. The same pattern is seen with the labour absorption rate. The data suggest that chances of employment increase with the level of education from Grade 12 and above.

3.3.1 Graduate unemployment

Labour market prospects for graduates have been declining over time, with the biggest decline happening between 1995 and 2000 (Bhorat, 2004, cited in Van Broekhuizen, 2016). However, graduates still enjoy the highest employment rates compared to non-graduates. The decline is largely attributed slow economic growth and to the structural changes in the labour market. Universities tend to focus on theoretical knowledge and pay little attention to practical knowledge. This means that there is a disjuncture between university education and what employers are looking for.

Van Broekhuizen’s (2016) study showed that graduate unemployment has been below 6% since 2003 and that graduate employment has been above 80%. Figure 27 shows that graduates have the highest employment rates compared to non-graduates. Whilst the employment rate of the general population is just above 40%, graduate employment rates have been consistently above 80%.

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Figure 27: Employment rates among graduates and diplomates compared to total working age population: 2000 to 2015 Source: Van Broekhuizen (2016): Graduate Unemployment and Higher Education Institutions in South Africa

Figure 28 shows unemployment numbers and unemployment rates for graduates and diplomates. Graduates have much lower unemployment rate compared to diplomates. It also shows that diplomate unemployment has been on the increase since 2009, from below 10% to about 16% by 2015, while graduate unemployment showed a marginal increase over the same period.

Figure 28: Graduate and diplomate narrow unemployment and narrow unemployment rates: 2000 to 2015 Source: Van Broekhuizen (2016): Graduate Unemployment and Higher Education Institutions in South Africa Labour markets prospects also have a racial dimension, with black African and coloured graduates more likely to be unemployed. This has been partly attributed to the difference in higher education institutions, with employers showing a negative view of historically disadvantage institutions. Figure 29 shows labour market prospects by population group and by level of education. The data also show once again that the younger one is, the more likely one is to be unemployed.

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Figure 29: Youth unemployment rate by population group by level of education: 2018 Source: Statistics South Africa (2018b): QLFS (Quarter 1)

Table 3 shows unemployment by education level. Graduates have the lowest unemployment rates compared to those with other qualifications. Broken down into age groups, the graduate unemployment rate was 33,5% for those aged between 15 and 24, and 10,2% among those aged 25 to 34 years. This is as compared to the unemployment rate of 4,7% among adults (35 to 64 years).

Table 3: Unemployment rate by education level: 2018 Education Level Unemployment rate Less than Grade 12 31,1% Grade 12 28,2% Other tertiary education 15,6% Graduate 7,9% Source: StatsSA (2018b): QLFS: Quarter 1

Table 4 indicates the employment status of disabled persons compared with the total population, according to the 2011 Census.

Table 4: Percentage distribution of persons aged 16 to 64 years by disability status and labour market: 2011 With disability Without disability Labour market status % Labour market status % Employed 62,0 Employed 63,4 Unemployed 27,3 Unemployed 27,6 Not economically active 10,7 Not economically active 9,0 Total 100 Total 100 Source: Stats SA (2014a): Census 2011: Profile of Persons with Disabilities

36 Persons with disabilities have slightly lower levels of employment compared to persons without disabilities (62,0% and 63,4%). The profile of unemployed persons shows a similar pattern for those with and without disabilities. Persons with disabilities had a higher proportion of persons not economically active (10,7%) than those without disabilities (9,0%). The similarities and the not so significant differences between persons with disabilities and without disabilities depicted in Table 4 could be attributed to the employment equity policies implemented by the government.

3.4 YOUTH ENTREPRENEURSHIP

Entrepreneurship is a possible avenue to making a living for young people who are not absorbed by the labour market. However, the participation of young people in business is very low. Young people face many obstacles, such as lack of funding, etc. TEA, which is an indicator of the level of entrepreneurship, is relatively low in South Africa as compared to the rest of the continent. Although TEA has doubled since 2001, it is still far below the African average. Other findings relate to the relationship between entrepreneurship participation and race, and education level. Race is also a factor in participation in entrepreneurship, with black South Africans involved in TEA declining from 85% in 2013 and 2014 to 68% in 2015. Indians have doubled their TEA involvement since 2014, while white early-stage entrepreneurs are at almost three times their 2014 levels (see Figure 30). Education level also appears to be a factor in the level of TEA – with a 67,4% TEA rate for those who have completed secondary education and beyond while the TEA level of those without an education is at 4,4% (Kelley et al., 2016).

Figure 30 shows TEA levels by age in South Africa from 2001 to 2015. It also compares South African levels of TEA with the African average TEA.

Figure 30: Total early-stage entrepreneurial activity (TEA) in South Africa by age group: 2001 to 2015 Source: Kew, Herrington, Litovsky and Gale (2016): Generation Entrepreneur?

Figure 31 shows the distribution of youth entrepreneurs by gender in 2009 and 2014. Young men are more likely to be entrepreneurs than young women, and youths in the age group 25 to 34 years and adults aged between 35 and 44 years are more likely to be

37 involved in entrepreneurship than all the other population groups. The figure also shows a slight decline in the percentage of youth entrepreneurs from 2009 to 2014.

Figure 31: Share of youth (15 to 34 years) entrepreneurs by gender: 2009 and 2014 Source: Stats SA (2016d): The Social Profile of the Youth 2009‐2014

Table 5 shows youth participation in entrepreneurship in 2009 and 2014. The table shows that youth entrepreneurs declined from 609 000 in 2009 to 543 000 in 2014. It also shows that youths in urban areas are more likely to be entrepreneurs compared to youths in rural areas. Furthermore, the data show that entrepreneurship is dominated by males.

Table 5: Youth entrepreneurs by gender, age group, and geo-type: 2009 and 2014 Gender/Year (numbers & percentage) Age group Male Female Both Male Female Both 2009 2014 15-24 years # % # % # % # % # % # % Urban 37 62.9 27 63.5 64 63.2 35 62.9 15 63.0 50 62.9 Rural 22 37.1 16 36.5 37 36.8 20 37.1 9 37.0 29 37.1 Total 59 100 43 100 101 100 55 100 24 100 79 100 25-34 years Urban 245 75.0 115 63.9 361 71.0 234 69.9 82 63.3 316 68.0 Rural 82 25.0 65 36.1 147 29.0 101 30.1 48 36.7 148 32.0 Total 327 100 180 100 508 100 334 100 130 100 464 100 15-35 years Urban 282 73.1 142 63.8 425 69.7 268 68.9 97 63.3 365 67.3 Rural 104 26.9 81 36.2 184 30.3 121 31.1 57 36.7 178 32.7 Total 386 100 223 100 609 100 389 100 154 100 543 100 Source: Stats SA (2016d): The Social Profile of the Youth 2009‐2014

Stats SA’s (2014d) Survey of Employers and the Self-employed (SESE) 2013, which focused on non-registered businesses, showed that most of the informal businesses are run by black people between 35 and 44 years (See Table 6). The youth (15 to 34) accounts for just around 30% of the individuals who own businesses not registered for value-added tax (VAT). This seems to be consistent with the results of the survey of SMEs conducted in 2010 (FinScope, 2010).

38 Table 6 shows the percentage of individuals running non-VAT-registered businesses by population and age groups between 2015 and 2016.

Table 6: Percentage of individuals running non-VAT-registered businesses: 2015 and 2016 Year (percentage) By population group 2015 2016 Black African 79,3 82,3 Coloured 2,5 3,7 Indian/Asian 4,5 4,5 White 13,6 9,6 Total 100 100 By age cohort 15-24 9,4 4,9 25-34 29,2 25,3 35-44 27,9 31,6 45-54 21,3 26,0 55-64 12,1 12,1 Total 100 100 Source: Stats SA (2015; 2016): Datasets Figure 32 shows business ownership in 2015 and 2016 by age. Youth business ownership was at its highest in the age categories 30 to 34 years, followed by 25 to 29 years. Youths below 24 years are less likely to be business owners. This could be because most of those below 24 years are still attending an educational institution and most of them are less likely to have access to start-up capital. Compared to the age categories 35 to 39 years and 40 to 44 years, youth business ownership is low. The overall business ownership figure by the youth is low when juxtaposed with the distribution of the youth population at just around 36% of the overall population. Although there is currently no readily available data on the status of youth company directorship, the likelihood that the figures are low is very high judging by the amount of youth business ownership. With regard to non-executive directorship, the number of youths is also likely to be low as most companies look for experience.

Figure 32: Age distribution of small businesses: 2015 and 2016 Source: Stats SA (2015; 2016): Datasets

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Figure 33 shows the distribution of youth business ownership across all the provinces. Gauteng and KwaZulu-Natal had the highest youth business ownership, and together they contributed around 48% in 2015 and about 45% in 2016 to the total youth business owners in South Africa. This could be attributed to the provinces’ large populations and high level of economic activity.

Figure 33: Youth-owned businesses by province: 2015 and 2016 Source: Stats SA (2015; 2016): Datasets

Figure 34 shows the level of education of business owners. Available data show that most business owners have some secondary education but have not completed Grade 12, followed by those with Grade 12. The data suggest that there is a positive correlation between the level of education and participation in entrepreneurship. This seems to corroborate the finds on the 2016 GEM report, which showed a positive correlation between the level of education and TEA.

Figure 34: Level of education of business owners: 2015 and 2016 Source: Stats SA (2015; 2016): Datasets 40

Figure 34 shows that the level of education seemed to be a key factor in determining business ownership. Business ownership for those with no schooling was very low, compared to those with some secondary education and higher.

The FinScope (2010) survey sought to, among others, determine the sources of training of small business owners. Figure 35 illustrates the findings.

Figure 35: Skills training resources for small business owners in South Africa: 2010 Source: FinScope (2010): FinScope South Africa Small Business Survey

The FinScope (2010) survey showed that the majority of business owners (63%) acquired their business skills through self-education. Only about 5% acquired their skills through training programmes. This could mean that either the visibility or the availability of the training programmes is low. Higher education also does not seem to play a big role in skills for small business owners. This could suggest that South African higher education is not orientated towards encouraging entrepreneurship.

Awareness of the different organisations that give support and advice to small businesses has a bearing on the start-up as well as sustenance of businesses. The FinScope (2010) survey probed the awareness of small business owners of organisations that give support and advice to small businesses. Figure 36 shows the respondents’ awareness of these organisations.

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Figure 36: Awareness of organisations that give support and advice to small businesses Source: FinScope (2010): FinScope South Africa Small Business Survey

The FinScope (2010) survey revealed that most of the business owners (71%) were not aware of organisations that give support and advice to small businesses in South Africa. Of the remaining 29%, some 14% were aware of the NYC and the Umsobomvu Youth Fund (now collectively NYDA), and 10% cited commercial banks as sources of support. The level of awareness of other institutions created specifically to support small businesses is very low – with 9% being aware of SEDA, 3% being aware of Khula Enterprise Finance, with the rest of the other organisations each being known by just around 1% of the respondents.

BOX 6: Youth Voices

Into ebangela ukuba amashishin isingabinawo, banqabile abantu abaphangelayo apha ekuhlaleni. Kukhona oomakhulu nootatomkhulu abarholo indodla kengoko uthi uthengisa lanto uyithengisayo ufumanise ukuba ithathwa ngetyala ngabamakhulu be ndodla inyanga yonke lonto yenze ukuba ungabi nanto uyithengisayo. Lont ouyithengisayo izobhatalwa xa kuphinde kwakho indodla. Wena mntu uthengisayo uthengisa xa kurholwa indodla.

Enye into ebangela ukuba singaqali amashishin iyinto yokuba thina bantu batsha asifundiswanga ukuba umntu uliqala njani imashishini lakhe. Sifuna ukufundiswa siqeqeshwe kwizakhono ezizokwazi ukusinceda ukuba sikwazi ukuqala amashishini ethu. Siyabawela ukwenza amashishini, kodwa asiyaz iindlela yokuwalawula umzekelo ukuba uwaphatha njani amatyala ngabantu apho eshishinini,ungayazi uba imali yakho ibheka ngaphi iyeyathenga ntoni kweye yimalini eshiyekileyo ebankini yakho izinto ezinjalo.

Ndicinga ukuba ngaba mna singabanye sinalo ulwazana lokuba ungaliqhala njani ishishini lakho kodwa asinayo imali yokuwanqala. Ukuba kungakhonje imali, singabanye siding imali yokuqala amashishini.

Figure 37 illustrates that the main reasons for starting a business were unemployment and the lack of alternative streams of income. Data from the FinScope (2010) survey indicates that the majority of young people (16 to 35) in South Africa who ventured into business did so because they were unemployed, or could not find a job (29%), compared to 24% who started a business because they saw an opportunity, or those who ventured into business to make money (14%). This means that when one adds those who lost their jobs (8%) to those who could not find a job, a total of 37% of young people own a business because they were unemployed. In most cases, businesses that are started out of 42 desperation due to unemployment fail before reaching maturity. It is also a source of concern that only 6% of young people start businesses because they want to use their skills. The FinScope (2010) survey’s findings seem to be in line with the 2013 SESE (Stats SA, 2014d), which unfortunately did not disaggregate the findings by age.

Figure 37: Motivation to start a business Source: FinScope (2010): FinScope South Africa Small Business Survey

The growth and sustenance of a business depend on the ability of the entrepreneur to deal with risks and obstacles to growing the business. Figure 38 shows some of the obstacles cited by the respondents in the FinScope (2010) survey.

Figure 38: Obstacles to growing a business Source: FinScope (2010): FinScope South Africa Small Business Survey Operating space was identified by the majority of youth-owned businesses (385) as a main obstacle to business growth. Access to finance was cited by 214 as an obstacle to business growth, and 212 cited competition as an obstacle. Crime and theft and the cost of finance were also identified as serious challenges to business growth. Issues such as tax, labour regulations, and business regulations were seen as minor obstacles to growing a business.

Registration of a business in most instances shows the zeal with which a businessperson is looking at growing the business and it is a big step towards formalising a 43 business/enterprise. Business registration is normally related to the age of the business owner. Figure 39 shows the extent of business registration by age.

4000 3500 3000 2500 2000

Percentage 1500 1000 500 0 Registered Not Registered Don't Know Total 16 - 35 Yrs 279 1732 39 2050 36+ Yrs 913 2660 53 3626

Figure 39: Business registration by age groups Source: FinScope (2010): FinScope South Africa Small Business Survey

Out of a total of 2 050 youth-owned businesses surveyed, only 279 were registered businesses, compared to 913 owned by people aged 36 and above. The issue of non- registration of businesses affects both youth-owned businesses and businesses owned by the 36+ year age group. The data show that 1 732 businesses owned by young people were not registered and 2 660 of those owned by people aged 36+ years were not registered. A large proportion of businesses are not registered in South Africa and more needs to be done to raise awareness among small business owners regarding the benefits of being registered; for example, access to government business opportunities.

Figure 40 shows the sources of start-up capital as cited by youth business owners. The majority (252 000) indicated starting their business from unspecified sources, followed by 117 000 who raised start-up capital from previous and/or present wage employment. Given that the question did not specify the development funding agencies such as NYDA, SEFA, IDC and others, the likelihood is that unspecified funding is from these agencies. A total of 128 respondents cited spouses/partners as their source of start-up capital, while 118 cited salaries as their source. Given the high level of youth unemployment, it stands to reason that most young people would not have savings or assets to start a business. There is a small number (10), who started their business by obtaining a business loan from a bank.

44

Figure 40: Source of start-up capital: 2013 Source: Stats SA (2013): Datasets

Financial recordkeeping is a key aspect of business and a major determinant of the sustenance and growth of a business. Figure 41 shows the extent to which respondents in the FinScope (2010) survey reported financial recordkeeping.

60%

50%

40%

30%

Percentage 20%

10%

0% 16 - 25 Years 36+ Years Keep Financial Records 43% 50% Don't Keep Financial Records 57% 50%

Figure 41: Business owners' financial recordkeeping by age Source: FinScope (2010): FinScope South Africa Small Business Survey

The majority of young people (57%) do not keep financial records of their businesses. The data also show that not keeping financial records of their businesses was not limited to young people, as 50% of people over 36 also did not keep financial records. Information generated through recordkeeping is not only important for legal purposes, but is also needed to assess the strengths and weaknesses of a business.

45 3.5 CONCLUSION

The participation of young people in the economy leaves much to be desired. Data show that an estimated 7,4 million young people are not in education or in employment. Limited participation of the youth is largely attributed to the limited ability of the economy to absorb labour and create adequate opportunities, and to low skills sets. The highest level of unemployment is among the youth. Rates of youth unemployment increased from 2010 to 2016, which suggests that current policy interventions are not having the desired impact. The level of youth participation in entrepreneurship in South Africa is still very low compared to the levels on the African continent and the world at large. In cases where young people establish businesses, they face numerous challenges like operating space, funding, etc. Considerable numbers of youth businesses are not registered and some are not keeping financial records, which makes it difficult for them to access business opportunities, especially in the public sector.

Youth participation in the economy is to a large extent influenced by historical and socio- economic factors, with white people and Indians more likely to be entrepreneurs and more likely to be employed than black and coloured people. The level of education is also shown to have some correlation with the likelihood of a business succeeding or failing. This suggests that investment in education is not only important for participation in the labour market, but it is also important for participation in business. Various policy interventions, like the implementation of the NDP, the establishment of SEDA and SEFA, and employment tax incentives, have not yet yielded the desired outcomes.

3.6 IMPLICATIONS

 The limited participation of young people in the economy can result in South Africa missing opportunities that might accrue from the youth bulge. As a youthful country, South Africa should take advantage of the youth bulge, which, if properly planned for, could make a positive impact on youth economic participation. If the youth bulge is not properly planned for, it will result in large numbers of young people not participating in the economy.

 While the NGP is geared towards the creation of employment, there is room for strengthening entrepreneurship. Many young people do not participate in the economy. Unemployment among the youth is very high compared to the general labour force population groups. Supporting entrepreneurship among young people has been identified as an important way of addressing high unemployment and increasing youth participation in the economy.

 Salaries constitute the largest component of household income, which suggests that employment is the key source of livelihood for many households. It could also be an indication that not many members of households and, by extension, young people, own businesses. Over-reliance on a single income source has the potential of perpetuating inequalities in a society, especially where unemployment is high among the youth.

 The level of youth ownership of businesses is low (33%), considering the fact that young people constitute the highest proportion of the population at about 36,5%. The low levels of entrepreneurship among young people have implications for job creation and income generation by this population group. Entrepreneurship has a huge 46 potential for reducing unemployment and high dependence on employed household members.

 There is a trend in South Africa where many young people (43%) venture into business because of unemployment, rather than being motivated by opportunities in the market or passion for a particular business. This trend could lead to many small businesses collapsing in the early stages of development as youths pursuing business for the above reasons are likely to lack passion for business and have limited or no skills in the chosen area of business.

3.7 RECOMMENDATIONS

 It is important to foreground employment creation and support for entrepreneurship to form the core of the interventions in the area of youth economic participation. The NGP and the NDP must be monitored to ensure that they deliver on the expansion of the economy so as to absorb labour. Interventions to create opportunities for young people to participate in the economy, such as economic charters and preferential procurement, must be expanded to maximise youth participation in the economy.

 Beef up initiatives by the state, such as youth employment subsidies for employers and the jobs fund, with a focus on unemployed young people, those who lack the skills required by the labour market, and those who lack essential qualifications. This is the only way that these schemes can create viable human capital for the economy. It is recommended that these schemes not be designed as long-term job creation programmes, but as short- to medium-term interventions that can stimulate the labour market to seek young, skilled people within South Africa because these schemes may be unsustainable in the long run.

 Access to start-up capital and increasing support for new youth-owned businesses are crucial to entrepreneurship. A business start-up capital scheme for youth entrepreneurs, funded by the state through its development funding agencies and the dti, can be established to support and stimulate young people to enter businesses. It is recommended that start-up business capital be structured not as conventional loans currently offered by the development finance institutions, but as a form of business support to provide business start-up funding, mentorship, training, and business expansion and growth. The focus of the scheme would be to grow a local youth industrial development plan for micro enterprises, which are currently not registered and do not even keep financial records. This is an important sector for local economic development and job creation in the country, which has not been fully exploited for stimulating the economy.

47 CHAPTER 4: EDUCATION, SKILLS, AND SECOND CHANCES

4.1 INTRODUCTION

After more than three centuries of institutionalised inequality on the basis of race, South Africa finds itself in the process of building a democratic society where all people have the opportunity to freely and meaningfully participate in society. The NDP underscores the importance of “improving the quality of education, skills development and innovation” in the development of the country. Education is a critical socio-economic right and the NYP (2015-2020) identifies it as one of five “pillars” on which youth interventions should be based. Indeed, this offers numerous benefits to society and the individual having the opportunity to acquire education. The social benefits include the promotion of nation- building and social cohesion, and the production of law-abiding citizens through the inculcation of social and political values. Many education systems of today, including those of South Africa, have the explicit purpose of educating for democracy. The South African Schools Act (No. 84 of 1996) demonstrates that schools in this country are expected to foster democracy, as well as several other freedoms, including economic freedom:

This country requires a new national system for schools which will redress past injustices in educational provision, provide an education of progressively high quality for all learners and in so doing lay a strong foundation for the development of all our people's talents and capabilities, advance the democratic transformation of society, combat racism and sexism and all other forms of unfair discrimination and intolerance, contribute to the eradication of poverty and the economic wellbeing of society (South African Schools Act, No. 84 of 1996, preamble).

A further social benefit recognised by economists is the positive effect of education on economic growth. An important result here is that it is not only the amount of education possessed by the population in a country but also the quality of the education that leads to economic growth (Colclough et al., 2004). At the level of the individual, one can view education as having intrinsic value through the insights and enjoyment of knowledge that it affords. Education also empowers individuals to participate meaningfully in society.

One key area in which education empowers individuals to participate meaningfully is through access to the labour market. As this chapter demonstrates, the amount and quality of education received by individuals is strongly related to the probability of finding employment and the level of wages one can expect to earn. Indeed, education is widely regarded as a key mechanism for bringing about transformation, a reduction in unemployment, and the “eradication of poverty” (South African Schools Act, No. 84 of 1996).

There is, however, an element of a vicious circle at work. This is because the home background of students, in particular their socio-economic status (SES), has a significant impact on educational outcomes. This is true in every society, but the strength of the relationship varies considerably across societies. The extent to which youths from disadvantaged backgrounds have a real opportunity to achieve educational outcomes that will enable them to be successful in the labour market is one indication of whether the

48 education system can be expected to transform existing patterns of inequality or merely reproduce them.

4.2 EDUCATION AND SKILLS DEVELOPMENT CONTEXT

Since 1994, a wide range of policy and institutional reforms have been implemented in South Africa, with the intention of improving access to and the quality of education and skills among the youth. These reforms come in the context of glaring educational inequalities that were inherited from the apartheid era. In 1994, the separate administrations of education were consolidated into a unified Department of Education (DoE), which was subsequently split into the Department of Basic Education (DBE) and the Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET). Considerable authority was also delegated to provincial education departments, especially regarding the administration of education spending. BOX 7: Youth Voices The South African Schools Act (No. 84 of 1996) has been the most Government baile bare a go sanangwana o swanetse gore a patele school fees primary or secondary. Gona le banaba ba comprehensive and redefining patela di school fees gonabjale and government nto yeo a education policy document of the new ba e tsebekalebaka la gore a go namotho o le gore o dispensation. It stipulated school tsamaya a nayisisadilotsatswana le tseo a lebelela gore kennetebathobanto e ba e latela kappa bjang. Bjale management and governance protocol nnaponoyakakegore go be le bathoba e le gore so as to promote a racially blind and bahlokomela gore dilotseoo government e di boletseng di a democratic South Africa. diragala.

Le go hlokomela matichere ba bangwe a ba ye diklasing ba A key empirical link that underlies much dula ba dira manila ba bangwe ba hlokomelana le diphone. of this chapter is that education is Ba ba monitare ka gore motho o hlaba phone a dira manala bana kakuaba tlodula ba rasa. Geba re Circuit manager o wa known to influence labour market tla ke gona bare tla re le ruteng. performance. Studies have found that the quality of education (often measured by demonstrated skills) may have a more important impact on labour market performance than the years of education. Widespread recognition of the empirical link between skills and labour market outcomes is evident in the fact that the majority of youth employment interventions worldwide involve some form of training. However, research suggests that adult literacy interventions and second-chance opportunities are important in countries with high unemployment among the less well-educated youth. South Africa could be described as such a country and it is therefore worth taking note of the main post- school training programmes that have been implemented.

The Adult Basic Education and Training (ABET) Act (No. 52 of 2000) established public and private centres for adult learning, and made provision for the funding and quality assurance of such centres. The programme aimed to achieve the literacy of 4,7 million adults between 2008 and 2012, with the idea that this would be generally sufficient to achieve the Dakar goal of halving illiteracy (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization [UNESCO], 2000). According to the Further Education and Training (FET) Colleges Act (No. 16 of 2006), the TVET qualification may be achieved by completing Grades 10 to 12 during secondary school or by attending a public TVET college. This certification may be obtained at the 50 public TVET colleges (as at 2014) or at corresponding private sector colleges. Enrolments in both ABET institutions and TVET colleges have been rising in recent years.

49 The responsibility for skills training within the labour market was delegated to the Department of Labour (DoL), in terms of the Skills Development Act (No. 97 of 1998). According to this act, the National Skills Authority was established, as well as 24 statutory SETAs that provide training within the major sectors of the economy. A review of the SETAs system concluded that the programme was on a positive trajectory, despite various inefficiencies.

Some of the inefficiencies identified by the review include the lack of effective management information systems, monitoring systems, and quality assurance mechanisms. Since 2009, the skills training responsibilities of the DoL have merged with the higher education sector under the DHET. This development has potential for greater coordination between the various attempts to improve skills at post-school level.

Both basic and higher education have been a key priority of the post-1994 government and have been receiving the largest budgetary allocation since 1994. Education spending reforms have effectively repealed the funding inequalities of apartheid and have been pro- poor, as far as feasibility has allowed. Per student spending is high compared to other countries in the region and relatively high by international norms, which range between 2% and 8%. Spending per learner has increased in real terms since 1994, despite the decline in education spending as a proportion of GDP and as a proportion of total government spending. Government spending on education between 2014 and 2015 equalled 6,4% of the GDP and 20% of consolidated general government spending.

The extent to which government spending on education can be pro-poor is limited by the fact that a large proportion goes to teacher salaries and by the reality that better-qualified teachers, who enjoy moderate pay benefits, tend to work in more affluent schools (Van der Berg, 2007:871). The norms and standards introduced in 2000 stipulated that, within each province, poorer schools should receive greater allocations of non-personnel spending. In 2006, this was fine-tuned by the Education Laws Amendment Act (No. 31 of 2007), which categorised schools into nationally divided poverty quintiles and made the poorest 40% of schools “no-fee schools”. These schools receive larger allocations of non- personnel funding in compensation for not charging fees. The generally positive reception to the no-fee policy recently led to its expansion, to include the poorest 60% of schools. The overall amount spent on education has increased substantially especially since 2007/2008, even after adjusting for inflation. Government spending on education has become more progressive and equitable.

The targeted level of non-personnel funding per student, as stipulated in Government Notice No. 869 of 2006, is the amount actually reaching schools and the median total school expenditure on non-personnel items per student (funded by government allocations as well as private spending through fees) for each quintile. The government targets are clearly pro-poor, with about six times more allocated to the poorest quintile than to the richest quintile. The public spending on Quintile 1 is therefore estimated to be six times that of Quintile 5.

The amounts actually received by schools appear to be slightly less pro-poor than intended. The spending is not as strong as stipulated in the policy due to funds intended for non-personnel spending being used by schools to supplement personnel spending and late receipt of financial transfers, as well as late departmentally purchased goods and services. Schools in more affluent communities remain better resourced because they charge school fees. Private spending through fees dramatically increases the total 50 expenditure for the richest quintile and results in fairly similar levels of overall non- personnel spending across the other four quintiles. The resource base of Quintile 5 schools is therefore considerably better than that of poorer schools, but this is due to private spending, with public spending counteracting this somewhat.

Figure 42 shows the non-personnel spending per learner for each of the five poverty quintiles. It also compares the actual spending with the targets contained in Government Notice No. 869 of 2006.

R 900,00

R 800,00

R 700,00

R 600,00

R 500,00

R 400,00

R 300,00 AmountRands) (in

R 200,00

R 100,00

R 0,00 Quintile 1 Quintile 2 Quintile 3 Quintile 4 Quintile 5 Total Non-Personnel Funding (Actual) R 711,00 R 711,00 R 481,00 R 474,00 R 228,00 R 591,00 Non-Personnel Funding (Target) R 775,00 R 711,00 R 581,00 R 388,00 R 129,00 R 517,00

Figure 42: Non-personnel funding per learner by school quintile Source: Taylor, Van der Berg & Burger (n.d.): Low-quality Education as a Poverty Trap in South Africa

Figure 42 shows the extent to which the government has increased public spending in poor schools to eliminate inequalities. Targets are still not being met in the majority of the lower quintiles, while non-personnel public spending is higher in the two highest quintiles.

Despite the achievement of greater equity in education spending, substantial gaps remain in the quality of school infrastructure and learning support materials. Table 7 indicates the proportion (percentages) of schools without access to various school facilities in each province. It is evident that serious shortages persist, especially in the provinces with large rural populations. A large number of schools across provinces in the country are without access to basic facilities such as water, electricity, and sporting facilities.

According to the DBE, in 2016, a significant proportion of the schools in the Eastern Cape (23,93%), the Free State (17,20%), and KwaZulu-Natal (11,86%) did not have access to water. Table 7 shows that up to 25,46% of schools in the Eastern Cape, 36,31% in KwaZulu- Natal, 17,45% in the Free State, and 13,35% in Mpumalanga did not have electricity. In addition, up to 32,00% of schools in KwaZulu-Natal, 39,00% in the Free State, 19,00% in the Northern Cape, and 15,00% in Gauteng did not have sporting facilities.

51 Table 7: School facilities by province: 2016 No No No No No No No No sport Provinces No water computer communication ablution electricity fencing libraries laboratory facilities centres system Eastern Cape 23,93% 10,09% 25,46% 20,00% 90,55% 94,26% 89,14% 1,36% 7,00% Free State 17,20% 4,80% 17,45% 8,00% 65,04% 73,35% 78,00% 2,00% 39,00% Gauteng 0,10% 0,19% 0,64% 3,00% 36,68% 60,00% 19,72% 1,00% 15,00% KwaZulu-Natal 11,86% 2,44% 36,33% 8,00% 75,83% 88,00% 66,74% 3,00% 32,00% Limpopo 7,10% 0,62% 6,11% 8,00% 93,51% 94,00% 85,00% 1,00% 13,00% Mpumalanga 7,36% 1,37% 13,35% 20,00% 80,93% 87,70% 59,77% 1,00% 6,00% Northern Cape 2,70% 1,92% 5,62% 7,00% 72,10% 83,15% 45,13% 2,00% 8,00% North West 0,10% 0,43% 3,74% 4,00% 76,84% 71,00% 56,84% 1,00% 19,00% Western Cape 0% 0,30% 0,14% 7,00% 44,97% 66,83% 40,74% 0,07% 11,00% National (SA) 10,73% 3,22% 16,62% 11% 70,83% 81,73% 58,62% 2,00% 17,00% Source: DoE (2011): National Education Infrastructure Management System Report

There is a shortage of important facilities such as libraries, computer centres, and laboratories across all provinces. Although shortages in school facilities and materials persist, improvements since 1996 have been noteworthy. The number of schools without water more than halved, the number of schools without toilets also halved, and the number of schools with electricity nearly doubled.

Although improving the resource base of South Africa’s poor schools is imperative, local and international literature caution that additional resources are by no means a panacea for low student achievement. In South Africa, more equitable spending on education has been accompanied by improved access to education, to the point where primary and secondary school participation rates are comparable with high-income countries. However, increased resources have not translated into improved student achievement. The reality in South Africa is that the poorer-performing and historically disadvantaged sections of the school system have proved largely unresponsive to additional resources. In an attempt to make school education more accessible, the government has gradually introduced no-fee schools and nutrition programmes, among other interventions. Figure 43 shows that the percentage of learners not paying tuition fees has increased exponentially from 0,4% in 2002 to over 65% in 2016.

Figure 43: Percentage of those aged five and older attending school and not paying tuition: 2002 to 2016 Source: Stats SA (2017f): GHS 2016 52

Despite high primary and secondary school participation in South Africa, enrolment rates for higher education are low in comparison with other middle-income countries. One of the first policy attempts to address this inequitable access was the Higher Education Act (No. 101 of 1997). To address some of the inefficiencies and racial and geographical fragmentations of the higher education system, the number of institutions was reduced from 36 to 23 through various mergers facilitated by the White Paper on Higher Education of 2004.

The National Student Financial Aid Scheme (NSFAS) Act (No. 56 of 1999) makes provision for the distribution of loans, bursaries, and scholarships to eligible students attending public HEIs. The expansion in enrolments at both universities and TVET colleges is largely attributed to student funding from NSFAS. According to the NSFAS Annual Report, in 2016 it funded 225 950 students at 26 public universities and 225 557 students at 50 TVET colleges across the country. Figure 44 depicts the number of students funded by NSFAS from 2010 to 2016 in both universities and TVET colleges. Funding for TVET college students has seen the greatest growth over the years as compared to funding for university students.

Figure 44: Number of university and TVET college students assisted by NSFAS (including loans and bursaries/scholarships) Source: NSFAS (2011-2017): Annual Reports

Access to education in South Africa has always been difficult for the poor, although the current government has attempted to make it easier through no-fee schools and the NSFAS. Socio-economic inequalities have often manifested in racial terms with black people being the most disadvantaged. The majority of students from historically disadvantaged backgrounds cannot afford higher education mainly because of the legacy of apartheid. This has given rise to the #FeesMustFall movement, which demands that decolonised education must be made freely available to all students. As a response to the students’ demands, in January 2016 the former president appointed a Commission of 53 Inquiry in terms of Section 84(2)(f) of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996. The Commission of Inquiry was given eight months to investigate the feasibility of fee-free higher education and training in South Africa with regard to current legislation and financial sustainability. The terms of reference of the commission are set out below:

1. The feasibility of making higher education and training fee-free in South Africa, having regard to: 1.1. the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, all relevant higher and basic education legislation, all findings and recommendations of the various Presidential and Ministerial Task Teams, as well as all relevant educational policies, reports, and guidelines; 1.2. the multiple facets of financial sustainability, analysing and assessing the role of government together with its agencies, students, institutions, the business sector, and employers in funding higher education and training; and 1.3. the institutional independence and autonomy which should occur vis-à-vis the financial funding model. 2. The Commissions Act (No. 8 of 1947) shall apply to the commission, subject to such modifications and exemptions as may be specified by proclamation from time to time. 3. The commission shall submit interim reports and recommendations to the president whenever it is necessary. 4. The commission must complete its work within a period of eight months from the date hereof and must submit its final report to the president within a period of two months after the date on which the commission completes its work. 5. Regulations will be made in terms of the Commissions Act of 1947 and will apply to the commission to enable the commission to carry out its investigation properly and to facilitate the gathering of information by conferring on the commission such powers as are necessary including the power to enter premises, secure the attendance of witnesses and compel the production of documents. 6. The terms of reference may be amended at any time in consultation with the commissioners. 7. All organs of state, institutions, and stakeholders are required to cooperate fully with the commission.

The commission was established after former president Jacob Zuma met with vice chancellors, chairs of university councils, and student representative council leaders in October 2015 to discuss fee increases and higher education funding.

Various stakeholders have made submissions to the commission since it started its work. After the commission’s report, the then president made a commitment that students from households with incomes of R350 000 and less will receive free higher education.

4.3 YOUTH EDUCATION AND SKILLS DEVELOPMENT

Knowledge about the engagement of South African children and youths in every age cohort in different activities is important in the crafting of youth development interventions, and Figure 45 sheds some light on youth activity by age in 2016. It shows that 2% of children aged seven to 15 years are not enrolled in any educational institution, while the majority of five-year-old children are attending an education institution; either attending an ECD Programme or Grade R in primary school. The GHS of 2016 revealed that attendance of seven- to 15-year-olds remains high at primary school, with up to 96,3% at that stage of their schooling life. There was a decrease in school dropout rates of children 54 between seven and 15 years since 2002, while only 1,2% of the total number of children aged seven to 15 years were not enrolled, not employed, and not on tertiary level. According to the DoE’s (2008) requirements for admission to ordinary public schools, 14 to 18 years are the appropriate ages for secondary school. The participation level in secondary school of 16- to 18-year-olds is high in South Africa compared to other developed countries (DoE, 2017). In 2016, up to 74,4% of seven- to 24-year-olds were attending educational institutions compared to 73,6% in 2002; a slight increase over the period.

Figure 45: Youth activity by age: 2016 Source: Stats SA (2017f): GHS 2016

Very small proportions of youths are attending TVET colleges or other forms of non-school education (apart from HEIs). The proportion enrolled in higher education has increased in recent years but remains below a desirable level. The scourge of youth unemployment in its various forms (not active in the labour market, discouraged work seekers, and unemployed according to the narrow definition) becomes clearer with an increase in age.

55 4.4 BASIC ENROLMENT AND PERFORMANCE

Education is administered by two government departments, namely the DBE and the DHET. Figure 46 provides an overall picture of the distribution of learners across the education system (starting from basic education to higher education and training). In 2016, 74,2% of persons aged five years and older were attending educational institutions. For basic education, 86,9% of learners were enrolled in public schools, while literacy classes accounted for a very small percentage of the learners. Pre-school and home-based education account for 2,8% and 0,10% of the total enrolments respectively. In 2016, HEIs had enrolments of 4,8%, while 2,3% were in TVET. Other colleges and other education institutions accounted for 1,4% and 0,4% of enrolments respectively.

BOX 8: Youth Voices

Teachers used to abuse us [as deaf people] during study times. We have hearing teachers who teach deaf pupils, but do not know the background of deaf pupils. A deaf person can only teach a deaf child, because a deaf person understands what a deaf child’s needs are. Nowadays, we have teachers who have a qualification but do not understand the needs of deaf pupils … The government must employ more deaf teachers and less hearing teachers.

As jy kinders skool toe stuur, dan ontmoet hulle hul tjommies en begin ‘dinge’ te doen … They go to private school and get caught up with the wrong friends who engage in drinking and all sorts of wrong ‘things’. His solution is that they should not get pocket money so that they don’t have money to spend on those ‘things’.

Gaps exist between school coming out and parents’ availability at home after work. When that gap is huge, children get into mischief. The gang leader keeps them busy. This must be managed by planning programmes that will keep children busy after school until their parents return home from work.

There is very little that teachers can do [to prevent dropouts and improve pass rate]. The classrooms are overcrowded; the teaching equipment is not at hand … Resources are not available.

56 Figure 46: Percentage of persons aged five and older attending an educational institution by province and by type of institution: 2016 Source: Stats SA (2017f): GHS 2016

The participation in secondary schooling has increased since the late 1990s, with a secondary school gross enrolment ratio (GER) that has grown from around 83% in 1997 to over 88% in 2014, as shown by Figure 47. South Africa has one of the highest enrolments in secondary schools, compared to countries in the same economic grouping.

Figure 47: Participation rate in secondary schools between 2002 and 2015 (GER) Source: DBE (2012a; 2013b; 2014b): School Realities

57

Figures 48 and 49 highlight several dynamics contained within the overall enrolment situation. Figure 48 shows that enrolment among seven- to 15-year-olds was nearing 100% in 2011 for all race groups. The participation in education of all races increased from 96% in 2002 to 99% in 2011. The enrolment of white people is almost at par to that for Indians, mainly due to small sample sizes.

100%

99%

98%

97%

96% Percentage 95%

94%

93% 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 Black 96,4% 97,0% 97,6% 97,7% 97,5% 97,7% 97,9% 98,4% 98,5% 98,8% Coloured 95,9% 97,3% 98,0% 97,4% 97,5% 98,1% 97,2% 98,2% 98,4% 97,7% White 99,3% 99,3% 99,6% 99,4% 99,9% 99,5% 98,0% 98,9% 99,5% 99,2%

Figure 48: Enrolment of seven- to 15-year-olds by race: 2002 to 2011 Source: DBE (2013c): The Internal Efficiency of the School System 2011

Figure 49 shows the enrolment of learners aged 16 to 18 years, which indicates that there have been no dramatic increases or decreases in enrolment since 2002 among any of the population groups.

100%

90%

80%

70%

Percentage 60%

50%

40% 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 Black 84,2% 84,4% 84,7% 83,0% 84,4% 86,2% 85,3% 84,6% 83,8% 86,3% Coloured 66,5% 65,6% 66,0% 67,3% 64,0% 71,5% 70,3% 67,9% 69,2% 69,1% White 90,6% 89,6% 89,1% 92,2% 88,7% 89,8% 83,0% 86,6% 89,3% 85,6%

Figure 49: Enrolment of 16- to 18-year-olds by race Source: DBE (2013c): The Internal Efficiency of the School System 2011

Figure 49 shows that, among 16- to 18-year-olds, enrolment was conspicuously lower for coloured youths, less than 70% in 2009 and has been in that range since 2002. Approximately 86% of black and white learners were enrolled in education institutions in 58 2011, compared to only 69% of coloured learners. However, there has been a marginal difference between white and black learners since 2002. According to Social Surveys (2010), poverty, substance abuse, and gang movement are the factors that contribute to school dropouts of coloured students within the 16 to 18 age groups.

Figure 50 depicts learner retention (and conversely, dropout) by the construction of two pseudo-cohorts of learners: those progressing from Grade 8 in 2008 to Grade 12 in 2012, and those progressing from Grade 7 in 2008 to Grade 12 in 2013. The latter cohort is also shown by gender and school sector (public or independent).

Figure 50: Progression of learners from Grade 7 to 12 (2008 to 2012) and Grade 8 to 12 (2008 to 2013)1 Source: DBE (2008-2013): School Realities

There is an increase of enrolment for most cohorts from Grade 7 up to Grade 10, when it peaks before it declines. It also depicts high enrolment of female learners compared to male learners. The increase in enrolment in Grade 10 is attributed to high levels of repetition and learners are evidently dropping out of the system at an alarming rate after Grade 10. Enrolments decline somewhat from Grade 11 and 12 due to repetition, retention, and dropout, with high female enrolment compared to male enrolment. It was found that between 2007 and 2013 enrolment seemed to have changed and favoured female learners due to the higher repetition of grades by male rather than female learners.

A ministerial review into learner retention estimated that the dropout from Grade 11 to Grade 12 was 24,2%. Furthermore, the numbers writing Grade 12 are even lower than the numbers enrolled in Grade 12. In 2013, only 562 112 out of the 597 196 enrolled in Grade 12 wrote Grade 12, while in 2012, only 511 152 out of 579 384 wrote Grade 12. Interestingly, this high dropout rate during Grade 11 and Grade 12 does not apply to the independent schools sector. Enrolment numbers appear far more stable within the independent sector and, in fact, the numbers swell somewhat in Grade 12. This may signal

1 The data included in Figure 50 excluded learners at stand-alone ECD, special schools, and ABET and FET colleges. 59 a practice of “dropping into” independent schools in Grade 12, perhaps due to an expectation of better preparation for the Grade 12 examination.

It should be noted that the majority of learners in the independent sector are black and that a substantial proportion of independent schools serve children of relatively low SES. Given the large numbers of over-age learners attending school, it is likely that much of the dropping out is attributable to older learners becoming discouraged and giving up on school. However, when younger learners drop out, it is clearly a sign of vulnerability.

Figure 51: Grade repetition rates by province: 2016 Source: StatsSA (2017h): Education Series Volume III: Educational Enrolment and Achievement 2016

Figure 52 shows the distribution of reasons for dropping out of school reported by seven- to 18-year-old males and females. Poor academic performance and money for fees are the main contributors to dropout rates among both males and females. Female learners are disproportionately affected by family commitments at 18,5%, compared to males at 9,9%.

Figure 52: Reasons for dropping out of school for boys and girls (seven to 18 years): 2016 Source: Stats SA (2017f): GHS 2016

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Although the government has invested considerable resources to make access to schooling easy, a large number of learners still cite lack of money for fees as a reason for not attending school. According to the GHS of 2013, an estimated 548 776 children aged seven to 18 years were not attending educational institutions in 2012. The number of dropouts between seven and 18 years decreased from 300 000 in 2002 to 108 690 in 2012.

Figure 53 indicates that lack of finance, although still a major reason for dropping out, has declined since 2002, from approximately 39% to an estimated 22,5% in 2015. This may well be attributable to the no-fee school policy, which has been in effect since 2006.

Figure 53: Percentage of those dropping out citing lack of money for fees (ages seven to 18): 2002 to 2015 Source: Stats SA (2002-2015): GHS Datasets

Although the influence of the no-fee policy on parent involvement has not yet been analysed, it is clear that the removal of financial constraints to school participation had a positive effect of the policy.

Figure 54 illustrates problems experienced by learners in schools. Large classes, lack of books, too high fees, and poor facilities were cited as some of the main problems. Large classes were particularly a big challenge in North West and the Western Cape, while lack of books was a significant problem in Mpumalanga and the Free State.

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Figure 54: Nature of problems experienced by all youths attending public schools by province: 2016 Source: Stats SA (2017f): GHS 2016

4.5 EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT AMONG THE YOUTH

Available data show that the educational attainment of South Africans has been steadily rising for many decades, especially among the black and coloured population. The Grade 12 examination is the first nationally standardised assessment that is linked to a qualification that holds credibility in the labour market. The completion of Grade 12 has been improving over time, with an increase from approximately 3,7 million in 1996 to around 11,6 million in 2016. Statistics since 1995 (see Table 8) show that the Grade 12 pass rate increased from 53,4% in 1995 to 72,5% in 2016. The highest Grade 12 pass rate was in 2013 at 78,2%. However, the pass rate with university endorsement has been fluctuating, dropping from 17,9% in 1995, to 12,5% in 2000. However, Table 8 shows that the latter pass rate increased steadily, peaking at 30,6% in 2013 before declining to 26,6% in 2016. Table 8 shows the number of learners BOX 10: Youth Voices who wrote Grade 12 since Lots of kids in our area are gangsters, they drop out of school, they do their 1995. It also shows the own thing. I can’t tell you why they drop out of school, but I think the parents pass rate and those who have a lot to contribute to this problem, because they allow their children to passed with an do their own stuff. Parents do not control their kids; they don’t apply discipline ... In Cape Town we are spoiled because the schools are very much near. There exemption/bachelor are no longer distances to travel like in the Eastern Cape. Why drop out? pass. Parents abuse alcohol, they abuse drugs, and they don’t care about schooling of their children.

On school dropout, it’s a bigger challenge, especially with Maths and Science and other subjects, because you do your Science at high school without laboratory equipment. English is another challenge. When you go to varsity, all those kids from private schools are steps ahead from the kids from public school. There is a frustration, because point number one, when the lecture starts first month, you don’t understand anything. Second month there is exam!!! You’ve got your exemption from Grade 12 and suddenly you got zero at varsity level.

62 Table 8: Total learners writing and passing Grade 12: 1995 to 2016 Year Number passed Number wrote Pass rate (%) Exemption rate (%) 1995 283 742 531 453 53,4 17,9 1996 279 487 513 868 54,4 14,8 1997 264 795 558 970 47,4 15,4 1998 272 488 552 384 49,3 12,5 1999 249 831 511 159 48,9 12,8 2000 283 294 489 298 57,9 12,5 2001 277 206 449 332 61,7 13,8 2002 305 774 443 765 68,9 15,3 2003 322 492 440 096 73,3 16,9 2004 330 717 467 890 70,7 18,6 2005 347 184 508 180 68,3 18,2 2006 351 503 527 950 66,6 17,0 2007 368 217 564 381 65,2 16,2 2008 344 794 533 561 62,2 15,1 2009 334 718 552 073 60,6 20,2 2010 364 513 537 543 67,8 23,5 2011 348 114 496 087 70,2 24,3 2012 377 829 511 152 73,9 26,6 2013 439 779 562 112 78,2 30,6 2014 403 874 532 860 75,8 28,3 2015 455 825 644 536 70,7 25,8 2016 442 672 610 178 72,5 26,6 Source: DBE (2016): National Senior Certificate Examination Report

Table 9 shows the numbers achieving 40% or above in Mathematics in Grade 12 since 2011. The total number of candidates who achieved 40% and above in 2011 was 67 541, which then increased to 97 790 in 2013. It then declined to 79 050 in 2014, before rising steadily to 89 084 by 2016. Gauteng and the Western Cape had the best results in achieving 40% and above in Mathematics. Limpopo, Eastern Cape, and KwaZulu-Natal are still showing lower performance in terms of achieving 40% and above in Mathematics, even though they have many learners writing the Mathematics exam.

Table 9: Learners achieving 40% or above in Mathematics in Grade 12: 2011 to 2016 Total achieved at 40% and above Rate achieved at 40% and above (%) Province 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Eastern Cape 7 469 8 124 9 564 7 812 8 526 8 781 19,6 21,9 26,4 25,1 21,8 22,2 Free State 3 462 4 114 4 794 4 506 5 089 5 037 34,6 43,3 49,8 44,5 46,0 48,6 Gauteng 14 706 17 638 20 088 18 035 18 450 19 164 45,0 52,4 54,4 50,7 49,8 49,6 KwaZulu-Natal 14 235 18 676 25 841 17 405 17 025 18 699 23,2 29,6 35,4 24,3 20,0 23,0 Limpopo 9 580 11 926 14 224 11 485 13 185 14 633 27,3 34,0 40,0 35,8 32,4 33,6 Mpumalanga 5 947 6 539 7 719 6 330 7 423 7 973 29,9 34,7 39,8 35,6 36,0 34,2 North West 3 361 3 901 4 889 3 819 4 016 4 291 34,2 37,7 44,8 40,3 37,3 40,5 Northern Cape 1 022 1 045 1 198 1 022 1 101 1 116 31,2 36,5 38,2 42,4 36,1 40,0 Western Cape 7 759 8 753 9 473 8 636 9 482 9 390 54,2 56,9 56,8 56,6 57,3 60,3 National 67 541 80 716 97 790 79 050 84 297 89 084 30,1 35,7 40,5 35,1 31,9 33,5 Source: DBE (2016): National Senior Certificate Examination Report

Table 10 shows the percentage of Grade 12 candidates achieving at the level required for entrance into university since 2004 by province. The Western Cape, Gauteng, and Free 63 State have consistently achieved at a level higher than the other provinces, while Limpopo and the Eastern Cape have consistently performed below the other provinces.

Table 10: Percentage of learners achieving university endorsement by province: 2004 to 2016 2016 overall Province 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 pass rate Eastern Cape 10,1 9,4 14,4 13,9 16 15,7 17,6 19,0 20,1 17,6 18,9 56,8 Free State 19,7 18,9 21 20,2 21,4 26,3 28,6 33,1 30,3 29,8 35,8 81,6 Gauteng 23,2 20,4 30,5 29,1 33,9 35,2 36,2 38,9 37,1 35,7 36,2 84,2 KwaZulu-Natal 15,2 14,5 18,2 19,9 25,7 22,4 27,3 32,5 25,6 21,4 24,5 60,7 Limpopo 13,3 11,7 12,6 12,2 15,6 17,6 19,8 22,8 22,4 20,7 18,4 65,9 Mpumalanga 14 12,7 13,1 12,1 15,8 18,4 19,7 25,9 24,9 24,5 22,9 78,6 Northern Cape 15,5 11,9 20,1 16,8 21,1 19,9 23,0 23,3 24,7 21,1 27,5 69,4 North West 14,6 15,9 19,4 20,7 27,7 28,3 27,4 34,9 32,6 26,6 26,0 81,5 Western Cape 26,6 24,7 33 31,9 31,5 38,1 36,5 40,9 38,9 41,7 40,9 84,7 National 16,3 15,6 20,1 19,9 23,5 24,3 26,6 30,6 28,3 25,8 26,6 72,5 average Source: DBE (2016): National Senior Certificate Examination Report

The percentage achieving university endorsement remained fairly stable between 2004 and 2007 and then jumped somewhat in 2008 and remained relatively higher thereafter. It is likely, however, that this discontinuity may simply be attributable to a change in the calculation method, as the figures since 2008 are specific to entrance into a bachelor’s degree. It is clear from these figures, and from the 2010 pass rates by province, that Gauteng and the Western Cape have historically achieved the best results.

It is also clear that the proportion achieving at the required level for university entrance is considerably smaller than the pass rate. If one considers that some 40% of individuals who start school ultimately pass Grade 12, this means that between 8% and 10% of individuals who start school ultimately achieve university endorsements.

Figure 55 shows the percentage distribution of the highest educational level attained by youths (15 to 34 years) in 2015 and 2016. Over 60% were at the level of less than Grade 12, probably because many of them were still in school. The figure indicates improvement in educational attainment from 2015 to 2016.

Figure 55: Percentage distribution of the highest educational level attained by the youth: 2015 and 2016 Source: Stats SA (2016a): Social Profile of Vulnerable Groups in South Africa 2015 and 2016 64

Figure 56 compares the level of educational attainment among 25- to 34-year-olds from 1996 to 2016. In general, the level of education has increased substantially between 1996 and 2016. The number of those without education has declined by more than half (approximately 54%), while the number of those with primary and secondary education has increased exponentially, and the number of those with bachelor’s degrees has almost doubled. These indicators represent a positive improvement in educational attainments.

Figure 56: Distribution of 25- to 34-year-olds by educational attainment: 1996 to 2016 Source: Stats SA (2016b): Community Survey 2016

4.6 EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC FACTORS

Historical and socio-economic factors play an important role in the level of educational attainment among the youth. According to Stats SA, in 2016 the overall mean years of schooling for South Africa was 10,5 years. White learners spent the longest time in school at 11,4 years, compared to black learners, who spent the shortest time at an average of 8,3 years (Stats SA, 2016d). Figure 57 demonstrates that the attainment gap between black and white youths is still huge, although the gap is slowly closing. The racial gap is particularly large at the level of graduates, with 18,8% Indian and 18,6% white graduates compared to only 2,5% of black and 2,1% coloured graduates by 2016. In general, Indian and white people have the highest percentages of individuals with an education level of Grade 12 and above as compared to black and coloured people.

Figure 57: Percentage distribution of the highest education attained by youths by population group: 2016 Source: Stats SA (2016a): Social Profile of Vulnerable Groups in South Africa 2015 and 2016 65

Apart from persistent attainment gaps by race, there are also gaps in attainment by SES. Figure 58 shows the percentage of schools within different pass percentage categories by quintile of SES (sorted from poorest to least poor) in 2016. The data show that 85% of schools in Quintile 5 (most affluent 10%) attained passes in the 80% to 100% category, compared with 27,7% in Quintile 1 (the poorest 10%). Even more disparity is evident when considering that an estimated 97% of learners in Quintile 5 attain passes of 60% and above, while over 44% in Quintile 1 attain passes below 60%. The figure shows a correlation between the SES of the schools and educational outcomes.

Figure 58: Percentage of schools within different pass percentage categories by quintile Source: DBE (2016): National Senior Certificate Examination Report 2016

Figure 59 shows inequalities in South Africa by the type of school learners attend. Learners in independent schools (mainly affluent) are more likely to have access to resources that could contribute to their better academic performance. For instance, 67% of learners from independent schools have access to an Internet connection at home as compared to only 28% in no-fee schools.

Figure 59: Reported access to resources by type of school: 2016 Source: Reddy et al. (2016): Trends in International Maths and Science Study (TIMSS 2015): Highlights of Mathematics Achievement of Grade 5 South African Learners

66 Globally, literacy rates for adults with disabilities are indicated to be as low as 3% for both sexes and 1% for women. Statistics on school enrolment indicate that over 90% of children with disabilities in low-income countries do not attend school, and girls with disabilities are more likely to drop out of school due to lack of suitable facilities and a safe environment. Table 11 shows the extent to which disabled persons above 20 years have access to education

Table 11: Number of disabled persons aged 20 and above by level of education: 2011

With disability Without disability Total Level of education Number % Number % Number % No schooling 528 293 24,6 1 752 112 7,4 2 280 405 8,9 Some primary 552 610 25,7 2 636 582 11,2 3 189 192 12,4 Completed primary 132 835 6,2 1 047 051 4,4 1 179 886 4,6 Some secondary 567 971 26,4 8 135 440 34,5 8 703 411 33,8 Grade 12 252 487 11,7 7 060 685 30,0 7 313 163 28,4 Higher education 109 561 5,1 2 857 883 12,1 2 967 444 11,5 Other 7 973 0,4 84 000 0,4 91 973 0,4 Total 2 151 721 100 23 573 753 100 25 725 474 100 Source: Stats SA (2014a): Census 2011: Profile of Persons with Disabilities in South Africa

Proportionally, people with disabilities aged 20 years and above are over three times as likely to have no education (24,6%) compared to the general population. Among persons who achieved Grade 12, the proportion of persons with no disability was almost three times that of persons with disabilities (11,7% compared to 30%). Table 11 also shows that only 5,1% of persons with disabilities aged 20 years and above had a higher education, compared to 12,1% for persons with no disability.

4.7 THE QUALITY OF EDUCATION RECEIVED BY THE YOUTH

It is important to ask how educational attainment translates BOX 11: Youth Voices into useful skills. The quality of One challenge I have seen around our schools, let me just take the education is important and has a Maths field. They don’t perform well from Grade 10 up to Grade 12, bearing on the country’s economic they don’t perform well. I’ve checked one of the schools down there, one of our sisters is attending. I went to facilitate Maths and Science, development. Although the quantity the teacher was not qualified to teach Mathematics, she is only of education attained by individuals qualified to teach Geography and English. Just because there is not is associated with improved literacy, Mathematics teacher, they just ask her to assist. And they don’t teach them well. research is increasingly recognising that the quality of those years of There was a time when I went to the school and talked to the school education strongly impacts on principal to assist the learners on a voluntary basis, like in my free time, and the answer I got from her, she says to me, like they are economic and social participation. fully booked. We can’t find time for them to teach them because South Africa’s participation in recent June we have people to teach them, Saturday schools we already international surveys of educational book them, so we don’t need you. Eventually it ended up like failing dismally, so what I’m trying to say is that let us get teachers who are achievement has indicated that a equipped and we youths who are willing to help, let us be given the large proportion of children are platform to help. performing at such low levels as to render them effectively illiterate or innumerate. In the TIMSS of 2015, 61% of South Africans did not exhibit the minimum competency in basic mathematical knowledge required at the Grade 5 level (Reddy et al., 2016:3). The study further ranked South Africa 47th out of the 48 countries that participated. Similarly, Grade 5 South African children 67 came last in the Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) of 2006. About 78% of South African children scored below what educational experts designated as a low benchmark score in PIRLS in 2016. Children scoring below this benchmark score may be considered “at serious risk of not becoming literate”. The World Economic Forum’s (WEF) Executive Opinion Surveys 2012 and 2013 editions as cited in the Global Information Technology Report 2014 (WEF, 2014) ranked the quality of South Africa’s mathematics and science education last out of 148 countries assessed with a score of 1,9 (where 1 = extremely poor, among the worst in the world, while 7 = excellent, among the best in the world).

The performance of South African children in a regional context has not been impressive. Figure 60 shows South Africa’s performance in reading in Grade 6, with learners in South Africa scoring an overall achievement score of 492 in 2000 and 495 in 2007.

Figure 60: Grade 6 reading achievement by region Source: DBE (2010b): The SACMEQ III Project in South Africa 2007

Figure 60 shows South Africa’s performance in Grade 6 Mathematics, compared with other participants in the 2000 and 2007 Southern and Eastern African Consortium for Monitoring Education Quality (SACMEQ) surveys. South Africa’s mathematics scores were 486 in 2000 and 495 in 2007, and although the country’s performance for both reading and mathematics showed a slight increase, it remained below the SACMEQ average of 500.

Figure 61 shows that the majority of South African learners performed below the minimum required (400) in the TIMSS. However, on the positive side, South Africa has shown the most improvement in the TIMSS assessments between 2003 and 2015, with improvements of 87 points in Mathematics and 90 points in Science.

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Figure 61: TIMSS Maths achievement: 2015 Source: Reddy et al. (2016): TIMSS 2015: Highlights of Mathematics Achievement of Grade 5 South African Learners

Figure 62 again emphasises that affluent schools perform better than poor schools. The figure also shows that South Africa has improved in its performance from 2011 to 2015.

Figure 62: Performance in TIMSS Maths and Science Grade 9 assessments by school type: 2011 and 2015 Source: Reddy et al. (2016): TIMSS 2015: Highlights of Mathematics Achievement of Grade 5 South African Learners

The Annual National Assessment (ANA) is conducted every year to monitor the progress of learners in Mathematics and languages and to improve the quality of further education. Tests are currently used to identify the weaknesses of learners at national, provincial, district, and school levels. The writing of tests differs each year; in 2011 tests were administered in February but in 2012 and 2014 assessments were administered in the third quarter of the year. It is difficult to compare the performance since the tests were administered at different times.

69 Figure 63 depicts the performance of Grade 3, 4, and 5 learners in Mathematics.

Figure 63: Proportion of Mathematics performance in Grades 3, 4, and 5: 2011, 2012, 2013, and 2014 Source: DBE (2014a): Report on the Annual National Assessment 2013

There was a slight improvement in performance from 2011 to 2014, even though the time for writing the tests was different. Mathematics performance was constant in all grades and it might be attributed to the fact that the tests were written during the first quarter of the year. Grade 3 learners showed good performance compared to Grade 4 and 5 learners.

Figure 64 indicates the performance of Grades 3, 4, and 5 in language assessments. It shows that there has been considerable improvement from 2011 to 2014.

Figure 64: Proportion of first language performance in Grades 3, 4, and 5: 2011 to 2014 Source: DBE (2014a): Report on the Annual National Assessment 2013 The performance of Grade 3, 4, and 5 learners in languages has shown a significant increase since 2011, with higher performance in Grade 3 compared to other grades.

An important policy implication of this is that educational interventions should be implemented early in primary school and even before that in the phase of ECD.

It is important to recognise that the low quality of education received by the majority of poor children in South Africa early on during the school process translates into inadequate and unequal outcomes later on. A study by Taylor et al. (2011) demonstrated that very low proportions of poor and poorly performing children in TIMSS in 2015 went on to achieve adequate outcomes in Grade 12 several years later. An analysis of the 2007 Grade 12 70 examination data shows that one in 11 white students achieved A-aggregates, compared to only one in 640 black students. Furthermore, just less than half of those black students who did achieve A-aggregates attended historically white and Indian schools. Beyond school, these inequalities translate into differential enrolment and success rates in higher education, as shown above.

4.8 HIGHER EDUCATION AND TRAINING

Figure 65 shows the number of enrolment of students of different races in public higher education.

Figure 65: Students enrolled in public higher education by race: 2015 Source: DHET (2017b): Statistics on Post-school Education and Training 2015

There was a considerable increase in the enrolment of African/black and coloured students between 2006 and 2015 and a decrease in enrolment for whites and Indians/Asians over the period. According to the DHET (2017b), the proportion of African students in the public higher education system grew by 7% from 2006 to 2011, increasing from 451 106 in 2006 to 696 320 in 2015. To some extent, this growth may probably be attributed to NSFAS bursaries and loans, which have expanded in recent years.

Figure 66 shows the number of students enrolled in HEIs from 2010 to 2015, indicating that the total enrolment in HEIs has been rising since 2010, spurred mostly by the surge in enrolments in public HEIs. The total student enrolment in HEIs (both public and private) grew from 983 703 in 2010 to 1 132 422 in 2015. Student enrolment in private HEIs also

BOX 12: Youth Voices

Ngamanye amaxesha abantu balapha bafumana otishala abangakwaziyo ukucacisa, lonto ke yenze ukba abantwana bandaphumeleli kuabanga abawenzayo. Ingxaki kukuba otishala abakwazi ukulukhupha ulwaziabanalo. Otishala baphelela ekutisheni kuba bengafumani msebenzi, hayi ngokuba bekuthanda ukufundisa.

Enye into siyafunda sinde siyophumelela ibanga leshumi emva koko sihlale emakhaya kuba abazali bethu abakwazi ukusincedisa ngemali ukuba siqhubekele bhambili ngezifundo zethu. Into ebangela lonto kukuba abazali bethu bapheme kumabanga aphantsi esiskolweni kengoko bangakwazi ukusincedisa thina bantwana babo basise esikolweni. grew over this period, but declined between 2011 and 2012. In 2012, more than 950 000 students had enrolled in public HEIs, while approximately 97 000 students were enrolled in private HEIs.

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Figure 66: Number of students enrolled in HEIs from 2010 to 2015 Source: DHET (2017b): Statistics on Post-school Education and Training 2015

Enrolments in Science, Engineering, and Technology (SET) have seen a steady increase from 251 334 students in 2010 to 294 935 by 2015, representing a 24,4% increase (see Figure 67). In the field of Business and Management, the data show a slight decline from 278 843 in 2010 to 273 828 in 2015. Education and other humanities also showed some growth during the same period.

Figure 67: Number of students enrolled in public HEIs by field of study: 2010 to 2015 Source: DHET (2017b): Statistics on Post-school Education and Training 2015

In 2015, 191 524 students graduated from public HEIs, which represents an increase of 3,3% (6 149) from 2014 (185 375) (DHET, 2017b). Among those who do enrol in higher education, the rate of graduation with a degree is lower for black and coloured youths than the other population groups, as Figure 68 shows.

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Figure 68: The rate of graduation by race: 2002 and 2016 Source: DHET (2017b): Statistics on Post-school Education and Training 2015 There has been a steady increase in the undergraduate success rate across all the population groups between 2002 and 2015. The success rate for coloured and black students was lower compared to that of white and Indian students. In the case of black students, the success rate was below the national average by an estimated 2% between 2014 and 2015 (see Figure 69).

Figure 69: Undergraduate success rate at public HEIs by population group: 2015 Source: DHET (2017b): Statistics on Post-school Education and Training 2015

TVET is another avenue of post-school education that is available to learners who are technically inclined or those who drop out of school before Grade 12. Figure 70 shows the enrolment in public TVET colleges across South Africa. Overall, there has been a massive increase in enrolments in public TVET colleges between 2010 and 2015, with the enrolment surging from 358 393 to 737 880.

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Figure 70: Enrolments in public TVET colleges: 2010 to 2015 Source: DHET (2017b): Statistics on Post-school Education and Training 2015

As the majority of South African youths do not achieve Grade 12 outcomes that qualify them to enter higher education, an important role exists for other forms of adult education. Figure 71 reports the numbers enrolled in public Community Education and Training (CET) institutions by between 2011 and 2015.

Figure 71: Enrolments in public CET institutions: 2011 to 2015 Source: DBE (2010-2015): Education Statistics in South Africa

Adult literacy rates (as defined by the proportion of adults with at least primary education) have been steadily increasing in recent years. This is largely because recent generations of South Africans (especially black South Africans) experienced far better access to basic education than previous generations. At national level, there has been a marginal increase in enrolments since 2011, with the enrolment increasing by just 7 000 students up to 2015, although there was a substantial increase in 2013, which subsequently declined considerably. Enrolment in Public Adult Learning Centres has been low and a number of concerns about the quality of provision have been raised.

The statistics show a decline of 4,7% in the number of learners registered in CETs for the period 2011 to 2015. Literate adults increased from 70% in 1995 to 83% in 2012, and the

74 proportion of totally illiterate adults decreased from 13% in 1995 to 6% in 2012. It is possible that some of the learners have moved to the KhaRiGude Campaign as experienced during the South African National Literacy Initiative (SANLI) of early 2000. Dramatic increases appear to have taken place in Limpopo and especially in KwaZulu-Natal, where the numbers that enrolled appear to have more than doubled since 2006. Noticeable increases have also been recorded in Gauteng and the Western Cape, while declining numbers in the Eastern Cape and Free State are a cause for concern, given that literacy is particularly low in those provinces.

Figure 72 shows the number of students enrolled in CET colleges by programme. Although the majority of students are in Adult Education and Training (AET) 1-3 and AET 4, CET is also an avenue for completion of Grade 12 for many students.

Figure 72: Number of students in CET colleges by programme: 2012 to 2015 Source: DHET (2017b): Statistics on Post-school Education and Training 2015

4.9 CONCLUSION

Access to education, both at basic and higher level, has improved substantially since the advent of democracy in 1994. This manifests in improved enrolment rates at various levels of the education system, increasing pass rates in Grade 12, and improved educational attainment as reflected in more people that have educational levels of Grade 12 and above. These improvements are largely attributable to factors like de-racialised educational institutions, no-fee schools, and NSFAS funding. However, funding is still insufficient, especially at higher education level, which prompted the president to announce free education in December 2017. At school level, a percentage of young people still cite lack of money as a factor that contributes to them dropping out of school.

Despite all these, educational attainments are still largely a function of historical and socio- economic factors like geographic location, class, gender, and race. This manifests in low levels of educational attainment among coloured and black youths as compared to white and Indian youths. Schools in lower quintiles (schools in poor areas) still perform much lower than the schools in higher quintiles (schools in rich areas). In addition to catering for

75 poorer learners, lower-quintile schools are more likely to have insufficient infrastructure and facilities like laboratories, libraries, ablution facilities, etc. Poorer schools are also more likely to experience challenges like large classes, teacher absenteeism, and lack of books. Youths living in households that can afford certain things like the Internet, books, tutors, etc. have a high chance of performing better.

Improvements referred to above notwithstanding, the quality of education is still lower in South Africa compared to countries of similar economic size and even those of lower economic size, although there are indications that it is improving. International comparative studies have attested to the lower quality of education in South Africa. Lower education quality has implications for access to labour markets and business opportunities.

4.10 IMPLICATIONS

 Enrolment in primary and lower secondary education has been high in post-apartheid South Africa, although they drop off sharply at Grade 11 and Grade 12. Consequently, enrolment in higher education is relatively low, despite moderate increases in recent years. The implications for these patterns are that the throughput of the education system will not meet the demands and requirements of human capital to stimulate and sustain the economy. This will lead to even higher unemployment among school leavers and graduates, as they may not have the correct skills mix for the job market due to the poor quality of the products of our education system.

 The available data indicate that the quality of education in the South African education system remains a significant challenge. This is despite significant investment by the government to improve the standard of education in the country. Indeed, access to education has been a remarkable success. The relatively low quality of education may result in ever-increasing numbers of learners dropping out early in the education system. They may not see the value of going through the system, considering the dim prospects of finding a job or progressing to higher education and training institutions. This phenomenon also has the potential of widening the poverty gap. Young people from poor backgrounds attending poorly resourced schools remain trapped in the poverty cycle, as the current system cannot assist them to escape the poverty trap, due to the poor quality of education they receive from the system.

 Despite efforts by the government to make university education in South Africa more accessible to the most disadvantaged youths, the enrolment mix remains skewed and unrepresentative of the racial grouping of the population. The implications of this is that the country will lag behind in producing skilled young people with tertiary-level qualifications in the numbers needed to balance the already skewed labour force in critical sectors such as science, engineering, medicine, architecture, finance, and information technology. These fields are key to economic growth and wealth creation.

 While enrolment in TVET colleges is increasing, the quality of graduates and dropout rates in these colleges are worrying. Negative perceptions of TVET colleges exacerbate the low credibility of these institutions and discourage youths to enrol in them. This further contributes to skills shortages in the labour market. South Africa’s lack of skills, especially among the youth, is fundamentally tied to the current education system at all levels. The skills shortages, even in basic areas such as carpentry, plumbing, welding,

76 and artisan electricians, contribute to the country’s lack of competitiveness in, for instance, infrastructure programmes. If these skills shortages are not urgently addressed, South Africa’s economy will be forced to import much of these basic skills, increasing the unemployment rates in the country further, especially among young people.

4.11 RECOMMENDATIONS

 The dropout rate at basic education level is high for the country’s investment in the education system. Several interventions need to be introduced at all schools, in addition to improving the quality of teaching and learning. This includes establishing basic infrastructure norms and standards before a school can open for teaching and learning. Basic infrastructure requirements that must be included in the norms and standards are laboratories, libraries, computer centres with working computers, fenced schools for security, and playgrounds that can be used for sports activities. Together, these can potentially improve the learning environment for pupils.

 Decrease educational inequalities according to class, race, and geographical location that mainly manifest in educational outcomes and achievements.

 Strategic plans to enhance the quality of TVET colleges and the training offered need to be established through partnerships between the DHET and the private sector.

 Teaching and learning at schools must not only focus on the performance of teachers and students, but also establish the minimum time that learners and teachers must spend at school, without compromise. It is recommended that the curriculum for basic education should introduce technical subjects and be made compulsory at earlier grades to ensure that learners have exposure to a range of options prior to exiting the education system.

 It is recommended that the basic education curriculum should introduce national examinations at the end of primary and secondary school with a certification of competency in subject areas of examination. This will provide young people with an exit certificate at different points of the basic education system, thereby improving their chances of employability or entrance to training institutions. Multiple exit points should be introduced to the system and transitioning from these into TVET and university systems should be better facilitated.

 Higher education and training should be reformed, so that universities develop better mechanisms to assist young black African and coloured students, relative to white and Asian students, to access university education and close the gap between these populations groups. This may be done through university pre-entry programmes that may be run in high schools, especially those in poor settings, to assist young black and coloured students to prepare for university entrance. It should be compulsory for all universities to establish pre-entry programmes for all new students admitted to their undergraduate programmes to provide better support for students to complete their studies.

 While the NSFAS introduced by the government has increased access to higher education in the country for previously disadvantaged groups of the population, the

77 scheme does not adopt a holistic view of affordability of higher education. The reforms must therefore ensure that funding does not only cover tuition, but also includes funding for accommodation, food, transport, and access to technology, which can enhance learning and success for university students.

78 CHAPTER 5: HEALTHCARE AND COMBATING SUBSTANCE ABUSE

5.1 INTRODUCTION

The NYP (2015-2020) prioritises interventions aimed at addressing the health and wellbeing of young people in South Africa. More recently, it has become evident that the policy needs to be broadened to include health behaviours and their determinants. The South African healthcare system is still largely dominated by biomedical, clinically based healthcare services, where the cost of treatment is higher than disease prevention and the promotion of healthier lifestyle choices among the population. The way health and wellbeing are defined is important, especially in the context of South Africa, where many social and contextual factors, such as poverty, food security, and housing, affect the health of the population significantly.

It would be beneficial for South Africa to adopt a comprehensive meaning of health, going beyond the management of illness to the provision of services and infrastructure. The WHO (2010) defines health as a state of complete physical, mental, and social wellbeing, and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. Wellbeing has been defined in terms of quality of life, which encompasses more than the concept of “standard of living” and includes the built environment, physical and mental health, education, world of work, recreation, leisure time, and social belonging. The aim is to recognise that the youths of South Africa are discerning individuals, who are constantly making decisions about their health and wellbeing, which are largely dependent on their socio-cultural and economic context.

There are several factors that hold potentially harmful consequences for the health and wellbeing of young people in South Africa. Following a review of various research reports such as South African Youth Risk Behaviour (2010; 2013), Demographic and Health Indicators (2016), and the GHSs (2012 to 2016), the psychosocial and behavioural factors below have been highlighted as critical issues impacting on the health and wellbeing of South African young people:

• Self-perception of health and wellbeing • Nutrition • Sexual behaviour • HIV/Aids • Mental health • Access to medical aid • Trauma, injuries, and violence • Violence against women • Youth mortality and morbidity • Substance use

South Africa is classified as an upper-middle income country. However, a closer look at its health indicators reveals a mixed picture of health outcomes that sometimes reflects even worse than in countries considered to be of a lower SES, particularly among black youths. In fact, when compared to countries of similar economic status such as Mexico, Chile, and

79 Malaysia, South Africa has the poorest indicators of infant mortality, life expectancy, and maternal mortality rates.

Health behaviour is associated with SES and mortality, but this association, as well as the mechanisms that govern it, is still not entirely understood. Subjective wellbeing is an important predictor of mortality, where, irrespective of age, gender, region, education, partner status, and physical health, it has been proven that people reporting greater life satisfaction and a positive attitude generally live longer. Furthermore, it has been established that there are differences in morbidity and mortality between the different socio-economic groups. Therefore, it stands to reason that, to better understand and correctly position tools for measuring health and wellbeing, it will be important to identify health behaviours and their determinants, in the context of markers of SES and health. This approach has been adopted by health promotion practitioners and seeks to empower individuals by enabling them to make health choices on a personal level when provided with the correct understanding.

5.2 SELF-PERCEPTION OF HEALTH AND WELLBEING

Self-perception of health and wellness is very important as it directly influences young people’s lifestyle choices and health-related behaviour. Data from the SYR 2003 (Umsobomvu Youth Fund, 2005) indicated that 77,6% of young people in South Africa generally perceived themselves to be in good health, with 20,9% reporting average health. While only a relatively small percentage (1,4%) of young people perceived their health as being poor, data from the 2nd South African National Youth Risk Behaviour Survey (SANYRBS) conducted in 2008 (Reddy et al., 2010) showed that about 25% of overweight learners did not perceive themselves to be overweight and this percentage marginally went up to 26% in the 3rd SANYRBS in 2011 (Reddy et al., 2013). Not only was this group poorly informed about what constitutes being overweight, but they may have been making lifestyle choices based on that self-perception.

5.3 LIFESTYLE DISEASES

A combination of poor eating habits and inactive lifestyles exposes both young and old people to obesity, which leads to a plethora of lifestyle disease like cancer, diabetes myelitis, hypertension, and heart disease. This is compounded by the easy availability of unhealthy fast foods. In addition, there is increased abuse of drugs, alcohol, and tobacco. This also contributes to mental illnesses. The socio-economic context in which young people live provides a conducive environment for mental illnesses. Young people are affected by lack of access to economic opportunities, peer pressure, and highly stressful lives that could trigger mental illnesses.

South African society provides an interesting contrast of mixed fortunes, with extreme under-nutrition running parallel to a large epidemic of over-nutrition and obesity. Data from the South African Health Review by the Health Systems Trust (2001) showed that the percentage of children who were underweight was 11,1%, with 23,8% showing stunting and 3,8% showing wasting.

SANYRBS 2011 youth data indicated that the prevalence of being underweight (weight-for- age) was 7,0%, with stunting (height-for-age) at approximately 12,9%, and wasting (weight-for-height) at 3,5%. On the other hand, an estimated 23,1% of learners were

80 overweight and 6,8% of learners were classified as obese (Reddy et al., 2013). Regarding gender distribution, male learners in the black African and coloured samples demonstrated higher levels of under-nutrition compared to female learners. Regarding over-nutrition, female learners demonstrated a higher prevalence of being overweight or obese in the black African and coloured samples, while male learners in the white sample demonstrated a higher prevalence of being overweight and obese. Overall, white learners demonstrated a higher prevalence of being overweight and obese than learners from other population samples.

There were also clearly observed provincial differences, with the Northern Cape, North West, Mpumalanga, and the Free State showing a higher prevalence of under-nutrition. SANYRBS 2011 also showed that the Eastern Cape, KwaZulu-Natal, and Gauteng recorded higher prevalence rates of over-nutrition, with the Eastern Cape displacing the Western Cape, which featured in the top three over-nutrition prevalence rates in SYRBS 2008. The findings of SANYRBS 2011 clearly demonstrate the co-existence of stunting and overweight as public health problems among young people in South Africa. The high prevalence of stunting may reflect extremely high levels of poverty and underdevelopment, especially among the black African and coloured communities in peri-urban and rural communities (Reddy et al., 2013).

Obesity is becoming a serious threat to both youths and adults because it has been increasing rapidly over the years. It is linked to multiple health conditions, including hypertension, heart diseases, certain kinds of cancers, diabetes, and depression (Stats SA, 2017c). Obesity is mainly attributed to unhealthy eating habits and sedentary life styles. A study conducted by the Institute of Food Nutrition and Well-being found that South African men consume 13 974 kilojoules (kJ) per day while South African women consume 11 978 kJ, which is way above the WHO daily recommended 8 700 kJ (Schönfeldt & McLachlan, 2013). The study used data for the period 2000 to 2015. Figure 73 shows severe obesity, defined as those who have a body mass index (BMI) of 35 and more, among men and women by age group. Women and older people above 35 years are more likely to be severely obese. Women have the highest level of severe obesity in all age groups.

Figure 73: Severe obesity among men and women by age: 2016 Source: DoH (2017): Demographic and Health Indicators 2016: Key Indicators Report

81 Hypertension is one of the silent killers. Like many lifestyle diseases, it is caused by factors such as poor diet, lack of activity, and high stress. Young men are more likely to be affected by hypertension than young women (see Figure 74).

Figure 74: Prevalence of hypertension by sex and age: 2016 Source: DoH (2017): Demographic and Health Indicators 2016: Key Indicators Report

5.4 MARGINALISED COMMUNITIES

As a result of discrimination and prejudice, certain communities are marginalised and as a result they are not able to access basic human rights, including the right to health and wellbeing. These communities include lesbian, gay, bisexual, transsexual, and queer/questioning (LGBTQ), sex workers, and people living with albinism. According to a study conducted by OUT in 2016, 56% of youths aged between 16 and 24 years said that they were bullied because of their LGBTQ status. Approximately 10% of the group said they experienced discrimination from healthcare providers because of their sexual orientation. Sex workers constitute another group that is vulnerable. Asijiki (2015) pointed out that sex workers do not only face discrimination and stigmatisation, but also physical and sexual violence. Many sex workers are likely to be young people who experience socio-economic challenges.

5.5 SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR

Adolescent development is characterised by heightened sexual awareness and experimentation. The median age for sexual debut is 18 years for all women (South African Demographic Health Survey [SADHS], 1998). However, an updated report by the SADHS in 2003 indicated that the age of sexual debut might be decreasing, as 6% of young women aged 15 to 24 reported that their sexual debut had been at age 15, compared to 12% of young men. Racial differences show that black African women reported a younger sexual debut, followed by coloured women and then white women. The South African National HIV Prevalence, Incidence, Behaviour and Communication Survey (2008) found that a small proportion of youths reported to have started having sex before the age of 15 years (Shisana et al., 2009).

Research data from a nationally representative sample (5 255 respondents) to determine sexual debut among South African youths within the age group 15 to 24 years (Zuma, Mzolo & Makongo, 2011) revealed a median age of 18 years for sexual debut (for both

82 males and females). Up to 55% (2 891) of the respondents reported having had sex, with more females (57,5%) than males (51,1%) having had sex. Table 12 indicates the univariate analysis of the respondents’ socio-demographic characteristics and age at sexual debut.

Table 12: Median age of sexual debut (IQR – interquartile range) by socio-demographic characteristics Gender Median (IQR) Male 18 (17-22) Female 18 (17-21) Age in years 15 to 19 19 (17**) 20 to 24 18 (17-21) Race African 18 (16-20) White 20 (18**) Coloured 19 (17-21) Indian/Asian 22 (18**) Geographical location Rural 18 (16-20) Urban 19 (17-22) Highest level of education Secondary school or lower 18 (16-20) High school graduate or higher 19 (17-22) ** The last observation was censored Source: Zuma et al. (2011): Determinants of Age at Sexual Debut and Associated Risks among South African Youths According to Zuma et al. (2011), the youngest age at sexual debut was 10 years, 25% already had sex by the age of 17 years, while 75% had sex by the age of 21. Table 13 shows that the median age at sexual debut for youths living in a rural area was younger (median = 18 years) than for youths living in an urban area (median = 19 years). The study revealed that youths with an earlier age of sexual debut were less likely to have used condoms – behaviour which increases the risk of HIV infection.

Conversely, the results from the SANYRBS 2011 paint a slightly different picture to the picture painted by Zuma et al. (2011) in terms of the proportion that had had sex and the gender difference in terms of having engaged in sex. SANYRBS 2011 showed that the national prevalence for learners who reported ever having had sex was 36,3%, with a significantly higher rate for males than females and the percentage increasing with an increase in age, peaking at 54,5% for the 19 years or over age group. This suggests that boys have their first sexual encounter earlier than girls. Racial differences were noted (see Tables 11 and 12), where significantly more black African learners (39,3%) reported having sex, followed by coloured learners at 23,8%, white learners at 22,8%, and Indian learners at 17,1% (Reddy et al., 2013).

Table 13 shows the sexual behaviour of learners in Grades 8 to 11 according to SANYRBS 2011. The table indicates that more black male learners reported ever having sex, compared to other population groups, while more (82,7%) white male learners reported having had more than two sexual partners, compared to other population groups.

83 Table 13: Sexual behaviour of learners: Grades 8 to 11

Source: Reddy et al. (2013): 3rd SANYRBS 2011

Overall, 44,4% of male learners and 28,6% of female learners reported ever having sex, 23,1% of male learners and 4,9% of female learners reported a sexual debut of younger than 14 years (13 or under) of age, and 55,2% of male learners and 36,0% of female learners reported having had more than two sexual partners.

The 3rd SANYRBS conducted in 2011 showed that 17,5% of learners reported that they had used alcohol before sex, with more male learners (20,0%) reporting this than female learners (13,9%). Approximately 13,1% of learners said that they had used drugs before sex, and this risky behaviour is more acute in the Northern Cape (41,7%) and Western Cape (42,3%).

Regarding contraception, 32,9% of learners reported always using a condom during sex. Significantly more Indian (44,5%) and coloured learners (40,8%), as opposed to black African (32,4%) and white learners (36,2%), always used a condom. Condom use was significantly higher among learners in Grade 11, compared to Grade 8 learners (Reddy et al., 2013).

5.6 TEENAGE PREGNANCY

There is consensus that fertility levels among South Africans have generally been on the decline. However, fertility levels among adolescents, especially high school learners, have shown an upward trend, as demonstrated in the data from the SANYRBS of 2003, 2008, and 2011 (Reddy et al., 2011).

A substantial number of young people are still engaging in unprotected sex, as evidenced by the teenage pregnancy rate and the high levels of abortion among the youth by the age of 19. Just over 5% of teenage girls have fallen pregnant by this age, leading to a disruption in their high school education. Figure 75 shows data generated from the 2013, 2014, 2015, and 2016 GHSs, which indicate the percentage of females aged 14 to 19 who were 84 pregnant during the year preceding the survey. According to GHS 2016, up to 5,1% of females in the age group 14 to 19 years reported being pregnant in the 12 months before they were surveyed. The prevalence of pregnancy increased with age, rising from 0,7% for females aged 14 years, to 10,7% for females aged 19 years. In general, there has been a very small change in the percentage of teenage girls falling pregnant between 2012 and 2015.

BOX 14: Youth Voices

The youth is well informed when it comes to HIV/Aids. You can even look at the pregnancy rate. Pregnancy has dropped. The new thing that has come now, a new thing that has come, is the rights in democracy that are coming in. You know every kid that you meet is putting on some earphones, and what-what. You want to be a celebrity. That entertainment is taking them over. Then entertainment goes with drugs, and drugs go with alcohol. You know, in order to listen to this music, you need to be on the tavern to be on the club. I think that is the only disease. So, a person that is infected with Aids, he just got it there from that entertainment. You know, when he is sober, he knows that he needs a condom, but once he is on the entertainment industry, he forgets about everything, because once he is in the club and under the influence of drugs and what-what. Wasting time about Aids, I think that that time has passed now; every kid knows about Aids. The problem is now the entertainment industry.

Figure 75: Females aged 14 to 19 years who reported falling pregnant: 2012 to 2015 Stats SA (2014-2017): GHS Datasets

Like most health and social indicators in the country, there are clear racial differences in the number of young people falling pregnant, with black African and coloured communities showing higher rates relative to Indian and white communities. The 2nd SANYRBS of 2008 showed that 19% of learners admitted to having been pregnant or making someone pregnant, with significantly more young female learners having been made pregnant, compared to males who impregnated someone.

Data from the GHS of 2016 indicate the variations in teenage pregnancies, based on the geographical locations of respondents, according to the country’s municipal system (Stats SA, 2017f).

The GHS data showed that females between the ages of 18 and 24 living in non- metropolitan municipalities had a higher probability of becoming mothers, with a rate of 4,2% on a yearly basis, compared to those living in metropolitan areas. 85

Table 14 shows that youths between 20 to 29 years have the highest fertility rate. Furthermore, youths in non-urban areas are more likely to have a high fertility rate compared to the urban youths.

Table 14: Age-specific and total fertility rates, general fertility rate, and crude birth rate: 2016 Age group Urban Non-urban Total 15-19 62 86 71 20-24 125 150 133 24-29 131 156 139 30-34 94 107 98 35-39 52 87 62 40-44 21 29 23 45-49 1 4 2 Total fertility rate (15-49) 2,4 3,1 2,6 General fertility rate (15-44) 87 109 94 GRF (15-49) 80 101 87 Crude birth rate 21,9 23,1 22,3 Source: DoH (2017): Demographic and Health Indicators 2016: Key Indicators Report

5.7 TERMINATION OF PREGNANCY

The Choice on the Termination of Pregnancy Act (No. 92 of 1996) BOX 15: Youth Voices legalised the termination of Abantu abasha bayalalana, ama condom uwathola emtholampilo pregnancy in South Africa. kuphela. Izitolo esinazo lapha emakhaya awekho awadayiswa. However, access to safe abortions Indlela angiyengeze ngayo mina angyena umgani we plastic (condom) ijazi likamkhwenyana minangiye ngithi umsengiqendile remains a challenge. These besengiyahamba ngiyogeza, ngizeza ngosuku ngosuku. Uma ugeza challenges include information ukuvikela izifo eziningi so uma ugeza njalo uyakwazi ukuzivikela ezifweni eziningi. availability, the attitude of health workers and communities Abantu bayasaba ukuzivikela ngoba bathi uma ujova uzoba isidudla (including stigmatisation), and noma uzobanamanzi, uma uthi uzodla amaphilisi bakubuza ukuthi uvelaphi namalaphilisi. Ezikolweni umthetho kungathi ungaqiniswa limited resources for counselling. mina esikolweni lapho ngangifunda oThisha omkhulu washaya Stigma attached to termination of umthetho umuntu ozokhulelwa uzoxoshwa esikolweni, kwehla pregnancy still heavily afflicts ukukhulelwa ngaleso sikhathi. Lomthetho kufane ubuye kuze izingane zisabe ukhulelwa zisafunda. both the women who exercise their right to take up that option Enye inking abazali, ngeke nje name ithi ingane yami ifunda u 6 (Grade 7) (Ibanga lesithupha) ingitshele ukuthi ifuna kuyojova and the nurses who provide the (injection), ifuna ukuva nje ingubani, ifuna kwenzani, nazo izingane service. yiko loku okweanza ukuthi zinga zihluphi ngokuvikela, phinde zizomithiswa yilabantu abahlezie makhaya yibona futhi abayilovisayo ingane ngoba nazitshela ukuthi uyabona ke Case-based research has provided namhlanje ngekekulunge ukuthi uye esikolweni. Abazali uma evidence that “while abortion bekubamba nekhadi lokuhlela umndeni uma uyintombazane noam may be an effective short-term i condom (ijazi likamkhwenyana) ungumfana bavele bakushaye bakuthethise bese uyiyeka phansi yonke lento yokuhlela wena coping strategy, it may also ucabanga ukuthi uyamhloni phaumzali. function as an insidious long-term stressor” (Coleman et al., 2005:252). Abortion patients suffer from post-traumatic stress, which may affect their performance at school and result in dropping out of school. Young girls may therefore suffer the after-effects of this process, as proper counselling is not always available or accessible.

86 Data from the 3rd SANYRBS of 2011 show a high percentage of school learners (8,4%) who had an abortion or whose partner had an abortion and this may indicate a worrying tendency where young people are using abortion as a contraceptive method. Because of this, they may expose themselves to infections from sexually-transmitted diseases, including HIV. The SANYRBS 2011 also showed that only 39,4% had the abortions at a hospital or clinic (see Table 15), despite the existence of a government policy that provides access to safe and free abortions in all public health facilities.

Table 15: High school learners who had an abortion or whose partner had an abortion Population Had abortion or partner had Abortion conducted at group abortion hospital/clinic Race Male Female Total Male Female Total Black 10,2 5,8 8,5 38,2 42,0 39,3 Coloured 5,0 12,7 8,9 56,2 46,2 50,1 White 3,9 3,9 3,9 12,5 43,6 27,6 Indian 7,9 11,8 9,4 44,4 57,1 50,0 Age 13 25,8 24,0 25,2 51,6 30,0 45,5 14 9,7 4,3 8,2 44,0 36,9 41,9 15 8,5 6,7 7,8 35,1 27,6 32,2 16 9,3 5,4 7,7 30,2 38,5 32,8 17 10,7 6,7 9,0 45,2 63,2 50,9 18 6,7 5,9 6,3 44,2 53,4 47,5 19 and above 10,7 5,4 8,6 34,7 33,5 34,4 National 9,9 6,3 8,4 38,4 41,9 39,4

Source: Reddy et al. (2013): 3rd SANYRBS 2011

5.8 HIV AND AIDS

South Africa has one of the highest HIV prevalence rates in the world, with the most affected subpopulation being the youth. In 2012, it was estimated that 12,2% of the population (6,4 million persons) were HIV positive, which is 1,2 million more people living with HIV than in 2008 (10,6% or 5,2 million) (HSRC, 2014a). Figure 76 illustrates the trends in HIV prevalence from 2002 to 2012, as measured by nationally representative surveys on HIV prevalence, incidence, and behaviour.

12,5

12

11,5

11 Percentage

10,5

10 2002 2005 2008 2012 HIV Prevalence 11,4 10,8 10,9 12,2

Figure 76: Trends in HIV prevalence from 2002 to 2012 Source: HSRC (2014a): South African National HIV Prevalence, Behaviour and Communications Survey (SANHPIBS) 2012

87

Although the prevalence of HIV has remained high and seems to be on an upward projectile, data show that HIV incidence, as recorded by new infections, is on the decline (NDoH, 2013; South African National Aids Council [SANAC], 2011a; Shisana et al., 2009). The past decade has seen South Africa making considerable progress in “turning the tide of HIV incidence” (Sishana et al., 2009). For instance, HIV incidence among youths aged 15 to 24 years declined steadily over the three inter-survey periods, from 2,8% in 2002 to 2005, to 2,3% in 2005 to 2008, to 1,5% in 2008 to 2012 (HSRC, 2014a).

HIV prevalence differs substantially with age and sex as well as across South African provinces. The BOX 16: Youth Voices subpopulation groups most affected by HIV are youths Kalebelo e le gore HIV and Aids e a gola and females. In addition, the prevalence rates show a ka lona mo basweng re tla feleletsa e le distinct distribution, comprising three strata within gore bontsi bja batho ba lwala a re na the provinces. KwaZulu-Natal and Mpumalanga are at batho ba batlo re etang peleba re bontsatsela. Kenagana gore kenakoya the top, with overall prevalence rates of above 14% gore re emekamaoto re le baswa, for all age groups. The second layer of provinces tabaya go kereya e le gore re sana le includes the Eastern Cape, Gauteng, Free State, and gore mothoke player e swanetse e feleka gore yonanto ye ya di multiple Limpopo, where the overall prevalence rates are relationships and multiple partners above 9,2%. The Northern Cape and Western Cape keyona e le gore e phatlalatsa bolwetsi form the next layer, with overall HIV prevalence rates e e bile e isa seemo sa bophelo bja rena below 8% (HSRC, 2014a). fase rele baswa.

Figure 77 shows the HIV prevalence by age group and gender as reported by the SANHPIBS in 2012.

40,0% 35,0% 30,0% 25,0% 20,0%

15,0% Percentage 10,0% 5,0% 0,0% 15 - 20 - 25 - 30 - 35 - 40 - 45 - 50 - 55 - 0 - 14 60+ 19 24 29 34 39 44 49 54 59 Male 2,3% 0,7% 5,1% 17,3% 25,6% 28,8% 15,8% 13,4% 15,5% 5,5% 4,6% Female 2,4% 5,6% 17,4% 28,4% 36,0% 31,6% 28,0% 19,7% 14,8% 9,7% 2,4%

Figure 77: HIV prevalence by age and gender: 2012 Source: HSRC (2014a): SANHPIBS 2012

The SANHPIBS conducted in 2012 showed very high prevalence rates of HIV in the age group 30 to 39 years, with the prevalence being consistently higher among females than males. The data reflected in Figure 77 show that young males have lower HIV prevalence than their female counterparts, while older males (60 years and older) have twice the HIV prevalence of similarly aged females. Females in the age group 30 to 34 had the highest prevalence rate at about 36% – almost three times that of the general population, which was estimated at 12%. The highest prevalence rate (28,8%) for males was in the age group 88 35 to 39. These rates demonstrate a worrying reality, as this core group of young people are of childbearing age and are also at the most economically productive stage of their lives. Therefore, there still exists a threat to the long-term development and prosperity of the country if this trend is not urgently reversed through the implementation of targeted programmes and interventions against HIV infection among the youth.

According to the HIV prevalence survey conducted as part of the SANHPIBS 2012, the HIV pandemic still shows differences among the different racial groups in the country (see Figure 78).

16,0% 15,0% 14,0%

12,0%

10,0%

8,0%

6,0%

4,0% 3,1%

2,0% 0,8% 0,3% 0,0% Black African White Coloured Indian

Figure 78: HIV prevalence by population group: 2012 Source: HSRC (2014a): SANHPIBS 2012

Black Africans still show the highest prevalence rate at 15,0%, followed by coloureds at 3,1%, Indians at 0,8%, and whites at 0,3%. The data also demonstrate that the prevalence rates among black Africans has increased from 13,3% in 2008, while the rates for white, Indian, and coloured populations have decreased, when compared to the rates from the 2008 survey, where they were reported at 0,6%, 1,6%, and 1,9% respectively. However, these data must be viewed with caution, especially for the white population, as they were the most likely to refuse to participate in the survey and, even if they did, were less likely to agree to take an HIV test as part of the survey. In attempting to understand the possible reasons for differential racial HIV prevalence, the findings suggest that black Africans (39,1%) were less likely than all other races (>85%) to live in formal urban areas.

Despite the youth being hit hard by higher rates of infection, the prevalence rate of HIV among the younger youths, aged 15 to 24, has been declining. The reported rate in 2012 was 7,1%, compared to 8,7% in 2008, and 10,3% in 2005. It is generally accepted that despite the decline in the overall HIV prevalence rate, the rate is still high. This points to the need to maintain the strategies put in place to fight the HIV/Aids pandemic, and condom use is still key to fighting the spread of the virus. Figure 81 casts some light on the extent of condom use in South Africa. According to the 2017 population estimates, HIV prevalence is the highest among women aged 15 to 49 years. It is estimated that among youths aged 15 to 24 years, the prevalence has been on the decline since 2010. Among women aged 15 to 49 and adults aged 15 to 49 years, the prevalence started to decline slightly from 2013. However, among the general population, prevalence is estimated to be on a steady increase from 12,14% in 2010 to 12,57% by 2017 (see Figure 79). 89

Figure 79: Estimates of HIV prevalence rates: 2010 to 2017 Source: Stats SA (2017a): Mid-year Population Estimates 2017

Figure 80 shows the level of awareness of where to get a HIV test, the percentage of individuals who have ever tested, and those who have never tested, by gender and age.

Figure 80: Percentage distribution of those who have ever tested and who have never tested for HIV by gender and age: 2016 Source: DoH (2017): Demographic and Health Indicators 2016: Key Indicators Report

Figure 81 shows condom usage and prevalence of multiple partners by age group and by gender in 2016. Condom usage was particularly high in the male age group 15 to 19 at 87,9%, followed by males in the age category 25 to 29 years (66%). The highest condom usage among females was in the age group 20 to 24 years at 64%, followed by the age group 25 to 29 years at 63,3%. The figure also shows that males of all age groups are more likely to have multiple partners compared to females of all ages. Males between the ages of 20 to 24 reported the highest percentage of those who had multiple partners at 26,2%.

90

Figure 81: Condom use and multiple partners in South Africa by age and gender: 2016 Source: DoH (2017): Demographic and Health Indicators 2016: Key Indicators Report

SANHPIBS 2012 noted that overall, over one-third (36,2%) of all respondents aged 15 years and older who were sexually active during the previous 12 months indicated that they had used a condom for their last sexual encounter with their most recent sexual partner.

5.9 MENTAL HEALTH

Suicidal behaviour is a major health concern in many developed and developing countries. The 2002 SANYRBS was the first school-based study on non-fatal suicides, providing data based on a representative national sample.

The results from this survey indicated that one in five learners (19%) had considered attempting suicide, while 15,8% of learners had made plans to commit suicide, and 17% had attempted suicide on one or more occasions in the six months preceding the survey. Of those who had attempted suicide, 27,8% had consequently required medical treatment.

91 SANYRBS 2008 showed that in the six months preceding the survey, one in four learners (23,6%) had felt so sad or hopeless that they had stopped doing some usual activities for two weeks or more in a row. One in five learners (20,7%) had considered BOX 18: Youth Voices attempting suicide, while 16,8% of learners had made plans to commit Suicide le depression, nna mo ke tswang di a tsamayisana ka gore gantsi o hwetse motho a le reserved. Le ge o na le mokgotse o suicide, and 21,4% had attempted hwetse motho le ka makala le na le yena lehono le bolela beke e suicide on one or more occasion in tlang le ya phihlong ya gage. Go diregileng? Go molaleng gore go the six months prior to the survey. na le nto e beng e mo tswenya, batswadi a ba tsebe a gona le mokgotse o a tsebang. Go bolela go bohlokwa go thibela di Of the learners who had suicide. experienced serious sad or hopeless feelings, 38,3% had been obliged to Suicide is linked to the frustration of wants among school children, for instance if friends show off their new pair of shoes, see a doctor or counsellor for the other child would demand the same from his/her parents. If treatment. Of those who had he/she cannot get these, the child may kill himself/herself on the attempted suicide, 29,1% had grounds that other children will laugh at him/her for not having that pair of shoes. needed medical treatment as a consequence (Reddy et al., 2010).

SANYRBS 2011 revealed that in the six months preceding the survey, a quarter of learners (25%) reported having experienced feelings of sadness or hopelessness. Up to 18% had considered suicide, while 16% actually attempted suicide, with up to 18% making two or more suicide attempts within the six-month period. Of those who attempted suicide, 32% required medical treatment (Reddy et al., 2013).

An examination of the SANYRBS 2011 data showed that while there were no major gender or race differences in the expression of sad or hopeless feelings by learners, more Indians (30,3%) expressed sad or hopeless feelings. When disaggregated by age, older learners reported a higher prevalence of sad and hopeless feelings, seeking treatment for sad or hopeless feelings, considering suicide, planning to commit suicide, and attempting suicide. In terms of the picture across the provinces, unlike with SANYRBS (2008) when Limpopo had the highest prevalence of learners who had considered suicide and/or attempted suicide and who had required medical treatment after attempting suicide, SANYRBS 2011 indicated the Free State with the highest prevalence of learners who had considered suicide (21,5%) and made a plan to commit suicide (18,9%). North West had the highest prevalence of learners who had made one or more suicide attempts (20,6%), closely followed by the Free State (20,4%), while KwaZulu-Natal had the highest prevalence of learners who had made suicide attempts that required medical attention (44,1%) (Reddy et al., 2013).

5.10 ACCESS TO MEDICAL AID

Access to medical aid is a major issue that has a bearing on the health and wellbeing of young South Africans. For the South African population, access to adequate medical aid helps ensure better access to proper medical care. Figure 82 shows the medical aid coverage by province, as recorded in the GHS 2016 by Stats SA (2017f). National medical aid coverage increased slightly from 16,5% in 2011 to 17,4% in 2016. The highest coverage was recorded in 2013, when 18,4% had access to medical aid. The Western Cape and Gauteng have the highest medical aid coverage.

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Figure 82: Medical aid coverage: 2011 and 2016 Source: Stats SA (2017f): GHS 2016

Figure 83 shows the access to medical aid when it is disaggregated by population group. Black Africans had the lowest percentage of individuals who are members of medical aid schemes (10,8%) and given the fact that black Africans constitute the majority, this weighed down the percentage of South Africans who had access to medical aid (18,4%).

White people had the highest percentage of individuals who were members of a medical aid (72,2%), followed by Indian (49,5%), and coloured (19,7%) people. Black Africans have the lowest percentage of membership of medical aid at 10,5%. Membership of medical aid schemes, as shown in Figure 83, has implications for the South African health system, particularly regarding the financial burden for the government to fund the system.

Figure 83: Membership of medical aid schemes by population group: 2016 Source: Stats SA (2017f): GHS 2016

Data from the GHS 2016 revealed that when medical aid coverage is disaggregated by age, there appears to be marginal differences in coverage across the various age groups. Figure 84 shows the medical aid coverage across the different age groups.

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Figure 84: Medical aid coverage by age: 2016 Source: Stats SA (2017f): GHS 2016

Figure 84 shows that overall, young people across the age spectrum experience low access to medical aid, particularly those aged 10 to 19 years and 20 to 29 years.

5.11 SUBSTANCE ABUSE

South Africa faces a serious problem of substance abuse in its communities, with alcohol and smoking being the two biggest problems. The Global Youth Tobacco Survey (GYTS, 2011), the fourth nationally representative study on tobacco use among school-going learners, revealed that 31,3% of students had ever smoked cigarettes, while 21,5% currently use a tobacco product. This represents a decline from BOX 19: Youth Voices the 37,6% recorded in the second GYTS in 2002. Peer pressure pushes young people to the Significantly more male learners (34,9%, down abuse of alcohol and drugs … The from 47,5% in 2002) were classified as having government can stop this by raising the age at which people start drinking alcohol smoked, compared to female learners at 28,5% … Parents must abstain from sending (down from 28,9% in 2002). children to buy alcohol … It is also possible that children under the acceptable age of consuming alcohol can send older people The findings of the SANYRBS 2011 survey showed to buy on their behalf … Worse, children that 27,6% reported ever having smoked even smoke dagga with adult members of cigarettes in their lifetime and 17,6% were current the community … Parents need to be strict with children, in order to maintain social smokers (Reddy et al., 2013). The SANYRBS 2011 values. figures represent a decline from the figures in SANYRBS 2008, when almost one in three learners (29,5%) reported ever having smoked cigarettes and just over one in five learners (21,0%) were current smokers (Reddy et al., 2010).

The SANYRBS 2011 showed that of the learners who smoked at the time, 43,5% had tried to stop smoking in the year preceding the survey, while 51,2% intended to stop smoking in the next six months. More than two-thirds of the current smokers (75,9%) had been exposed to environmental tobacco smoke in the week preceding the survey, compared to 43,0% of the learners who had never smoked.

94 The findings also showed that the prevalence of smoking among parents or guardians of learners who smoked (37,5%) was higher than for those who did not smoke (19,9%). With regard to the age of initiation, 5,9% of learners had first tried smoking a cigarette before the age of 10. The use of this form of tobacco is the highest among black African learners (15,9%). Consistently, the SANYRBS 2011 showed that black African female learners display lower rates of tobacco use with the difference being very marked when related to cigarette smoking. The gender differential is, however, less significant when it came to usage rates of smokeless tobacco, where black African females recorded 9% as compared to 14,4% for black African male learners (Reddy et al., 2013).

Alcohol dependence and alcohol abuse or BOX 20: Youth Voices harmful use cause substantial morbidity and

Government will never be able to stop drug and mortality. The SADHS showed that between alcohol abuse. Drug dealers seem to have strong 1998 and 2003, the level of alcohol use in the connections with some staff within the police general population increased from 25,75% to service stations. If a community member reports those involved in the chain of drug dealing, that 28,5%. Approximately 35% of males aged 15 member will die soon thereafter because to 24 admitted drinking alcohol, compared to confidentiality is often not maintained by some 15,8% of females. The Western Cape had the staff at the police service stations. It would appear as if staff of the police services are not paid enough, highest proportion of drinkers at 46,15%, so they resort to bribery for more money. In the followed by the Northern Cape (37,3%), case of violence, police take guns from the Gauteng (34%), North West (28%), Eastern perpetrators and then later sell these to other violent gangsters. Cape (24,1%), and Free State (20,8%) (DoH, 2005).

Findings from the SANYRBS 2011 showed that, nationally, one in two learners (49,2%) had consumed at least one alcoholic drink in their lifetime. With respect to the age of initiation, 12,4% of learners reported having had their first drink before the age of 13. This represents an increase from 11,9% reported in SANYRBS 2008. In the 30 days preceding the SANYRBS 2011, 32,3% had used alcohol on one or more days, while 25,1% had engaged in binge drinking (more than five drinks in a row) on one or more days. Significantly higher percentages of white learners (77,6%) and coloured learners (73,3%) had ever drunk alcohol, when compared to black African learners (45,7%) (Reddy et al., 2013).

Figure 85 shows smoking by age groups. Young men are more likely to smoke than young women.

Figure 85: Percentage of smokers by various tobacco products, frequency, and age: 2016 Source: DoH (2017): Demographic and Health Survey 2016: Key Indicators Report

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Figure 86 shows alcohol consumption by frequency, gender, and age. It also shows that men are more likely to consume alcohol than women. Youths in the age category 20 to 34 are more likely to drink than many of the other age categories. This suggests that alcohol abuse is a cause for concern for youths in this age category.

Figure 86: Alcohol consumption and risky drinking behaviour by gender and age: 2016 Source: DoH (2017): Demographic and Health Survey 2016: Key Indicators Report

5.12 TRAUMA, INJURIES, AND VIOLENCE

According to Stats SA (2014i), the annual number of non-natural deaths among youths aged 14 to 35 increased from 26 436 deaths in 1997 to a peak of 27 136 in 1998, and dropping to 24 458 in 2008. Among youths aged 14 to 19, non-natural deaths rose from 3 889 in 1997 to a peak of 4 386 in 2006, dropping to 3 780 in 2008. Among the age cohort 20 to 25, these deaths dropped from 8 805 in 1997 to 8 357 in 2009, but among the 26 to 31 age cohort the figure was 8 640 in 1997, peaking at 9 067 in 1998, and falling to 7 936 in 2009. Among 32- to 35-year-olds, non-natural deaths rose from 5 102 in 1997 to a peak of 5 351 in 1998, and declining to 4 385 in 2008. The SADHS 2003 reported that unintentional injuries, for example traffic collisions, burns, falls, and poisoning; and intentional injuries, for example violence, assault, and self-inflicted injuries, accounted for nearly 80% and just over 20%, respectively, of injuries requiring medical treatment.

Table 16 indicates the findings of the SANYRBS 2011 (Reddy et al., 2013), which showed that high numbers of youths had reported being exposed to or involved in some level of violence. About 7% of learners had reported having carried a weapon such as a gun, knife, panga, or knopkierie to school in the month preceding the survey. An estimated 27,2% of South African learners had been involved in a physical fight and this represents a slight drop from the almost one-third (31,3%) recorded in SANYRBS 2008. Internationally, data have shown that males are two to three times more likely to have been involved in a physical fight, whereas in South Africa the SANYRBS 2011 showed that males were 1,6 times more likely to get involved in a physical fight than females. 96

Table 16: Youth risk behaviour in the six months prior to SANYRBS 2011

Youth risk behaviour Percentage Carrying a gun to school 7,0 Carrying a knife to school 13,8 Was bullied at school 33,8 Involved in a physical fight 27,2 Approached to join a gang 19,5 Members of gangs 15,5 Assaulted by either their boyfriend or girlfriend 11,1 Assaulted their boyfriend or girlfriend 9,9 Had been forced to have sex 8,8 Forced someone else to have sex 7,6 Source: Reddy et al. (2013): 3rd SANYRBS 2011

A substantial percentage of learners (15,5%) reported being members of a gang, while almost one in five learners (19,5%) reported having been approached to join a gang during the six months preceding the survey. Learners in lower grades were more likely to be members of gangs than learners in higher grades. Perhaps gangs provide some degree of grounding and “safety” for those who feel vulnerable, and such vulnerability may be greater among younger learners. While the Western Cape is commonly perceived as the province with the highest prevalence of gang membership, learners in the Free State reported the highest prevalence of gang membership (18,2%). The Northern Cape had the second highest (17,5%), followed by Gauteng and Limpopo tied on 17,3%, and the Western Cape had the second lowest (11,9%), while the Eastern Cape had the lowest prevalence of the nine provinces. It must be noted that this survey was conducted among in-school youths and it is likely that more OSYs are engaged in gang activities (Reddy et al., 2013).

The SANYRBS 2011 showed that older learners had a higher prevalence of ever being injured by their partner, injuring their partner, being forced by someone to have sex, as well as forcing someone else to have sex. The prevalence of being perpetrators of partner violence and sexually coercive behaviour was significantly higher for male learners than for female learners. Notably, male learners reported slightly higher rates of being victims of partner violence and sexually coercive behaviour than female learners (Reddy et al., 2013).

5.13 VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN

The NDP envisages a situation where South Africans will feel free at home, at school, at work, and in their communities; however, the current crime situation is not encouraging. The situation is particularly dire among women. According to crimes against women statistics, the murder rate among women has increased by 117% between 2015 and 2016/2017. In the same period, sexual offences against women increased from 31 665 to 70 813, which represents an increase of 53%.

It is estimated that 138 women are raped per 100 000, which means that South Africa has one of the highest rape rates in the world. Figure 87 shows the percentage of young women who have ever experienced sexual violence by a partner. Sexual violence seems to

97 be evenly spread across all the age groups, which suggests that South Africa has violence against women of all ages.

Figure 87: Sexual violence by age group: 2016 Source: DoH (2017): Demographic and Health Survey 2016: Key Indicators Report When broken down according to provinces, the North West has the highest amount of sexual violence against women, followed by Gauteng, Free State, and Mpumalanga (see Figure 88).

Figure 88: Percentage of women who have ever experienced sexual violence by province: 2016 Source: DoH (2017): Demographic and Health Survey 2016: Key Indicators Report

Figure 89 shows the percentages of women who have ever experienced physical violence by their partner. Furthermore, it shows the frequency of physical violence against women inflicted by their partners in the last 12 months. Over 17% of young women aged 18 to 24 years and just over 22% of young women aged 25 to 34 years have experienced violence by their partners.

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Figure 89: Percentage of women who have ever experienced physical violence and the frequency of violence in the last 12 months by age: 2016 Source: DoH (2017): Demographic and Health Survey 2016: Key Indicators Report Data that have been collected on violence against young women do not have sufficient depth; however, a new survey called Governance, Public Safety and Justice is currently being conducted. The findings are expected in 2019.

5.14 HEALTH BEHAVIOUR OF OUT-OF-SCHOOL YOUTHS (OSYs)

The HSRC conducted a study on OSYs in 2010 among a sample of 4 352 OSYs from four provinces, namely Mpumalanga, Gauteng, KwaZulu-Natal, and the Western Cape (Reddy et al., 2011). The findings of the OSY survey showed that 67,4% of the OSYs had ever had sex, 53,7% had had two or more sexual partners, 66,6% had had at least one sexual partner in the three months preceding the survey, and 36,5% had drunk alcohol or used drugs prior to their last sexual encounter. Of those who ever had had sex, 22,1% reported always using condoms and 42,6% had either been pregnant or impregnated someone. There was a higher proportion of females who reported ever having been pregnant (58,6%) than males who reported ever having impregnated someone (30,7%). Mpumalanga (18,6%) had the lowest prevalence of participants who always used a condom when having sex, while Gauteng had the highest (26,9%). The highest provincial prevalence of participants who had been pregnant or had impregnated someone was observed in KwaZulu-Natal (47,9%) and Mpumalanga (46,6%). Over a quarter (26,7%) of all the sampled participants had ever been involved in sexual activity for gain; for example, in return for money, gifts, or food. More male (28,9%) than female (23,6%) participants reported involvement in sexual activity for gain, with this gender difference being more apparent in the Western Cape (Reddy et al., 2011).

In this sample, at least one in three and one in five OSYs were found to participate in sufficient vigorous physical activity and sufficient moderate physical activity, respectively, to constitute a health benefit. However, just over half (50,4%) reported current tobacco use (in the past 30 days), with the prevalence among male participants (61,7%) being higher than that for female participants (33,9%) (Reddy et al., 2011).

99 The data showed that, overall, 31,6% of OSYs had experienced sad or hopeless feelings during the previous six months and that they had stopped doing some usual activities for two or more weeks in a row. There was a relatively similar prevalence for males (32,6%) and females (30,1%). The prevalence of OSYs who had ever considered attempting suicide in the previous six months was 23%, with a higher prevalence among males (24,7%) than females (20,7%). Overall, 23,6% of OSYs had planned to commit suicide in the six months preceding the survey. About 32,7% of OSYs had made one or more suicide attempts in the six months preceding the survey, with a higher prevalence among males (35,2%) than females (29,3%). Among those who had attempted suicide, 33% had made a suicide attempt that resulted in an injury, poisoning, or overdose that had to be treated by a doctor or nurse, i.e. required medical treatment, with a higher prevalence among males (34,9%) than females (29,9%) (Reddy et al., 2011).

KwaZulu-Natal (33,7%) had the highest provincial prevalence of OSYs with sad or hopeless feelings. Gauteng (25,7%) had the highest prevalence of OSYs who had ever considered attempting suicide. The Western Cape had the highest prevalence of OSYs who had planned to commit suicide (26,7%) and who had made one or more suicide attempts in the six months preceding the survey (39,2%) (Reddy et al., 2011).

More than half of the sampled OSYs (52,6%) had, in the month preceding the survey, been driven by someone who had been drinking alcohol, with a higher prevalence among males (55,3%) than females (48,6%). Overall, among those OSYs who had driven a vehicle, 43,3% had driven after drinking alcohol in the month preceding the survey, with a slightly higher prevalence among females (45,9%) than males (42,6%). Among those who had ever drunk alcohol, the prevalence of walking along a road after drinking alcohol in the previous month had been 54,4%, with a higher prevalence among males (59,8%) than females (44,3%) (Reddy et al., 2011).

The findings showed that a substantial number of OSYs had engaged in behaviour that placed them at risk and had the potential to jeopardise their health. While these behaviours may play a part in meeting a social and psychological need within the OSYs, they are more likely to alienate them from a healthy and productive life in the longer term.

5.15 YOUTH MORTALITY AND MORBIDITY

According to available data, non-natural deaths mainly affect the age groups 15 to 19 (44,7%) and 20 to 24 (46,3%) (Stats SA, 2017d). The top four causes of morbidity in South Africa are HIV/Aids; injury, violence, and homicide; TB; and road/traffic injuries. Recently, however, a silent epidemic of non-communicable diseases, such as diabetes, hypertension, and other cardiovascular diseases, has also been emerging due to the dietary and socio- economic transition of the South African society. Obesity is at the centre of many of these non-communicable diseases.

The top five risk factors that lead to disease among adult and youth populations in South Africa, as calculated through disability-adjusted life years, are: • unsafe sexual practices; • interpersonal violence; • alcohol use; • tobacco use; and • high BMI (being overweight and obese).

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Mortality rates in South Africa have started declining. Figure 90 shows the mortality among youths (15 to 34) between 1999 and 2015, as recorded by Stats SA.

Figure 90: Mortality among youths (15 to 34) by age group: 1999 to 2015 Source: Stats SA (2017d): Mortality and Vital Statistics

Available data indicate that the mortality rate among youths (15 to 34) increased from 80 173 deaths in 1999 to a peak of 141 744 deaths in 2005, after which it decreased until it reached 74 480 in 2015. The 20 to 24 age group experienced a rise from 17 045 in 1999 to a peak of 25 801 in 2006, after which it experienced a sustained decline to 14 004 by 2015. Among those aged 25 to 29, annual deaths increased from 26 661 in 1999 to a peak of 47 516 in 2004, and mortality within the age group declined through the years to 22 867 by 2015. The 30 to 34 age group BOX 21: Youth Voices recorded a significantly higher mortality rate Ukuvikela izifo kuyangokuthi lento siyifundiswa than any other youth age groups over the ubani ngoba enyeyezinto uthola ukuthi umsole period 1999 to 2015; albeit transitioning to ukuthi aka abstain yena, abanye babo bavele lower mortality. emaphepheni ukuthi abahleli kodwa bathi thina asi abstain.

Although young people are expected to be Uthola ukuthi amantombazana amancane ajola the healthy and productive section of nabantu abadala, lokujola kwabo nabantu abadala yikoloku ekwenza ukuthi bagcine bathole lezifo communities, mortality data reflect a high ngoba uthola ukuthi abantu abada yibona kakhulu number of deaths among young people. Since abanalesifo. Loku kwenza ukuthi leligciwane ligcine 2006, however, youth mortality figures for lingene kakhulu kubantu abasha. Kodwa uthola ukuthi umaukhuluma namantombaza amancane the different youth age groups seem to have ikutshela ukuthi ingane yesikolwe izongenzelani started declining, but they have remained umngicela imali youkwenza ikhanda ikutshela higher than or approximating the pre-2000 ukuthi isazocela imali ekhaya, baphinde nayincishe – so umuntu omdala ngiyazi ukuthi uzothi uma figures. abuya emsebenzini uzonginikeza imali. Kahle kahle lento lnezindingo phakathi.

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Figure 91 depicts a comparison of deaths among male and female youths (15 to 34) between 1999 and 2015.

Figure 91: Comparison of deaths among male and female youths (15 to 34): 1999 to 2015 Source: Stats SA (1999-2015): Datasets

Between 1999 and 2000, the number of deaths among male youths was higher than that among female youths. By 2001, however, the number of female deaths had escalated above male deaths and the gap continued to widen until 2006, when deaths among females started to decline until it went lower again than that of males in 2011 and finished significantly lower than male mortality by 2015.

Figure 92 shows youth mortality (15 to 34) by population group between 1999 and 2013. It shows that deaths among the black African population increased sharply between 1999 and 2004, before remaining relatively stable in 2004 and 2005, and declining steadily to 63 129 by 2013.

120 000 100 000 80 000 60 000

Number 40 000 20 000 - 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Black African 8 92 26 0 52 7 65 7 74 2 85 6 96 3 100 100 99 0 94 9 90 6 83 5 77 8 73 5 69 4 63 1 White 385 1 09 2 05 1 89 1 91 1 83 1 90 1 90 1 66 1 71 1 65 1 51 1 38 1 34 1 41 1 40 1 27 Indian or Asian 163 376 583 688 641 680 683 660 703 700 701 575 586 495 561 586 429 Coloured 305 1 69 3 80 3 97 3 88 3 94 4 09 3 80 3 89 3 59 3 62 3 32 3 21 3 22 3 28 3 45 3 54 Other 121 60 129 87 207 233 190 138 241 177 160 138 110 147 195 232 143 Unknown/Unspecified 47 5 40 8 20 8 19 7 23 5 28 6 33 1 34 8 35 1 35 4 33 7 32 8 30 6 25 4 15 0 11 7 9 30

Figure 92: Number of deaths amongst youth (15 to 34) by population group: 1999 to 2013 Source: Stats SA (1999-2013): Datasets The number of deaths started to decline from 2006 but remained higher than pre-2000 deaths until 2012, before going below 2 000 deaths in 2013. Over the same period, the mortality rate in other population groups remained steady. However, a high number of 102 unknown or unspecified deaths was reported, which demonstrates weaknesses in the data collection of vital statistics and masks the statistics on deaths by population grouping. Figure 92 demonstrates the significance of the unknown/unspecified population group deaths included in the reported deaths over the whole period. This category of deaths has, however, been on the decline and reached its lowest for the period 1997 to 2013 in 2013.

Figure 93 shows the number of deaths across the provinces in South Africa. KwaZulu-Natal had the highest number of deaths among the youth, compared to the other provinces in South Africa. KwaZulu-Natal, Gauteng, and the Eastern Cape reflected higher numbers of deaths relative to their provincial population sizes.

45 000 40 000 35 000 30 000 25 000

20 000 Number 15 000 10 000 5 000 - 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Western Cape 5 04 5 83 6 17 6 49 6 86 7 74 7 98 7 59 7 61 7 46 7 82 7 41 7 05 6 90 6 49 6 44 6 33 Eastern Cape 7 57 9 08 10 7 12 8 14 7 17 5 20 5 22 5 23 3 22 2 20 5 19 2 17 7 16 8 14 4 12 7 11 6 Northern Cape 1 39 1 72 1 82 2 04 2 17 2 59 2 81 2 98 2 87 2 86 2 75 2 73 2 67 2 64 2 41 2 25 2 02 Free State 4 90 6 18 7 37 8 11 9 07 10 2 11 6 12 0 11 7 11 8 11 2 10 3 9 55 8 69 7 30 5 89 5 35 KwaZulu-Natal 14 6 18 7 21 4 25 6 29 3 34 0 37 8 39 2 39 7 38 5 36 6 35 1 31 9 28 3 23 4 21 5 17 1 North West 3 83 4 68 5 68 6 64 7 92 9 15 10 2 10 0 9 66 8 99 8 54 8 13 7 69 7 18 6 27 6 00 5 52 Gauteng 13 3 15 4 16 7 18 4 20 4 23 2 25 9 26 4 25 5 25 3 24 7 24 4 22 2 19 0 17 1 16 2 15 6 Mpumalanga 3 29 4 19 5 16 6 06 7 03 8 38 9 98 10 6 11 0 11 4 11 1 10 6 10 6 9 42 8 13 7 38 6 93 Limpopo 3 40 4 22 5 05 5 76 6 81 7 93 9 34 10 0 10 0 10 6 10 2 10 0 9 43 8 61 7 84 7 84 6 97

Figure 93: Number of deaths among youths (15 to 34) by province: 1999 to 2013 Source: Stats SA (2014i): Mortality and Causes of Death in South Africa: Findings from Death Notifications 2013

All the other provinces maintained the numbers of deaths at fewer than 25 000 per year in this age group for the whole period, except KwaZulu-Natal and Gauteng, and this could be attributed to the relatively higher population sizes as compared to the other provinces. In fact, in the Western Cape the number of deaths among the youth population increased slightly between 1997 and 2003, peaking at 7 989 before declining to a low 6 336 in 2013. The Northern Cape may appear to have a lower number of deaths but this is because the province’s population currently stands at just below 2% of the country’s total population. The death rate is therefore proportional to the total share of the provincial population. Mortality data between 1997 and 2013 show that there were over six million reported deaths in South Africa. Of these deaths, over 1,5 million were in relation to people between the ages of 15 and 34. As such, the proportion of youth deaths over the period accounts for about one quarter (24,5%) of the total deaths during the period. The figures suggest that a significant number of the active population is dying, which may impact the demographic profile of the country soon, if the trend continues. The 15 to 34 age group is the most sexually active population. Therefore, population equilibrium is influenced by the ability of this population to balance population trends.

103 Figure 94 shows the percentage distribution of natural and non-natural causes of death by age in 2015. Youth age groups 15 to 19 years, 20 to 24 years, and 25 to 29 years are the most affected by death attributed to non-natural causes at 44,7%, 46,3%, and 33,7% respectively. Death attributed to non-natural causes begins to decline by age 30 years.

Figure 94: Percentage distribution of natural and non-natural deaths by age: 2015 Source: Stats SA (2017g): Mortality and Causes of Death in South Africa: Findings from Death Notifications 2015

Table 17 shows the major causes of death among the youth population (15 to 34). The vital statistics released by Stats SA for the age group 15 to 34 in 2013 showed that, for all reported deaths (both sexes) with classification codes on causes of deaths, TB was the leading cause of death. Table 17: Ten leading underlying natural causes of death for youth (15 to 35): 2013

Male Female Both sexes Broad group of underlying causes Rank Number % Rank Number % Rank Number % TB (A15-A19)* 1 4 931 11,8 1 5 975 16,8 1 10 906 14,1 HIV diseases (B20-B24) 2 3 230 7,7 2 4 635 13,0 2 7 865 10,2 Other viral diseases (B25-B34) 3 1 620 3,9 3 2 764 7,8 3 4 384 5,7 Influenza and pneumonia (J09- 4 1 422 3,4 4 2 164 6,1 4 3 586 4,6 J18) Certain disorders involving the immune mechanism (D80-D89) 5 865 2,1 5 1 478 4,1 5 2 343 3,0 Intestinal infectious diseases (A00-A09) 6 758 1,8 6 1 262 3,5 6 2 020 2,6 Inflammatory diseases of the central nervous system (G00-G09) 7 645 1,5 8 726 2,0 8 1 371 1,8 Other forms of heart disease (I30- I52) 8 643 1,5 7 796 2,2 7 1 439 1,9 Episodic and paroxysmal disorders (G40-G47) 9 473 1,1 … … … Other acute lower respiratory infections (J20-J22) 10 357 0,9 10 438 1,2 10 795 1,0 Protozoal disease (B50-B64) … … … 9 604 1,7 9 912 1,2 Other natural causes 8 799 21,1 11 103 31,1 20 067 25,9 Non-natural causes 18 048 43,2 3 708 10,4 21 756 28,1 All causes 41 791 100,0 14 811 100 77 444 100 Source: Stats SA (2017): Dataset

104 Males and females have the same top eight natural causes of death and only started differing after rank eight. Most of these natural causes of death are either preventable or curable. The fact that the biggest killer in this age group is TB may indicate the failure of the health system to appropriately educate, prevent, and treat a known treatable disease. TB and pneumonia are clinically known to be among the opportunistic infections associated with HIV/Aids and, under normal conditions, they are curable. However, when associated with HIV, they are difficult to treat. It is also worth noting that up to 25,5% of youth deaths are accounted for by non-natural causes such as accidents and violence. This means that if these causes of death had been included in the ranking used in Table 18, they would have ranked highly.

Since the youth age cohort of 15 to 34 has a very wide range, it is useful to break it down further to gain a better understanding of the causes of death in the youth population. Among youths aged 14 to 35, the top cause of death is TB, followed by accidental injury.

Table 18: Ten living underlying natural causes of death amongst the youth (15 to 34)

Youth age group Causes of death (based on ICD-10) 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 Rank Number % Rank Number % Rank Number % Rank Number % TB (A15-A19)* 1 571 8,1 1 1 642 11,0 1 3 658 14,6 1 5 091 16,5 HIV diseases (B20- 2 273 3,9 2 1 015 6,8 2 2 676 10,7 2 3 926 12,7 B24) Influenza and 3 266 3,8 4 546 3,7 4 1 134 4,5 4 1 657 5,4 pneumonia (J09-J18) Other viral diseases 4 162 2,3 3 577 3,9 3 1 488 5,9 3 2 173 7,1 (B25-B34) Intestinal infectious 5 160 2,3 6 300 2,0 6 659 2,6 6 911 3,0 diseases (A00-A09) Inflammatory diseases of the central nervous 6 156 2,2 8 228 1,5 8 439 1,8 8 551 1,8 system (G00-G09) Other forms of heart 7 141 2,0 7 259 1,7 7 446 1,8 7 602 2,0 disease (I30-I52) Episodic and paroxysmal disorders 8 119 1,7 9 171 1,1 … … … … … … (G40-G47) Certain disorders involving the immune 9 94 1,3 5 304 2,0 5 774 3,1 5 1 179 3,8 mechanism (D80-D89) Cerebral palsy and other paralytical 10 83 1,2 … … … … … … … … … syndromes G80-G83 Other acute lower respiratory infections … … … 10 158 1,1 10 254 1,0 10 336 1,1 (J20-J22) Protozoal disease … … … … … … 9 304 1,2 9 439 1,4 (B50-B64) Other natural causes 2 157 29,5 3 496 23,5 6 268 25,0 8 291 26,9 Non-natural causes 2 985 40,8 6 175 41,5 6 968 27,8 5 661 18,4 All causes 7 308 100 14 871 100 25 068 100 30 817 100 Source: Stats SA (2015): Dataset

It is worth noting from Table 18 that TB ranks as the number one natural cause of death across the different age groups that constitute the youth cohort. HIV diseases are ranked second for all the youth age groups. It is worth noting that non-natural causes of deaths account for a high number of deaths within the youth cohort. Non-natural causes of death account for up to 40,8% of the deaths among the 15 to 19 age group, while accounting for 39% of the deaths among the 20 to 24 age group. Road/traffic accidents, intentional self- harm, assault, and complications of medical and surgical care were some of the significant

105 non-natural causes of death. Assault and road/traffic accidents are the most common non- natural causes of death among youths (15 to 34), particularly male youths.

Figure 95 compares young people who suffered from acute diseases compared to the general population. In general, youths are less likely to suffer from acute diseases as compared to the general population. Gauteng, Mpumalanga, and the Northern Cape have relatively high numbers of individuals suffering from acute diseases, while Limpopo, the Western Cape, and KwaZulu-Natal have the lowest.

Figure 95: Percentage of youths who suffered acute diseases compared to the general population: 2016 Source: Stats SA (2016a): Social Profile of Vulnerable Groups in South Africa 2015 and 2016

5.16 CONCLUSION

Although it is changing, the South African health system is still dominated by treatment as opposed to prevention and promotion of healthy lifestyles. This may not be sustainable in the long run as it is costly and inefficient.

Youth mortality is higher than the general South African population. Youth age groups 15 to 19 years, 20 to 24 years, and 25 to 29 years are the most affected by death attributed to non-natural causes at 44,7%, 46,3%, and 33,7% respectively. This is attributed to, among others, accidents and violence. Sexual violence seems to be evenly spread across all the age groups, which suggests that South Africa is a violent society. This suggests a need to develop policy interventions to deal with the violent nature of our society.

South Africa still has one of the highest HIV prevalence in the world, with the majority affected being young people. Condom usage has increased considerably, suggesting that more people are conscious of safety during sex. Multiple partners is one of the major contributing factors to HIV infections. Males of all age groups are more likely to have

106 multiple partners compared to females of all ages. Males between the ages of 20 and 24 reported the highest percentage (26,2%) of those who had multiple partners. Compared to the general population, youths are less likely to suffer from acute diseases. As in the previous chapters, health and wellbeing matters are influenced by historical and socio- economic factors, like gender, race, class, and geographic location. Young men, as compared to young women, are more likely to be involved in risky behaviour like substance abuse, violence, and unprotected sex. Youths in the age category 20 to 34 are more likely to drink than many of the other age categories.

Teenage pregnancy has been on the decline over the years, most likely because of easier access to contraceptives. Fertility rates are higher among rural young women compared to urban young women. Although termination of pregnancy is legal in South Africa, many young people still opt for illegal termination. This does not only risk their health and future likelihood of being pregnant, but it also puts their lives at risk.

Obesity is increasingly becoming a challenge as it is on the increase. It is deadly because it is linked to, among others, hypertension, heart diseases, depression, diabetes, and certain kinds of cancers. South Africans consume large amounts of kJs, far higher than the WHO recommended daily consumption of 8 700 kJ. This puts South Africans at risk of being obese, especially the youths, as they develop bad eating habits at a young age. Data show that women in all age categories and older people above 35 years are more likely to be severely obese.

5.17 IMPLICATIONS

 There are limited programmatic and survey data on youth health and wellbeing in the country. Existing data are either very old or insufficiently disaggregated to appropriately review the health and wellbeing of the youth in South Africa. Gaps in knowledge regarding youth health make it difficult to plan and implement interventions that aim to address some of the fundamental health issues among the youth. Little is known about how youth health is associated with participation in organised sports. These issues have implications for providing appropriate human and financial resources for implementing large-scale youth health interventions at the level of schools and public health facilities.

 In 2001, the DoH emphasised policy guidelines for youth and adolescent health. These guidelines highlighted eight health priorities in South Africa that deal with youth development, namely:

• sexual and reproductive health; • mental health; • substance abuse; • violence; • unintentional injuries; • birth defects and inherited disorders; • nutrition; and • oral health.

 Data presented on health and wellbeing against some of these priorities indicate that the health status of young people overall has deteriorated, with a significant number 107 of deaths of young people being caused by accidents and violence. This is likely to impact on youth outcomes in the education system and the labour market, leading to a further decline in the overall contribution of youths to the social and economic wellbeing of South Africa.

 Data also show a high prevalence of risky sexual behaviour, such as low condom use and use of alcohol before sex, resulting in high rates of teenage pregnancy and pregnancy terminations, as well as a high HIV prevalence among the youth. Substance abuse and behaviours with potential to increase the risk of violence among school- going youths were also noted as health and wellness issues.

 The high levels of violence experienced by youths, especially among OSYs, have significant implications for the legal, criminal, and social-psychological resources needed to cope with the negative behaviour of such youths.

 Obesity, which is on the increase among both adults and youths, is fast becoming a major contributor to a multiplicity of health problems in South Africa.

5.18 RECOMMENDATIONS

 The health and wellbeing of the youth is an important measurement of the health status of a nation. The lack of recent national data on health indicators makes it difficult to provide an accurate and complete account of youth health and wellbeing. The health sector needs to have functional systems for collecting vital statistics for health in the country. National surveys, such as the SADHS, need to be conducted and published annually, and made available for planning and monitoring health indicators. This would allow monitoring trends over time on a more systematic basis.

 South Africa’s vital statistics show very high mortality rates among young people in the country. The deaths are attributed to conditions that are preventable and, in some cases, require changes in behaviour. This indicates a need to strengthen the primary healthcare system in the country to ensure that young people have access to preventative programmes in the facilities available to them.

 Health promotion is a viable alternative to costly after-the-fact interventions and should be considered within the re-engineered plans of the DoH. Special efforts should also be made to address the needs of OSYs.

 Health promotion efforts at school level, to enhance positive behaviour and reduce school dropout, should become national priorities.

 The youth risk behaviour data indicate that young people are prone to engage in behaviour that could have the potential to put their health at risk. South African youths engage in risky behaviour, such as substance abuse, unprotected sex, violence, and the abuse of alcohol. Research shows a strong link between substance abuse and unprotected sex, which, in turn, puts the youth at increased risk of HIV infection. Youth-friendly and easily accessible community- and school-based interventions, which address both risky sexual behaviour and alcohol use, should therefore be implemented. This requires the country to re-prioritise behaviour and good health

108 practice programmes. Systematic, evidence-based effectiveness studies are recommended to highlight best practice health promotion efforts in and out of schools.

 Development of an integrated programme to deal with obesity would benefit the country as obesity is becoming a serious health threat.

109 CHAPTER 6: NATION-BUILDING AND SOCIAL COHESION

6.1 INTRODUCTION

Over the past decade, the issue of social cohesion has been a constant feature of the South African government. In South Africa the concept of social cohesion is closely linked to the concept of nation-building (Palmary, 2015). Most recently, the National Planning Commission (NPC) identified eight broad “nation-building fault lines” for redress. These include, among others, social fragmentation, unemployment, and exclusion from society. Similarly, the Government Programme of Action adopted by Cabinet emphasised the need to build an inclusive society. Within this context, this section examines social cohesion through the lenses of civic and political participation among the youth, youth social integration, national identity, cultural diversity, volunteerism, youth participation in sports, and vulnerable and marginalised youths. Concentration on the experiences of youths and their involvement in society should strengthen collective efforts to address the identified fault lines.

The NYP (2015-2020) provides a definition of social cohesion that comprises five overarching elements. With specific reference to youths, these dimensions, broadly stated, are:

• fostering constitutional values; • confronting discrimination and systemic racism and contributing to nation- building, dialogue, and healing; • fostering leadership and active citizenry; • better implementation of the NYS; and • broadening sports and recreation.

The previous NYP stressed the importance of civic participation in facilitating the holistic formation of individuals’ identities, to “strengthen young people’s identity, build their self- esteem, develop a sense of belonging, close intergenerational gaps and contribute to a better life for all” (NYC, 2009).

Despite the international popularity of social cohesion as a concept in academic and policy arenas, there is nonetheless no standard method to measure social cohesion in groups and societies (Jenson, 2010). To establish an analytical framework, this section disaggregates and examines the four dimensions of social cohesion in the NYP. It reviews youth participation in political and civic activities, social integration, as well as the involvement of youths in cultural and sporting life, with respect to individual development and the establishment of ties within communities. Finally, as an indicator of constitutional connectedness, youth involvement in civic matters, and experience of crime are discussed.

6.2 CIVIC AND POLITICAL PARTICIPATION

Civic and political participation is an important indicator of social cohesion. As the Constitution guarantees the right to universal suffrage for youths aged 18 and older, data on youth voting are one of the indicators of young people’s participation in society.

110 Participation in civic and political matters is one way of ensuring that the Constitution is not just a document but is felt in the everyday lives of the citizens. Table 19 shows the number of South Africans of all age groups who registered to vote between the period of 2006 and 2016.

Table 19: South African voters' roll by age group: 2006 to 2016 2006 2011 2016 Age 2009 general 2014 general municipal municipal municipal categories elections elections elections elections elections 18-19 416 630 669 421 471 878 646 313 547 534 20-29 5 075 442 5 614 209 5 534 416 5 759 236 5 835 455 30-39 5 402 902 5 710 969 5 850 922 6 180 534 6 415 809 40-49 4 273 209 4 579 588 4 743 434 5 007 501 5 247 186 50-59 2 833 229 3 232 432 3 437 965 3 796 131 4 008 210 60-69 1 685 896 1 873 529 1 992 934 2 264 714 2 458 333 70-79 960 592 1 032 013 1 086 483 1 160 499 1 205 514 80+ 407 057 469 836 537 014 575 222 614 988 Total 21 054 957 23 181 997 23 655 046 25 390 150 26 333 353 Source: Independent Electoral Commission (IEC) (2006-2016): Datasets

The figures in Table 19 above depict an increase in voter registration across all the age groups between the 2006 municipal elections and the 2016 general elections. For example, the number of registered voters in the 20 to 29 age group increased by 760 013 voters between the 2006 municipal elections and 2016 municipal elections, representing an over 13% increase in registered voters. Yet, a comparison with the mid-year 2016 population estimates (Stats SA, 2017b) shows that the 20 to 29 voters’ roll in the 2016 municipal elections represented only 51,9% of that portion of the country’s population in those age categories. The increase in the number of registered voters in the 20 to 29 age cohort between 2006 BOX 22: Youth Voices and 2016 accounts for just over I do not think that young people feel patriotic anymore, because 14% of the total increase they feel excluded. Ge gona le dilo a ba re bitse gore re tsee karolo (5 278 396) in registered voters bjale ka batho ba baswa. from 2006 to 2016. However, it If youth do not feel valued in their country, they will not participate appears that there is a significant in civic matters: they won’t vote. Youth must be heard. They must portion of 20- to 29-year-olds who be given opportunities for jobs. When youths provide their opinions, follow-up action must be undertaken to implement their did not participate in the 2016 suggestions municipal elections. Mna ndi vote because ugovernment andibone uba that ivote that is all. I don’t vote mna because xa uvota ufuna kwenziwe izito ezithile, A similar comparison with the 2016 azenzeki shame akukhomntu ongayaziyo lento uba we just voting mid-year population estimates nje. I council yakweyamii ward ayi engage necommunity,i council shows that about 75% of the 30- to andiyazi nasebusweni mna.

39-year-olds were registered to Siyazama ukuvotela umuntu omnyama asho ukuthi usondzela loku vote as at the 2016 municipal naloke kodwa uthi uma efika lapha phezulu esikhudleni afike elections, a figure much higher ashitshe afike asabe ngoba yena useyitholile lento ayifunayo bese akasabacabangeli labantu abamvotelile. Yiyo lento enza ukuthi than the younger group, but lower singabi nendaba you kuvotela abantu. than the 86,2% of 40- to 49-year- olds registered for the 2016 municipal elections. Data could not be disaggregated for the age group 18 to 19. When comparing the two most recent elections, using the mid-year population estimates, it

111 becomes evident that, in real terms, the voting behaviour of South African youths has not changed drastically.

Table 20 shows the voter turnout by age group from 2006 to 2016. The proportion of new voters aged 18 to 19 who participated in elections exceeded the national average in 2009 by 14%, by 11% in 2011, and by 9,1% in 2014. Up to 91,3% of eligible (registered to vote) 18- to 19-year-olds voted in 2009, up from 47,5% in 2006, and this declined to 68,8% in 2011, before surging to 82,6% in 2014. Table 20 clearly shows a pattern where voter turnout is consistently higher in the general elections than in the municipal elections. While the most recent general election clearly drew more voters than the 2006 and 2011 municipal elections, overall, the 2009 elections recorded a higher voter turnout than the 2014 election. The only age group that recorded an increase in voter turnout from 2009 to 2014 is the 30 to 39 age group, whose voter turnout increased marginally from 67,1% to 69,2%.

Table 20: Voters turnout by age group: 2006 to 2016 2006 2011 2016 Age 2009 general 2014 general municipal municipal municipal categories elections elections elections elections elections Percentage (%) 18-19 47,5 91,3 68,8 82,6 65,9 20-29 33,9 72,9 48,4 72,1 49,8 30-39 39,0 67,1 48,6 69,2 50,6 40-49 53,5 78,7 60,8 74,1 59,2 50-59 64,6 87,4 70,3 79,7 69,4 60-69 70,8 91,5 74,3 79,8 73,1 70-79 66,8 87,6 69,7 72,8 69,1 80+ 51,5 70,8 52,1 53,4 67,1 Total 48,4 77,3 57,8 73,5 45,9 Source: IEC (2006-2016): Datasets

The key issue for future democratic processes that emerge from these figures is how to ensure that young people remain interested in elections, so that they participate in subsequent elections.

Figure 96 shows the voting history among the voting population in 2013 by age group, according to the HSRC’s South African Social Attitudes Survey (SASAS) 2013. The figure shows that, in terms of voting history, the youth age groups of 18 to 24 and 25 to 34 have the highest percentages of people who have never voted. The 18 to 24 age group has the highest number of people (76%) who have never voted, while the 65+ age group recorded the highest percentage of people who have voted before. This could be attributed to the fact that the 18 to 24 age group has not had many opportunities to participate in elections, while the 65+ age group have had many opportunities to participate in elections (HSRC, 2013).

112 120

100 13 10 9 8 80 31 30

60 76 92 40 87 90 90 69 69 20 24 0 18 - 24 years 25 - 34 years 35 - 44 years 45 - 54 years 55 - 64 years 65+ years Total VAP (2013)

Voted Before (1994 and After) Never Voted

Figure 96: Voting history among the voting population by age group: 2013 Source: HSRC (2013): SASAS 2013

6.3 INTEREST IN PUBLIC AFFAIRS

Interest in public affairs and politics is a good indicator of the likelihood of people participating in democratic processes. Indian and African people are more likely to be interested in political affairs than white and coloured people (see Figure 97). A surprising finding is that rural youths are by far more interested in public affairs than urban youths. Women are less likely to be interested in public affairs than men.

Figure 97: Interest in public affairs among youths (18 to 35 years) by race, gender, and geographic location: 2015 Source: Lekalake (2016): Youth Political Engagement in South Africa: Beyond Student Protests

Figure 98 compares South African youths’ (18 to 35) interest in public affairs with youths in the same age category in other regions of Africa. South African youths’ interest in political affairs is slightly lower than that of youths in Southern Africa and North Africa. The lowest interest in public affairs is in Central Africa (44%).

113

Figure 98: Comparison of South African youths’ (18 to 35) interest in public affairs with the rest of Africa: 2016 Source: Lekalake & Gyimah-Boadi (2016): Does Less Engaged Mean Less Empowered?

A study by the HSRC in 2014 showed that interest in politics among the youth was the highest among the 25 to 34 age group, where 42% reported an interest in politics. Among the 16 to 24 age group, interest in politics was lower at 30%. This seems to be pointing to a disturbing movement towards political apathy in South Africa, with the highest interest in politics being 43%, recorded for the 45 to 54 and 65+ age groups. The age group that engaged in political discussions the most is the 45 to 54 age group, where 50% reported often or sometimes engaging in such discussions.

Figure 99 shows the views on youth and electoral process as based on findings of the IEC Voter Participation Survey (VPS) in 2013.

Young people are interested in elections 58 15 28

Young people should take the lead in voting 78 11 12

Young people should be encouraged to 81 10 9 participate in politics

Schools should play a leading role in educating 76 11 13 the youth about elections

0 20 40 60 80 100 120

Agree Neutral Disagree

Figure 99: Views on youth and the electoral process: 2013 Source: HSRC (2014b): IEC VPS 2013/2014

Figure 99 shows that in 2013, only 58% of the respondents held the view that young people were interested in elections. It is, however, encouraging to note that 78% of the respondents in the VPS in 2013 thought that young people should take a leading role in 114 voting, while a whopping 81% held the view that young people should be encouraged to participate in politics. Most of the respondents (76%) acknowledged the leading role schools should play in educating the youth about elections (HSRC, 2014b).

6.4 YOUTH PARTICIPATION IN CIVIC AND COMMUNITY NETWORKS

Apart from the acknowledgement of the youth in civic affairs, the NYP also emphasises how participation in community activities encourages the holistic formation of an individual’s identity. The data presented in Figure 100 show the most recent attitudes of young people towards community participation.

Figure 100: Youth (18 to 35) civic participation: 2015 Source: Lekalake (2016): Youth Political Engagement in South Africa: Beyond Student Protests

Figure 101 shows youth attitudes towards participation in community organisations and religious organisations. Youth participation in religious and voluntary organisations declined from 2008 until 2011, thereafter both start rising to 30% and 15% respectively.

Figure 101: Percentage of youth (18 to 35) active participation in civic organisations: 2016 Source: Lekalake (2016): Youth Political Engagement in South Africa: Beyond Student Protests

In 2013, the South African Reconciliation Barometer (SARB) revealed that South Africans reported a higher level of trust in religious institutions (67,0%) than in other public institutions, such as the Constitutional Court (59,3%), legal system (57,4%), and the police force (47,9%); indicating the importance of initiating large studies on young people’s attitudes towards and attendance of religious meetings.

115

In discussing youth involvement in their communities, traditional African practices should also be examined, as they have the potential to lead to stronger community ties and social capital. Traditional initiation schools remain both an important rite of passage and a source of sexual information for many young people. Figure 102 indicates the various settings of self-reported circumcision across all South African provinces in 2012, as reported by the SANHPIBS 2012.

90,0 80,0 70,0 60,0 50,0 40,0

30,0 Percentage 20,0 10,0 0,0 Western Eastern Northern Free KwaZulu- North Mpumal Gauteng Limpopo Total Province Cape Cape State Natal West anga At Home 8,0 2,3 4,2 3,1 4,1 5,6 3,3 5,3 0,9 3,6 Medical 41,4 14,2 51,6 45,0 67,8 44,4 58,0 21,8 33,5 40,1 Traditional 44,3 83,1 42,7 48,7 24,8 46,2 31,7 71,3 63,5 52,5 Other 6,4 0,3 1,5 3,2 3,3 3,8 7,1 1,5 2,1 3,7

Figure 102: Settings of self-reported circumcision by male respondents aged 15 years by province: 2012 Source: HSRC (2014a): SANHPIBS 2012 Among those who have undergone traditional circumcision, it is a commonly held view that it is necessary to undergo initiation if one is to fully develop one’s identity as a man and be accepted into the community as a valued and respected individual. However, the widely accepted dangers of the male initiation process undermine, to a large extent, a practice that is otherwise central to the notion of traditional community, personal development, and the social integration of a portion of South African youths. This could explain the movement towards medical circumcision in provinces such as KwaZulu-Natal and Gauteng.

6.5 SOCIAL MEDIA AND YOUTH PARTICIPATION

While the level of youth participation in civic and community networks might seem low, the reality is that there are other platforms of youth participation such as social media. Although there are no sufficient data, there is no doubt that social media is increasingly playing a major role in linking youths to youth participation in civic and political matters. The #FeesMustFall movement, which campaigned and advocated for free higher education, was largely coordinated through social media. It is important that more research is conducted to understand the role and the impact of social media on youth participation in civic and political matters. Armed with this knowledge, the platforms could be used to facilitate social cohesion and patriotism.

6.6 YOUTH VOLUNTEERISM

Youth volunteerism is an important aspect of social cohesion. However, compared to other countries like Nigeria and the United States of America (USA), the culture of volunteerism is still in its infant stage in South Africa. The NYDA has entered into a partnership with the

116 Belgian government to promote youth volunteerism and to capacitate civil society organisations involved in volunteerism. To date, a capacity-building toolkit has been developed and many non-profit organisations (NPOs) involved in youth volunteerism have been trained.

6.7 YOUTH SOCIAL INTEGRATION, NATIONAL IDENTITY, AND CULTURAL DIVERSITY

From the perspective of the NYP, taking part in institutional activities and processes, such as those discussed in the previous section, will ideally “strengthen young people’s identity, build their self-esteem, develop a sense of belonging, [and] close intergenerational gaps” (NYDA & Flanders, 2015). It is this sense of belonging that is central to the notions of social integration and national identity.

Table 21 shows the degree to which individuals of different ages and races socialise with other population groups. The weighted data, drawn from the SARB, which was conducted by the Institute for Justice and Reconciliation (IJR), indicates that black South Africans of all ages are least likely to have social relationships with their white, Indian/Asian, or coloured compatriots. This could be explained by the fact that most of the black Africans reside in areas/settings, such as rural areas and townships, where there is minimal contact or association with other population groups.

Table 21: Socialisation between population groups by age: 2013 Black White Indian/Asian Coloured Age group Frequency Percentage (%) 15-24 Rarely/Never 49,76 5,66 10,53 29,17 Sometimes 24,88 30,19 31,58 35,42 Always/Often 25,36 64,15 57,89 35,42 25-34 Rarely/Never 41,30 11,46 6,25 15,79 Sometimes 26,85 19,79 6,25 27,63 Always/Often 31,84 68,75 87,50 56,58 35-44 Rarely/Never 43,93 11,02 12,50 21,67 Sometimes 24,08 15,75 12,50 25,00 Always/Often 31,98 73,23 75,00 53,33 45-54 Rarely/Never 39,20 13,91 20,00 30,91 Sometimes 24,69 12,17 26,67 34,55 Always/Often 36,11 73,91 53,33 34,55 55-64 Rarely/Never 51,11 20,24 18,18 23,81 Sometimes 24,44 14,29 27,27 38,10 Always/Often 24,44 65,48 54,55 38,10 65-74 Rarely/Never 64,36 16,67 50,00 41,67 Sometimes 18,81 23,81 10,00 16,67 Always/Often 16,83 59,52 40,00 41,67 75+ Rarely/Never 51,67 5,00 33,33 45,45 Sometimes 21,67 20,00 33,33 27,27 Always/Often 26,67 75,00 33,33 27,27 Source: SARB (2013): IJR Dataset

Levels of interracial interaction are also seen to be lower among poor households, which may also partly explain the reason why black South Africans, proportionally the poorest group in the country, appear to interact the least with other population groups. The same

117 study also revealed that cross-group socialisation is higher in metropolitan areas than in rural ones. BOX 23: Youth Voices

Kusekhona ubadlulalana phakath ikwezihlanga ezehlune lapha While these findings on socialisation futhi kuningi. Mina lapho ngangi sebenza khona uma kulove may be influenced by structural umuntu omnyama kuyakhulunywa kuze kufikwe kea HR kodwa uma kulove indiya kungabi izindaba zalutho. Kodwa inking ukuthi opportunity, the attitudinal data on lento yenziwa abantu abamnyama abaphethe kulezindawo ngoba participants’ approval of racially mixed nabo bayebesa balabantu ngokwebala. neighbourhoods directly explore Youths do not mix enough with youths of other races … They mix individuals’ readiness to accept only at night clubs … Youths mix as far as doing business is integration. Figure 103 shows that the concerned, but get isolated by the realities of pursuing social life, because of the different areas in which they stay. 16 to 24 age group is the group that most readily endorses the idea of Nto yeo e le gore e dira bothata ke gore rena bjale ka batho batsho re a kgethollana. E diregile ka 2008 mo e le gore go bile le dihlaselo staying near people from other tsa xenophobia. cultures and with other ways of living.

75

70

65

60 16-24

25-34 %55 35-44 50 45-54

45 55+

40

35 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

Figure 103: Approval of racially integrated neighbourhoods by age group: 2006 to 2010 Source: IJR (2006-2010): SARB Survey A pronounced trend in the above data in each of the 35 to 44, 45 to 54, and 55+ cohorts is that acceptance of integrated neighbourhoods in these groups increased between 2006 and 2008, at which point individuals appeared to have begun to perceive mixed areas in a more negative light. However, an increased approval rating of mixed neighbourhoods appeared once again between 2009 (the point with the lowest approval ratings) and 2010 (the point with the highest ratings). There are no data to decisively explain the observed trend, although it is perhaps significant that 2009 was an election year. Most pertinent to this chapter, however, is the fact that while the 25 to 34 age graph followed the trend, although less pronounced in its changes, approval of integrated neighbourhoods among 16- to 24-year-olds increased between 2008 and 2009. This is in opposition to the established trend in other age groups, and suggests that this is a period in young people’s lives when they are particularly open to interacting with people across racial and cultural boundaries. Vulnerable groups are also more likely not to be socially integrated.

118 6.8 VULNERABLE YOUTH GROUPS

Figure 104, taken from one of the available comprehensive studies into the demographics of homeless people living in South Africa, disaggregates the sample of 1 244 individuals from Mpumalanga, Limpopo, and Gauteng according to age and gender. The data indicate a high number of young males, aged 18 to 34, living on the streets – about the same number as the older age groups combined. A survey of street children between 12 and 17 years of age was conducted as a separate study and should not be compared to the adult sample in the figure, which includes all respondents aged 18 and older.

Figure 104: Age-sex structure of the street homeless respondents in the study: 2010 Source: Kok, Cross & Roux (2010): Towards a Demographic Profile of the Street Homeless in South Africa

Street homeless respondents in the sample did not appear to have adequate education to compete realistically for jobs. Therefore, with regard to the state of social cohesion among homeless youths, particularly those living on the streets, there is a need to offer services that enable youths to develop fully as individuals and so integrate into society.

Another aspect of addressing homelessness among youths is determining the reasons young people take to the streets. Only about 10% of respondents reported pull factors, including job-seeking and shelter, as the primary reasons for leaving home. Family hostilities, sexual abuse, inadequate financial capabilities, and substance abuse were some of the push factors cited. The interrelated nature of these push factors and their effect on disrupting social cohesion among youths are discussed in more detail in the following section, which focuses on young people involved in criminal activities and youth victimisation in the country.

6.9 CRIME AND YOUTHS IN CONFLICT WITH THE LAW

Table 22 shows that while a drop in the number of incarcerated youths aged 18 to 25 was observed between 2006 and 2008 (from 32% to 29,9% in respect of all offenders), there was a simultaneous increase in the number of 26- to 40-year-olds who were imprisoned (50,7% to 52,4%). These figures highlight, once again, the fact that South African youths are not a homogeneous group. 119

Table 22: Statistics for sentenced offenders by age group: 2006 to 2008 2006 2007 2008 Age category Number (N) % N % N % Adults 26-30 26 957 23,812 27 084 24,1 27 757 24,5 31-40 30 496 26,9 30 889 27,4 31 682 27,9 41-50 14 594 12,9 14 661 13,1 15 094 13,3 51-60 3 171 2,8 3 177 2,8 3 329 2,9 61-70 549 0,5 557 0,5 563 0,5 71+ 81 83 89 Subtotal 75 848 66,9 76 451 68,016 78 514 69,3 Youths 18-21 13 224 11,6 12 090 10,7 11 292 9,9 22-25 23 051 20,4 22 995 20,5 22 695 20,0 Subtotal 36 275 32,0 35 085 31,2 33 987 29,9 Children < 13 3 0,003 2 0,002 – 0,000 < 18 1 083 0,957 864 0,769 832 0,734 Subtotal 1 086 0,959 866 0,770 832 0,734 Grand Total 113 209 100,0 112 402 100,0 113 333 100,0 Source: Department of Correctional Services (DCS) (2008): National Offender Population Profile

The number of youths in conflict with the law is an indication of how our society deals with deviant youth behaviour. Based on the DCS’s statistics, there is an indication that over a third (33,7%) of the prison population is comprised of youths younger than 25. These figures do not disaggregate those youths aged 26 to 35. If they were to be included, the proportion would be very high. Such high proportions of young people in prison suggest that society and its norms are being violated by a considerable portion of the youth population. Tables 23 and 24 provides official statistics on age groups and crime categories.

Table 23: Statistics for correctional service offenders by crime category (awaiting trial detainees [ATDs] and sentenced) and age group: 2011

Crime Children <18 years Youths 18-25 years All ages categories ATDs Sentenced Total ATDs Sentenced Total ATDs Sentenced Total Economical 81 148 229 7 211 9 099 16 310 15 414 25 373 40 787 Aggressive 139 239 378 11 118 15 766 26 884 23 182 61 097 84 279 Sexual 61 137 198 2 818 4 160 6 978 6 927 18 033 24 960 Narcotics 5 3 8 645 622 1 267 1 707 2 717 4 424 Other 19 14 33 942 1 490 2 432 2 465 5 247 7 712 Total 305 541 846 22 734 31 137 53 871 49 657 112 457 162 162 Source: DCS (2011): Annual Report 2011/2012

According to the DCS statistics for 2011, the Correctional Services prisoner population was 162 162 that year. Of those, 54 717 were young people under 25, including those awaiting trial and those already sentenced. For those youths in the age group 18 to 25, 31 137 were

120 already sentenced and 22 734 were awaiting trial. The report also indicates that the DCS had overcrowding of 137,25%, with an estimated cost of R123,37 per prisoner per day. Given the youth population incarcerated by the DCS, the cost of maintaining these incarcerated prisoners is very high. The daily maintenance cost incurred by the DCS is about R6,7 million, in respect of the 54 717 youths in the system. This may be projected to about R202,5 million a month and about R2,4 billion a year to keep young offenders in prison, which is a considerable amount of public funds.

Table 24: Statistics by crime category and age: 2011 Children <18 years Youths 18-25 years All ages Crime categories Total % Total % Total % Economical 229 27,1 16 310 30,3 40 787 25,2 Aggressive 378 44,7 26 884 49,9 84 279 52,0 Sexual 198 23,4 6 978 12,9 24 960 15,4 Narcotics 8 0,9 1 267 2,4 4 424 2,6 Other 33 3,9 2 432 4,5 7 712 4,8 Total 846 100 53 871 100 162 162 100 Source: DCS (2011): Annual Report 2011/2012

The 2011 DCS statistics show that the majority (80,2%) of youth offenders aged 18 to 25 are committing economic and aggressive crimes. In comparison, 71,8% of those younger than 18 and 77,2% of the total prisoner population commit these types of crimes. It is noticeable that young people under 18 are committing proportionally more sexual offences (23,4%) than any of the other age groups, where those in the age group 18 to 25 accounted for 12,9% of sexual offences perpetrated and the total offender population for 15,4%. The data also show that more than half (52%) of the people in prison are incarcerated for aggressive crimes, as opposed to 2,6% for narcotics and 15,4% for sexual offences.

Figure 105 shows youth victimisation rates by age as measured by Stats SA through its 2011 victimisation survey. Youths in the 16 to 20 age group are more likely to fall prey to violent crime, in particular assault and sexual offences.

50,00 45,00 40,00 35,00 30,00 25,00 20,00 15,00

Percentage 10,00 5,00 0,00 Sexual Consumer Assault Robbery Theft Hijacking Offence Fraud 16 - 20 Years 30,20 23,65 31,04 45,77 27,32 22,09 21 - 25 Years 25,74 26,95 26,34 28,21 7,87 37,61 26 - 30 Years 26,31 32,80 25,30 9,83 18,09 21,43 31 - 35 Years 17,75 16,60 17,32 16,19 46,72 18,87

Figure 105: Youth victimisation rates by age group: 2011 Source: Stats SA (2011): Dataset Hijacking is the highest among the 31 to 35 age group and the lowest among the 21 to 25 age group. This could perhaps be attributed to the fact that youths in the 31 to 35 age group are more likely to drive or own a vehicle.

121 A small-scale study carried out among youths in 2009 revealed that in terms of victimisation, male and female youths experienced crime differently in South Africa. Noticeably, girls and young women were about 4,5 times more likely to be sexually assaulted than males. They were also more likely to fall prey to theft than boys or young men; although, in this instance, the discrepancy between male and female is substantially smaller than in the case of sexual assault. Males, on the other hand, face more instances of robbery and assault than women (Leoschut, 2009).

Consequently, high youth victimisation rates should be regarded as an indicator of a lack of some aspect of social cohesion within a group or society. The self-perpetuating result of this lack of cohesion is exemplified in a study of 12- to 25-year-olds. Young people who had never been the victim of crime were six times more likely not to commit a criminal offence than those who had ever been robbed, assaulted, raped or sexually assaulted, hijacked, or had their home burgled or property stolen. While risk factors such as proximity of youths to crime are key to understanding issues that discourage healthy ties between individuals and prevent the promotion of a cohesive national society, they should not be the only data of interest to policymakers. One area that has the potential to foster social cohesion is youth participation in sports and recreational activities.

6.10 YOUTH PARTICIPATION IN SPORTS AND RECREATIONAL ACTIVITIES

Considering all the beneficial aspects of sport, South Africa’s comparatively low rate of involvement in sport or physical activity should be a point of concern for policymakers as only 42% of South Africans ever participate in some sort of physical activity. Table 25 disaggregates the reasons for non-participation in sport according to age groups. The table includes youths aged 26 to 35 in the larger group of 26- to 60-year-olds. As such, the 16 to 20 and 21 to 25 age cohorts provide the most pertinent information on youth non- participation in sport. While these two groups align closely with the remaining sample in indicating a lack of interest in sport – 25,8% and 22,5%, respectively, against a 25% mean – they are conspicuous in that they were considerably more likely to provide “no reason” as grounds for not taking part in sport. This seeming ambivalence needs to be investigated further, if youths between the ages of 16 and 25 are to be convinced of the benefits of sport. Table 25: Reasons for non-participation in sports by age group 16-20 26-60 21-25 years >60 years Mean Reasons years years Percentage (%) Not interested 25,8 22,5 26,9 18,3 25,0 Age 2,3 2,6 18,9 60,5 19,9 No reason 22,2 23,7 13,8 6,8 15,3 Time constraints 14,2 16,9 13,1 1,4 12,3 No facilities/opportunities 16,6 13,0 10,0 1,1 10,0 Not good at sport 9,7 11,3 6,9 2,6 7,3 Health/injury/disability 2,8 4,7 7,4 5,5 6,2 Financial constraints 1,4 1,0 1,4 5,0 1,2 Sport is dangerous 0,0 – 0,4 0,2 0,3 Transport problems 0,8 0,0 0,1 0,5 0,2 Other 4,1 4,3 1,1 2,7 2,1 Source: Department of Sport and Recreation South Africa (SRSA, 2005): Participation Patterns in Sport and Recreation Activities in South Africa 122

BOX 24: Youth Voices

Tabeng ya sports motho ge a tsee karolo mo sports o thoma go ba le dikamano tsa segwera and ge goba le segwera ka gare se tlo dira batho ba go tswamerafeng ya go setshwane ba be le bond ene kabaka la bond yeo batlo tsamaya tseleng e tee. Ke mo monagano wa ‘stereotype’ of felang gona.

One big challenge that we are faced with, there is no sporting facilities, no grounds, nothing because it is private land. Complaining about it, let me say that you want to run sports facilities, you go to the schools and ask for the facilities. It will be difficult to get those facilities to have those games. Even churches that are being run there by the schools, they charge R300 to R550 per month with about 250 members.

Lento youkuthi imidlalo iyahlanganisa abantu akulona inciniso. Mina bengiyi dlala ibhola uthole ukuthi siyo dlala ne sikolwa sa bebelungu ku competion, sithi uma usuphelile umdlalo labantu abangama sponsor balethe ukudla, thina sithola isikwa esino jamu, laba besikolwa sa belungu banikezwa amasimba chips nokudla okuphezulu yonke lento yangenza gangcina ukudlala ibhola.

Kumaxesha amaninz ikudityanwa ngebhola yenyawo noba yibhola yo mbhoxo ,abasuka phakulalali babuye bazodlalelaapha! Asinawo amabala ezemidlalo afana ne-netball, volleyball, basketball.

Returning to the issue of the lack of interest in sport shown by youths, Table 26 demonstrates the differences and similarities between age groups, with respect to the reasons that encourage participation in sporting activities, as opposed to non- participation. Table 26: Motivators for participation in sports by age 16-20 21-25 26-60 60+ Mean Motivators Percentage (%) School 46,9 36,0 23,2 2,5 33,7 To become more active/healthy 10,8 21,2 23,4 22,7 18,7 Friends 21,7 10,6 18,9 15,3 17,9 For social reasons 4,7 10,8 8,6 15,6 8,0 No specific reason 2,4 8,4 8,6 23,5 6,8 To lose weight and stay in shape 2,0 5,4 7,2 17,7 5,2 Other 5,1 3,0 9,5 2,6 6,4 Motivated by media 6,3 4,7 0,6 0 3,4 Total 100 100 100 100 100 Source: SRSA (2005): Participation Patterns in Sport and Recreation Activities in South Africa

Table 26 shows that the most prominent factor that encourages participation in sport is experience of sport at school. This is especially true of the 16 to 20 and 21 to 25 age groups, of which 46,9% and 36,0% reported being motivated by school experiences respectively. These figures emphasise the importance of school as an institution that has the potential to foster group interaction among young people. It is therefore cause for concern that literature points to a lack of time allocated to physical education, inadequate facilities, and insufficiently qualified Life Orientation educators to supervise the subject.

6.11 CONCLUSION

Social cohesion is a multidimensional concept and it can be complex to measure. In this report, social cohesion looked through the lenses of civic and political participation among the youth, youth social integration, national identity, cultural diversity, youth participation in sports, and marginalised youth. Youth registration for elections has increased over the years, but this has not necessarily resulted in higher youth voter turnout. Although

123 perception surveys may not necessarily reflect reality, they provide some indication that young people’s interest in public matters is low. However, this perception may not be true as young people use platforms such as social media to participate in civic and political matters. It is therefore important to conduct more research into alternative platforms of youth participation.

6.12 IMPLICATIONS

 Just as social cohesion is a multifaceted concept, assessment of all existing data suggests that youths of different ages respond to and interact with society in different ways. To better understand social cohesion among youths and create unity in diversity, policymakers need to employ a wider range of indicators, disaggregated according to age, sex, and race. Accurate indicators of social cohesion in the context of contemporary South Africa would provide a platform to galvanise young people around nation-building.

 The data in this chapter suggest a need to understand the way young people interact with one another through contemporary, digital forums, as this may provide an avenue for engaging with youths to encourage civic participation and the building of common values as grounded in the Constitution.

 Youths perpetrate and experience crime in gendered, classed, and age-specific ways. Programmes that seek to address issues regarding youths in conflict with the law, but fail to take account of this diversity, are unlikely to succeed.

 Social ties and social capital created through these interactions exemplify the importance of gaining an understanding of youth involvement in community activities, such as sport, community crime prevention, and community volunteerism. The implication of an environment that does not enable structured programmes for young people at community level is that life opportunities and social safety nets will remain limited. This may further entrench existing inequalities in the youth population, especially along economic lines. Lack of youth involvement in sports may, for example, have the effect of limiting the development of youths with sporting talent into career- defining opportunities.

 As a group, youths who are not active in contributing to nation-building through civic, political, and economic engagement prevent the development of youth voices in key political, social, and economic forums, leading to further disillusion and disaffection from society, and increased social, political, and economic instability.  The role of social media in youth participation in civic and political matters is not sufficiently captured in existing data.

6.13 RECOMMENDATIONS

 The promotion of youth participation in civic matters requires good-quality data about the basis on which youths engage with civil society so that programmes resonate with young people. There is currently insufficient information to plan wide-reaching, effective policy interventions. It is vital to undertake large-scale studies that examine issues of social trust among youths, race relations, national identity, inequality, social tolerance, and the importance youths place on participating in religious, cultural, civic,

124 and digital forums. Without this information, the implementation of programmes to enhance social cohesion is likely to be ineffective.

 An understanding of youth usage of various digital social networking media can be useful in promoting social integration and civic involvement. Evidence already exists that Internet-based groups administered by youths have the potential to organise young people quickly around social issues. Policymakers should work to implement programmes that motivate youths to engage at all levels of social, political, and economic activity to encourage diversity and interaction across cultural boundaries.

 Participation in sport is known for the multiple social benefits it holds for individuals and communities. To encourage youth participation and overcome inadequate infrastructure at community level, viable structures and partnerships need to be implemented. At the level of schools especially, sports programmes should be developed in partnership with national sporting codes. They should enable a comprehensive, integrated approach to promoting active participation by youths and much-needed infrastructure development to promote sport in school environments. Since young people also indicate various media as motivators for participating in sport, decision makers should initiate campaigns across traditional television and radio platforms, as well as on the Internet.

 Although numerous non-governmental organisation (NGO)-based leadership and community intervention programmes are working towards teaching youths the skills and leadership qualities required to develop their talents, there is currently no way to evaluate how they are enhancing social cohesion among the youth. By partnering with relevant NGOs across South Africa, the government could embark on a nation-wide project that encourages monitoring and evaluation procedures within NGOs. Government affiliation with NGOs that are known for their impact will provide increased support and resources for this crucial leadership-building sector.

 Given the high crime rate in the country and the fact that young people constitute a large proportion of offenders, urgent preventative interventions are required to channel the energies of young people into broadening their skills and prospects for employment. These programmes should give young people the opportunity to define their aims and improve their life chances, both at community level and at personal level. With respect to individuals already imprisoned, the state should urgently evaluate the success of current intervention programmes in the country. Successful offender reintegration into families and communities could be ensured by partnering with successful NGOs that provide support and leadership training to youths in prison.

 Youths living with disabilities are frequently marginalised. On average, they enjoy fewer years of education than young people without disabilities. The state should build on existing state and NGO initiatives that improve young people’s life skills. Arrangement of short-term apprenticeships during which participants learn the appropriate skills for a work suitable for their lifestyle is important.

 Street youths comprise another group that is vulnerable to poverty and marginalisation, due to inadequate access to education. To ensure that these young people do not fall out of society, the state should support skills development and education initiatives that will help to reintegrate these youths into society.

125 CHAPTER 7: NATIONAL YOUTH SERVICE (NYS)

“The youth of our country are the valued possession of the nation. Without them there can be no future. Their needs are immense and urgent. They are the centre of reconstruction and development.” Nelson Mandela (NYC, 1997:8)

7.1 INTRODUCTION

The NYS is a programme aimed at providing the youth with an opportunity to contribute to their communities while learning. It is instrumental to building support systems and performing corrective services for communities. The NYS is defined as a structured programme that engages youths in strengthening service delivery, promoting nation- building, fostering social cohesion, and assisting the youth to gain the occupational skills necessary to access a sustainable livelihood (Department of Public Works [DPW], 2012). Through voluntary and service activities for young people, the NYS creates an environment conducive to skills development, increased volunteerism, employment opportunities, and income generation. In the long term, it provides an effective and efficient means of restructuring underdeveloped societies, while simultaneously developing the skills and abilities of the youth.

In the context of South Africa, the NYS presents opportunities for young people, particularly those who are unskilled, unemployed, or out of school to contribute to the national development agenda by serving their communities and country. It is intended that their participation would help them to gain knowledge and develop skills that will help support their access to the economy. The NYS therefore plays a key role in developing the abilities of young people by means of access to services and knowledge development. Developmental targets predominantly include better health and wellbeing, social cohesion, higher education and employment rates, and skills and ability development.

According to the National Youth Service Unit (NYSU, 2007), the four main purposes of the NYS programme in South Africa are:

• to enable young people to develop the knowledge, skills, and ability needed for them to make a healthy transition to adulthood; • to give young people a means out of long-term unemployment by providing them with tangible opportunities that increase their chances of accessing the economy; • to inculcate in young people an understanding of their significant role in South Africa’s development, to assist them to engage constructively in community re- integration and nation-building and to develop pro-social behaviour; and

• to provide a vehicle by means of which South Africa can achieve its development objectives through the employment of young people.

126 The NYS programme plays a critical role in targeting young individuals with lower levels of education and skills, as well as providing them with access to services by addressing three components, namely:

• service delivery contributed by the youth; • learning opportunities that may contribute to better service delivery and occupational skills; and • exit opportunities for youths, in terms of accessing economic opportunities.

According to the norms and standards of the NYS, the NYS programme focuses on young people in three categories:

• Category 1: Targets NEET youths. The aim of this category is to provide South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA)-accredited skills that will enable them to access the labour market. The minimum standards for this category are: o credit-bearing theoretical and practical training for a minimum of three months; o provision of a stipend to cover the cost of participation; and o community service action for a minimum of 96 hours. • Category 2: Programmes engage students from tertiary institutions and provide them with a platform to do community service. • Category 3: This category is intended for young professionals and other members of society who are not young but are willing to serve. The minimum standards for the last two categories are: o Community service ▪ A minimum of two days for volunteer action for community development. ▪ The NYS programme should provide incentives for volunteering. ▪ Enrolment in the NYS alumni programme (the NYS Corps). ▪ NYS Corps as a project should enable youths to take part in disaster and emergency situations.

Therefore, the NYS plays an imperative role in the status of the youth. A strong argument is made in the World Development Report (2007) that long-term investment in the youth will translate into benefits for the economy and inevitably strengthen the country in achieving its development objectives. This is also reflected in the objectives of the NYS, which, according to the 2003 NYS Implementation Plan, are to:

• inculcate a culture of service by supporting youth to participate constructively in nation-building; • promote social cohesion; • create understanding in young people of their role in promotion of civic awareness, patriotism, and national reconstruction; • develop the skills, knowledge, and ability of young people to enable them to make the transition to adulthood; • improve youth employability through opportunities for work experience, skills development, and support to gain access to economic and further learning opportunities; and

127 • harness the nation’s untapped human resources and provide a vehicle for enhancing the delivery of the country’s development objectives, especially to disadvantaged and underserved communities.

The South African population currently comprises a significant number of young people between the ages of 0 and 34. Stats SA’s mid-year population estimates for 2017 estimates that this population group constitutes 66,3% of the total population (Stats SA, 2017b). Given the fact that a significant proportion of the population is made up of young people, policies and programmes focusing on the youth are essential for improving the development trajectory of the country. Programmes like the NYS have a critical role to play in this regard.

7.2 POLICY ENVIRONMENT

South Africa’s policy and legislation in youth development are informed by the country’s unique historical background. During the colonial and apartheid era, young people were subjected to adverse socio-economic and political conditions. They experienced racially segregated and restricted education, training and employment opportunities, poor housing conditions, along with high levels of crime and violence, and a general disintegration of communities and social networks.

Prior to the democratisation of South Africa, policies and programmatic interventions to address the development needs of young people were virtually non-existent. In 1994, the election of a democratic government brought about a radical change in the laws of the country, aimed at improving the lives of all its citizens. The new government recognised the significance of focusing on the needs of young people in bringing about transformation and development in South Africa. In the years that followed, several key youth legislative and policy frameworks were undertaken in the formulation of the NYP 2015-2020, which is a significant tool that guides the approach of the country to youth development.

Table 27: Legislative and policy frameworks Year Framework Purpose 1994 The White Paper Made commitments towards the empowerment of South on Reconstruction African youths and ensured that programmes were aimed at and Development redressing the challenges in education, training, and job creation. 1996 The Constitution of Entrenches specific rights and responsibilities that all citizens the Republic of must uphold. The South African Bill of Rights ensures that South Africa specific human rights are guaranteed and guides the inherent rights and responsibilities of all individuals, including young people. 1996 NYC Act (No. 19 of Established as a statutory body responsible for formulating, 1996) coordinating, and implementing the NYP, while advocating for youth development in South Africa. 1997 The White Paper Highlighted the needs and challenges of the youth, along with for Social Welfare interventions aimed at the development of young people.

1998 The Green Paper This identified clear target groups for the NYS programme, on National Youth and also outlined different developmental objectives for the Service different target groups.

128 Year Framework Purpose 1999 The White Paper Following up on the Green Paper, this White Paper explored on National Youth the institutional arrangements and funding mechanisms for Service the NYS in greater detail and recommended the establishment of a national youth service agency. 2000 The NYP Although never adopted, gave direction to the steps that needed to be taken to address the challenges faced by the youth in the country. 2000 World Programme A 10-year plan, aimed at addressing the problems of young of Action on Youth people, and improving the wellbeing and livelihoods of youths at national and international level. 2006 African Youth Sets out a strategic framework for the empowerment and Charter development of the youth, and is consistent with the South African Constitution. 2002- The National Youth Argued for an integrated and holistic youth development 2007 Development strategy, and provided the context for the government’s Policy Framework youth action. It drew attention to the fact that more policy on youths is required to respond to the changing needs of young people in the 21st century. 2008 NYDA Act (No. 54 Provides for the establishment of the NYDA, which aims to of 2008) intensify youth development and ensure high-impact service provision. 2009- The NYP This policy seeks to close the gaps identified in the earlier 2014 National Youth Development Policy Framework of 2002 to 2007. The key feature of this policy lies in the acknowledgement that young people in South Africa are not a homogenous group and can be differentiated by race, gender, social class, and geographic location, among others. Differentiated approaches will therefore need to be adopted to deal with youth developmental matters. 2013- Youth Enterprise This tool is aimed at fostering youth economic participation 2023 Development by deliberately enhancing youth entrepreneurship, Strategy accelerating the growth of youth-owned and -managed enterprises capable of contributing to the GDP growth rate and increasing youth self-employment and innovation 2015- NYP Builds on the NYP 2009-2014 to provide a youth development 2020 framework that informs the Integrated Youth Development Strategy. 2016 NYS framework Developed to strengthen and massify the NYSA programme. 2017 Norms and Developed by the NYSU to capitate NYS implementers to Standards for NYS ensure that they implement the programme correctly.

With this legislative and policy basis, the initiation of the NYP 2015-2020 represents a landmark in the youth development sector, particularly regarding its focus on the changing needs of young people in the 21st century. The policy imperatives that have been identified as necessary for ensuring the development of young people in the context of South Africa include education, economic participation, health and wellbeing, social cohesion, and civic participation. These are dealt with in detail elsewhere. Nevertheless, these policy imperatives have been identified as essential for the development of young people in South Africa in the coming years.

129 Other countries that have innovative policy imperatives in their NYS include the Philippines, which aims to advocate for volunteerism and community participation, and engages unemployed and unskilled youth in various community, education, and environmental programmes; and Great Britain, which aims to promote service opportunities and entrench in young people the importance of citizen responsibilities.

7.3 MODELS FROM OTHER COUNTRIES

Throughout the world, countries have initiated youth programmes that fall in the category of youth service initiatives. However, the types of programmes and their nature and purpose differ from country to country. The existence of these programmes presents the opportunity for the exchange of information and ideas between service programmes in different parts of the world. In the long term, this exchange has the potential to aid South Africa in addressing the issues and challenges faced in youth development.

The Green Paper on the National Youth Service provides three conceptions of NYS, used in different regions of the world, which may be relevant to informing policy and practice in South Africa:

1. NYS: An experiential education programme for young people One of the common trends for NYS programmes is to provide a transitional year, which essentially provides young people with exposure to work and assists them in gaining experience and making the transition from a study environment to a work environment. These programmes recognise that many young people lack the information and skills to transition into further education or employment when they leave the school environment. A key aim of these programmes is therefore to develop the work skills of young people. This conception of an NYS is significant in the South African context as unemployment is a key challenge, and providing young people with work experience can increase their employability.

2. NYS: A method of fostering national development In developing countries, NYS is viewed as a development tool in enabling them to meet their social service responsibilities and attain their development goals by capitalising on the resources of young people. In this sense, governments may use youth service programmes to deliver development programmes in health, education, water, and agriculture to communities that have difficulty accessing these services. Another purpose of youth service programmes, which has been identified in relation to this is nation-building, which involves building a concept of nationhood. These programmes focus less on the development of individuals and more on the delivery of development programmes in areas considered to be a priority by government. This concept of youth services suggests that they may be important in providing support to the development planning objectives of the government.

3. NYS: Delivery of opportunities to young people Youth service programmes have become a means of addressing the growing incidence of youth unemployment and dissatisfaction. They offer young people the opportunity to participate in the programme when the education system is unable to cope with the large numbers of young people who want access to it. This type of youth service plays a significant role in many of the youth service programmes in that it seeks to provide young people with learning and experience through service. Youth service

130 programmes enable youths to access opportunities that would otherwise not be available to them.

7.4 YOUTH SERVICE IN SOUTH AFRICA: HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

Over the years, the government has involved various sectors at local, national, and provincial level, including youth organisations, civil society, religious institutions, and the private sector in the implementation of NYS programmes. Table 28 highlights the various programmes that have been implemented across a variety of sectors in South Africa in relation to youth work.

Table 28: Programmes implementation by sectors Date of Department Project identified commencement Housing “Letsema” Integrated Human Settlements Phase 2: (900) Youth - January 2008 Trade and Industry Community Enterprise Development Workers September 2007 Correctional Services Offender Literacy Project October 2007 Defence Military Skills Development System Ongoing Department of Minerals and Municipal Electrification Support and Non-grid January 2008 Energy Rural Electrification; Paraffin Safety Home Affairs Frontline Officers Development Phase 2: October 2007 Transport Railway Ambassadors Project, and Traffic-testing January 2008 Inspectors Sports and Recreation Mass Participation in Communities May /June 2008 Mass Participation in Sports 2010 Volunteer Campaign Agriculture Comprehensive Agriculture Support Programme; Ongoing Integrated Food Security and Nutrition Programme Environmental Affairs Marine and Coastal Management; Biodiversity; Ongoing Conservation Environmental Affairs Youth Environmental Services 2008 Health Home Community-based Care October 2007 Education Maths and Science Project; Supporting the Ongoing department to Improve Grade 12 results; ABET Delivering NYS through FET colleges Provincial and local Community development work by youth in multi- September 2007 government purpose community centres Arts and Culture National Symbols Project January 2008 Science and Technology Science and Technology Literacy January 2008 Public Works Building Maintenance Project Ongoing Social Development Care for Vulnerable Children; NGO Capacity- Ongoing building Projects Justice Facilitating Speedy Resolution of Cases January 2008 Communications E-Cadre January 2008 Rural Development and National Rural Youth Service Corps (NARYSEC) September 2010 Land Reform Source: Mphale (2009): Reflecting on the National Youth Service

131 7.5 BUDGET AND TARGETS

The government has mostly been responsible for funding the activities, projects, and programmes under the NYS. According to the International Association for National Youth Service (IANYS), the cost per participant in the NYS programmes is R26 000 per annum, on average. Table 29 outlines the performance of NYS projects recorded by the NYDA from 2002 to 2013.

Table 29: Number of participants within the NYS projects Implementation Target # Category Project name Sector Actual # Budget period # 1 1 17 Shaft Jan. 2003 - Mar. Constr. & Horti. 84 85 R6 488 448 Recondev #697/1 2004 2 1 17 Shaft Aug. 2004 - Nov. Constr. & Horti. 100 98 R5 237 535 Recondev 2005 #697/2 3 1 17 Shaft Apr. 2007 - Mar. Constr. & Horti. 500 500 R2 727 453 Recondev #679/3 2008 4 1 CMHS-Siyanceda No documents Hygiene 40 40 No documents #5591 5 1 CMHS-Siyanceda Oct. 2005 - Mar. Hygiene 40 40 R1 638 667 #5592 2007 6 1 CMHS-Siyanceda Nov. 2007 - Dec. Hygiene 100 100 R5 567 290 #5593 2009 7 1 Moses Kotane 2005 - 2006 Construction 1 000 746 R870 159 #25671 8 1 Moses Kotane 2006 - 2007 Construction 300 284 R4 689 752 #25672 9 1 Eco City #2075/1 Mar. 2004 - May Construction 100 94 R4 530 328 Ivory Park 2004 10 1 Eco City #2075/2 Nov. 2005 - Apr. Construction 200 200 R2 877 588 Mogale City 2006 11 1 EcoCity#2075/3 Not stated Construction 100 100 R1 917 855 Wilderocke Farm 12 1 Eco City#7591/1 2006 - Sep. 2007 Construction 150 112 R1 012 429 Drakenstein 13 1 LITE Mohlaletse Apr. 2002 Construction 60 57 R5 216 348 YSP #206/1 14 1 LITE Mohlaletse 21 Jul. 2003 - 17 Construction 60 67 R4 432 091 YSP (206/2) Dec. 2004 15 1 LITE Lead Agent 21 Jul. 2003 - 17 Construction 70 70 R1 232 388 (206/3) Dec. 2004 16 1 LITE Platfontein 1 Mar. 2005 - 31 Construction 100 100 R1 043 328 YSP (206/4) May 2006 17 1 NW Renovation 2007 - 2008 Engineering 500 565 R7 321 467 of Gvt Buildings #3296/1 18 1 NW Renovation 2009 - 2010 Constr. & Infra. 500 401 R3 296 164 of Gvt Buildings #3296/3 19 1 National Dept. of 2007 - 2008 Constr. & Infra. 900 864 R3 919 000 Housing Letsema #3222/1 20 1 WC EPWP – # 2007 - 2008 Constr. & Infra. 550 529 R4 435 750 3294/1 Public Buildings Project 21 1 WC Nature Jan. 2004 - Mar. Conservation 72 65 R5 767 739 Conservation 2005 Board#1506/1 22 1 Cape Nature 2005 - 2006 Conservation 144 Not stated R10 246 556 cycle 2 #1506/1 23 1 NW Conservation 2006 - 2007 Conserv. & Tour. 150 131 R2 977 690 & Tourism #2331/1 24 1 Free State Home 2005 - 2007 Health 250 241 R4 573 044 Based Community Care 2551/1

132 Implementation Target # Category Project name Sector Actual # Budget period # 25 1 Youth In Conflict 2007 - 2008 Social Dev. 240 215 R3 108 254 with the Law #3331/1 26 1 Joint Enrichment Feb. 2005 - Mar. Healthcare 100 100 R2 908 745 Project 210/2 2006 Gauteng 27 1 Limpopo 2005 - 2006 Health 220 220 R7 393 477 Community Care Worker Skill Project 2552/1 28 1 Limpopo: Traffic 2008 - 2009 Transport 130 125 R840 512 Officers (3603/1) 29 1 Lubisi Dam Youth 2006/2007 Constr. & Agric. 100 100 R1 871 770 Development Project 30 1 Multi-Purpose 2007 - 2008 Mentoring 150 135 R3 760 500 Community Centre (MPCC) 2555/1 31 1 CARE (1097/2) 1 Jan. 2008 Health & Dev. 100 87 R1 774 425.00 32 1 CARE (1097/3) 2008/2009 Health & Dev. 50 50 R1 804 288.70 33 1 National 1 Dec. 2007 - 26 Agriculture 40 40 R3 135 200 Emergent Red May 2009 Meat Producers' Organisation (NERPO) (314/4) 34 1 Mpumalanga Air Apr. 2008 - Mar. Manufacturing 100 100 R730 000.00 Conditioning 2010 (MPARVP) 3396-1 35 1 Ivory Park Youth 2010 - 2011 Constr. & Infra. 19-26 R2 722.400 Build (3623/1) 36 1 Gauteng on line 2007 - 2008 Skills dev. (ICT) 500 No report R4 984 000.00 3259-1 ICT with actual project participants 37 1 Lap Desk 2007 - 2008 Social 2000 2000 R1 100 000.00 Handover Development (3335/1) 38 1 Faith Based 2003 - 2004 Faith Based 270 270 R1 293 525 Youth (1272/2) 39 1 Ithala Project 2006 - 2008 Construction 118 118 R3 523 027 (3043/1) 40 1 Microsoft 2008 - 2009 ICT 2 000 1279 R6 404 873 training Programme (27512) 41 1 The North West 2007 - 2008 Training 40 40 R1 601 850.00 Orientation and Mobility Project (3394/1) 42 1 E-Cadre Apr. 2008 Social dev. 1 800 1800 R3 630 000.00 programme 3472-1 43 1 Mpumalanga 1 Jul. 2007 Hosp., Tour. & 100 100 R3 332 564.00 Tourism & Parks Cons. Agency NYS Project 3321/1 44 1 Dept. of Home Aug. 2007 - Aug. Social dev. 300 Not known R3 277 125 Affairs 3281-1 2008 45 1 KwaZulu-Natal 2007 - 2008 Construction 600 430 R2 358 000.00 Building Maintenance NYS Project 3321/1 46 1 National Dept. of 2008 - 2009 Social Sector 1100 1100 R3 941 550.00 Health (NDoH) Cluster (Health, Data Capture Education, Social 3388/1 Dev.) 47 1 South African 2006 - 2007 Mentoring 72 66 R2 128 344.00 Ministers Project (3110/1) & (3110/2)

133 Implementation Target # Category Project name Sector Actual # Budget period # 48 1 Joint Enrichment Mar. 2002 - May Health & Constr. 79 69 R3 313 400.00 Project 210/1 2003 North West CATEGORY TOTALS 16 279 13 867 R 18 034 758.00 1 2 EC Dept. of Public Apr. 2007 - Nov Construction 1 000 1 000 R4 221 000 Works APTCoD .2008 3330/1 2 2 National Assoc. 2009 - 2010 Mentoring 2 000 2 000 R4 907 950 of Child Care Workers (2566/2) 3 2 Youth into Nov. 2007 - 30 Education 125 Not stated R1 063 423.00 Science and Oct. 2009 Technology (3367/1) 4 2 University of Fort 2007 - 2008 Volunteerism 1 060 1 023 R8.00 Hare Volunteer Programme #3426/1 5 2 University of 2007-2008 Volunteerism 550 389 R8.00 Stellenbosch NYS Volunteer Project #3301/1 6 2 Youth Exchange Sept. 2011 Health & Culture 20 20 R8.00 Programme between South Africa and France (3766/1) 7 2 Rhodes 2008 Volunteerism 460 460 R643 900 University 3339-2 8 2 University of 2007 - 2008 Volunteerism 1000 410 R638 900.00 Western Cape 9 2 Community Legal 1 Mar. - 31 Oct. Justice 100 100 R596 500 & Human Rights 2008 Education (3393/1) 10 2 & 3 Ke Nako 2010 WC 2007 - 2008 Volunteerism 5 200 3 982 R4 961 284 & FIFA (3569/1) CATEGORY 11 515 9 384 R1 702 347.00 TOTALS 1 3 Voter Education 2009 - 2010 Volunteerism 2 700 2 700 R4 860 563 Campaign (3561/2) 2 3 Heartlines Youth 2009 - 2010 Mentorship 10 000 3 082 R3 177 291 Mentorship (3620/1) 3 3 Proud to Serve Dec. 2007 - Jan. Pure volunteering 10 000 10 000 R1 928 000 3376/1 2008 4 3 Proud to Serve Jan. 2009 and Volunteering 10 000 10 000 R3 340 200 3376/2 Feb. 2009 5 3 Proud to Serve Mar. 2010 Volunteering 17 000 16 000 R1 524 941 3376/3 6 3 Proud to Serve June 2011 Volunteering 10 000 9 000 R1 501 625.00 3747/1 7 3 National 2005 - 2006 Mentoring 940 549 R4 265 000 Association of Child Care Workers (NACCW) – Assistant Probation Officers (25661) 8 3 Global Youth 2007 - 2008 Volunteerism 50 000 Not known R4 900 000 Service Day (32701) 9 3 Batsha-Jeugd Ended Sept. 2010 Art and Culture 3 226 3 026 R852 982.00

10 3 Mpumalanga 2007 - 2008 Health and Social 222 None to R8.00 Youth and Child Dev. review Care #3398/1 11 3 Bophelo Impilo Oct. 2011 - Dec. Health 3 000 3 000 R1 023 278 #3765-1 2011

134 Implementation Target # Category Project name Sector Actual # Budget period # 12 3 NYS Alumni Not stated Communication 530 Not stated R1 432 567.02 Society Awards 13 3 Climate Change 28 Nov. - 9 Dec. Volunteer 2 000 Not known R979 350.00 Youth 2011 Ambassadors NYS Project – COP 17 14 3 Drug Not stated Volunteer 1 028 Not known R481 740.00 Rehabilitation Awareness GP 15 3 Dududza Disaster Not stated Community Svs. 1 000 Not stated R2 910 000.00 Relief Programme 3778/1 16 3 Drug 2012 - 2013 Drug 700 700 R496 567 rehabilitation and rehabilitation awareness 17 3 Lifeline (3229/1) 2007 - 2008 Social Dev. 2 600 2 600 R4 980 725

18 3 BBBSSA # 3042/1 Jun. 2007 - Jul. Community Svs. 3 000 3 000 R7 621 385 2008 19 3 BBBSSA 3042/2 2008 - 2010 Community Svs. 1 968 1 968 R3 428 332

CATEGORY 119 914 65 625 R5 264 615.00 TOTALS GRAND TOTALS 147 708 88 876 R25 001 720.00 Source: NYSU (2007): Progress Report to the Inter-ministerial Committee on the implementation of the National Youth Service Program (NYSP)

Table 30 highlights the target and the actual number of participants for various projects, as well as budgetary implications. From the table, the target of NYS in terms of number of participants is not met in South Africa. Overall, NYS projects have reported meeting just over 60% of the target in terms of the number of participants, with 88 876 participants engaged in different NYS projects, versus a target of 147 708 participants. However, these figures must be used cautiously as there are several projects that have not reported on their actual performance despite having presented their targets. A different picture will be obtained should the actual performance on all the projects be recorded. Furthermore, these 2013 participation figures fall far below the target set by the NYS business plan, which is 720 000 participants by 2010. These NYS targets are highlighted in Table 30, distributed over the three categories.

Table 30: Targets from 2007 to 2010, in three categories CATEGORY 1: Structured Learning for 2007 - 2008 - 2009 - TOTAL Unemployed Youth (Sector Targets) 2008 2009 2010 Expanded Public Works Programme (EPWP) sectors Infrastructure sector 20 000 20 000 20 000 60 000 Environment and conservation sector 10 000 20 000 20 000 50 000 Social development sector 10 000 20 000 20 000 50 000 Health sector 10 000 20 000 20 000 50 000 Education sector 10 000 10 000 10 000 30 000 Subtotal EPWP 60 000 90 000 90 000 240 000 Non-EPWP targets Military sector 10 000 10 000 10 000 30 000 Agricultural sector 10 000 10 000 10 000 30 000 Subtotal, non-EPWP 20 000 20 000 20 000 60 000 SUBTOTAL 80 000 110 000 110 000 300 000

135 CATEGORY 2: FET and HEI Student Volunteers (sector targets) Information Technology 3 000 10 000 20 000 33 000 Maths and Science 4 000 20 000 20 000 44 000 Economic Development 3 000 10 000 20 000 33 000 SUBTOTAL 10 000 40 000 60 000 110 000 CATEGORY 3: Voluntarism (non-sector specific) SUBTOTAL 50 000 110 000 150 000 310 000 GRAND TOTAL 160 000 250 000 310 000 720 000 Source: Mphale (2009): Reflecting on the National Youth Service

The targets shown in Table 30 cover activities and issues around health, education, construction, environment and conservation, and infrastructure development. At 240 000, the Extended Public Works Programme target was the highest, while the Category 1 target of 300 000 predominantly comprised unemployed youths.

7.6 IMPLEMENTATION OF NYS PROGRAMME

An examination of Category 1 activities from 2007 to 2013 within the NYS plan showed the involvement of about 15 government departments at both national and provincial levels. These activities gave approximately 13 800 young people opportunities to assist their societies and develop new skills, against a target of about 16 300. Category 2 activities collaborated with tertiary institutions to accredit their programmes. This resulted in about 9 300 students at an estimated 15 HEIs being involved in various community services projects. Category 2 activities are being established to expand to FET colleges in the coming years. Meanwhile, Category 3 projects recorded participation of over 65 600 young people against a targeted participation of 120 000 youths. When examining employment trends, it may be argued that NYS programmes have had a minimal effect on employment levels, within provinces, and nationally.

In relation to non-governmental programmes, some of the programmes that were undertaken include City Year South Africa, loveLife groundBREAKERs, BBBSSA (Mentorship), and the NACCW Mentorship Programme (IANYS, 2008). Of the four programmes, loveLife’s groundBREAKERs is the only programme that reported an evaluation initiative to measure its impact on an individual level. The evaluation was conducted by Volunteer and Service Enquiry Southern Africa (VOSESA) in 2008, in an unpublished report. The report evaluated the programme data acquired for 2004 and 2005. Based on self-reported data, the report identified that graduates from the programme were more likely to acquire a post-Grade 12 qualification and access employment, in comparison with people who did not participate in NYS programmes. The lessons learned during the processes of the programme are that volunteerism and civic engagement are imperative for the successful running of the programmes. Graduates of the programme also gained confidence and leadership characteristics during employment. loveLife’s groundBREAKERs programme trains 1 000 participants per year and has made good progress over time (IANYS, 2008).

7.7 POST-2014 STATUS OF NYS

In 2014 the Public Service Commission conducted an evaluation of the National Youth Service on behalf of the NYDA. Following the evaluation of the NYS programme in 2014, 136 several gaps were identified, and it was clear that the programme needed to be strengthened. As a sequel, in 2015, the NYS Task Team was established by the Presidency to review and revive the NYS programme. The team was composed of members of civil society organisations, youth formations, business organisations, national government departments, and the labour movement. The intention of establishing the task team was to find ways to improve the coordination of the NYS programme, and to scale it up so that it has maximum impact. A framework was produced to strengthen NYS. The NYS Unit, based at the NYDA, is tasked to recruit one million young people into the programme by 2020. It was also recommended that the NYS Unit should focus on improving on the following:

• Registration of NYSP projects for compliance and support. • Develop Norms and Standards for the NYSP, such as: o service norms and standards (“Ubuntu” service, leadership and citizenship); and o volunteer norms and standards. • Data Management System (generation of credible national data). • Stakeholder mobilisation and capacity building. • Counselling and aftercare support. • Support stakeholder project conceptualisation, and development of budgets. • NYSP communication and marketing. • Coordination of NYSP “projects” • Monitoring and evaluation of NYSP projects (undertake baseline and longitudinal studies).

Following this, norms and standards for capacity building on how to run NYS programmes were developed. These are meant to capacitate implementers of the programme to ensure that the programme is implemented correctly and that it yields the desired outcomes. To date, the NYS Unit has run capacity-building workshops in all nine provinces.

7.8 CONCLUSION

The NYS is defined as a structured programme that engages youths in strengthening service delivery, promoting nation-building, fostering social cohesion, and assisting youths to gain the occupational skills necessary to be able to access a sustainable livelihood. The design and implementation of the NYS programme failed to explicitly define outcomes so that its benefits could accurately be measured.

Existing data suggest that the NYS has had no positive effect on employment levels at both national and provincial level. There is also no sufficient evidence to suggest that NYS is fostering patriotism, which is one of the intended outcomes of the programmes. Most of the available data on NYS are outdated or incomplete, which makes it difficult to provide a current and complete picture. More research based on primary data may be necessary to fully understand the status of NYS.

There has been deliberate efforts to revive the NYS programme, with the NYS Unit tasked to recruit one million young people by 2020.

137 7.9 IMPLICATIONS

 Although the framework and design of the NYS programme have been reviewed/evaluated to assess the functionality or quality of processes and outcomes, more still needs to be done to strengthen the programme. If the programme continues to be implemented without these vital checks, the country runs the risk of investing in interventions that may perpetuate unintended outcomes.

 The available data on NYS programmes are incomplete, fragmented, and lack credibility to assess how young people have benefited from these programmes. The poor and uncoordinated data-collection, information-collation and programme- reporting mechanisms for NYS programmes may lead to poor support and lack strategic focus.

 There is a danger that the NYS programmes may be viewed as public-sector-only programmes, as most NYS programmes have been implemented by the public sector. In addition, there is very little information available on activities implemented by the private sector and civic organisations. This may cloud the public view of the NYS as a public social safety net, as opposed to it being a community service and skills development initiative.

 The overall NYS policy framework essentially aims to achieve the fundamental goal of contributing towards the development of young people. With adequate monitoring and evaluation systems, these policy imperatives can inform lessons for future policies and programmes in the field of youth development. Given the levels of youth unemployment in South Africa, a policy shift that facilitates the constructive and valuable employment of young people at an early stage of their lives is a critical outcome.

7.10 RECOMMENDATIONS

 Considering the various findings on the NYS, the following issues need to be addressed through policy consideration:

o The establishment of mechanisms and procedures to coordinate the promotion of NYS within government departments; o The establishment of mechanisms and procedures to coordinate the collaboration between government, the private sector, and the civic society sector to coordinate and promote the NYS; and o The establishment of an official systematic and functional mechanism for information collection, collation, and periodical reporting in respect of all NYS programmes in the country.

 Since little to no data are available, it may be useful for the NYSU to invest resources in a large-scale study, to assess if and how young people access the NYS services, as well as the ways in which these services impact on their short- and long-term goals, including enhancing their prospects for meaningful work.

 As a nascent and developing area of activity, it is vital that greater monitoring and evaluation initiatives be put in place to review and audit the NYS, such as:

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o Proper monitoring and evaluation programmes, which measure the impact and success of the objectives of the NYS, and the targets and target groupings. Monitoring the quality and quantity of the NYS programmes will enable the NYS to constantly improve its programmes for the increased effectiveness, efficiency, and employability of youths. o Ensuring that all youths within societies have access to the NYS by increasing the scope and facilitation process in which the services are administered.

 The NYS needs to be restructured to facilitate and give precedence to youths who are unemployed in South Africa. Public perceptions of the NYS need to be properly informed, so that there is broad-based support for the initiatives of the government towards this goal.

139 CHAPTER 8: EFFECTIVE AND RESPONSIVE YOUTH DEVELOPMENT INSTITUTIONS

8.1 INTRODUCTION

The critical success factor for the implementation of youth development programmes, of which the SAIYDS is central, is effective and responsive youth development institutions. This chapter in most cases refers to the SAIYDS as it is an important tool to implement NYP 2015-2020. Institutional arrangements are the policies, systems, and processes that organisations use to legislate, plan, and manage their activities efficiently and effectively coordinate with others in order to fulfil their mandate. For example, countries can move from “brain drain” to “brain gain” by creating incentives to encourage skilled workers to remain, to return after university, or to engage on a short-term basis in specific projects. Such an effort could involve universities, public administration, and the private sector, and could include supporting the development of merit-based recruitment criteria for civil service.

In this instance, a strong factor to be considered is that while the NYDA is tasked with the development of the SAIYDS (which covers all the areas of youth development identified in the NYP 2015-2010), the Agency is not meant to take full responsibility for the implementation thereof. The SAIYDS is meant to represent a countrywide strategy that is delivered by all who have a say in and impact on youth development. It is a framework for getting involved in the national approach to youth development. The main role of the NYDA is to act as a catalyst. In order to do this effectively, clear institutional arrangements need to be in place. Figure 106 summarises the important pieces to the institutional arrangements puzzle.

Figure 106: Design linkages Source: NYDA (2015): Unpublished Integrated Youth Development Strategy

140 a. Financial Investment support (from within Treasury) The National Treasury is prescriptive about the process to be followed for the development of programmes and project budgets. The Medium-Term Expenditure Framework (MTEF) provides a detailed budget projection for the next three financial years. All budgetary allocations are meant to be linked to specific programmes and projects and all budgetary expenditure must be linked back to programme and project delivery. Budget programme structures provide the key link between an institution’s objectives and its detailed operational budgets. To provide this link, the budget programme structure (programmes and sub-programmes) should reflect the main areas of responsibility or service delivery within an institution’s mandate (National Treasury, 1999). The framework for engagement, interactions, and delivery of programmes delivered through the SAIYDS will require National Treasury to be heavily involved. It is presently not possible to identify exactly what changes will be required, but some of the principles being considered are as follows:

• Private sector to easily invest: There may be instances where private sector organisations want to contribute financially, directly to identified programmes and projects. Should a Treasury mechanism not exist for this to be done, one would need to be introduced. Once the funding (co-funding either match or other) has been received, the necessary systems and structures need to be established to make certain that the funds are managed correctly. Decisions need to be made on who will manage the particular budget. Will it be managed by the line department or by Treasury directly? The requirement is therefore for responsive, flexible, innovative methods employed for budget approval and allocation. All new processes need to be mapped and clearly communicated to all stakeholders • Structural reorientation: There is a need for the NYDA to have structural representation on all planning committees. Where there is no committee in place, the NYDA must, at the very least, be an integral part of the planning processes (particularly where there are youth issues present). • Opportunities for investment to be published (easy access point): Once programme and project budgets have been developed, it will be necessary to publish all opportunities for private sector investment and involvement. National Treasury will provide assistance on calculating the budget requirements/shortfall. This shortfall could then be met by partnering with private sector or civil society organisations. There is a need to make the opportunities easily visible and accessible. The mechanism for access could take on a number of forms, with contact centres or discipline-specific desks being set up in the Presidency. The specific selection will be made once the volume of requests is better understood. • Joint internal funding: There may be instances where the budgets of two departments will be combined in order to realise optimal budget utilisation. The existing Treasury regulations will have to be reviewed to ascertain if this is possible through the merging of two line departments’ budgets in project-specific areas.

141 i. NYDA Catalytic Role (From within NYDA) The SAIYDS has been designed as a framework that any role player could get involved in at any point in time. The primary role within this framework for the NYDA is to act as a catalyst. The NYDA, with the support of the Office of the Presidency, is in a position to create the political will and momentum within the government to allow the SAIYDS to gain the traction that is required for successful implementation. The opportunity to influence what other departments are doing in the youth development space must be driven quite strongly by both the NYDA and the Presidency. The main aim is to make youth development part and parcel of what other line departments are delivering, to the point where organisational and individual performance agreements include youth development as a clear area of focus. The role is therefore to remove barriers to success and to assist with the development and delivery of critical success factors. Their role can broadly be described as to coordinate key engagements, to facilitate critical discussions, and to ease projects through conceptualisation into design and ultimately implementation. As a custodian of all national youth development data and information, the NYDA can assist with providing planning and decision-making information in all youth development projects. An additional responsibility of the NYDA is to establish key partnerships with private sector organisations. The partnerships are fully designed, with clear rules of engagement, which define the roles and responsibilities of each party. Initially, there are three types of agreements that have been identified. The three cover each sphere of government, meaning that there will be national, provincial, and local agreements, which cover delivery and assistance at these levels. The last role also includes all monitoring, evaluation, and reporting requirements of the liaison function.

ii. Treasury Advisory Support Services (Treasury) National Treasury engagement was touched on briefly above, but it is envisaged that there will be high levels of involvement from this department, since some of the major considerations will be about how they provide innovative solutions for utilising private sector funding. Public-private Partnerships (PPPs) are already a model that is used by Treasury. The suitability of this mechanism needs to be investigated to determine whether it is suitable for the delivery of these projects. Should it not be possible to deliver through the PPP model, alternatives will have to be designed, considered, and implemented.

iii. Inter-governmental Liaison (IGL) (From within NYDA) Many of the societal, health, education, and service delivery challenges being faced by the national government cut across more than one specific delivery area of a department. In many instances, more than one department responds to a societal challenge through two separately funded and designed projects. For example, both the DoH and DSD are responding to substance abuse. The role of the IGL is to collect, collate, and present information on all departments (and organs of state) and the projects that they are currently running. The main aim is to present opportunities for working together and for creating synergy. The IGL’s role also includes all monitoring, evaluation, and reporting requirements of the liaison function.

142 iv. Private Sector Liaison (From within NYDA) The role of the Private Sector Liaison desk is to act as a single point of entry into the SAIYDS and related programme/project framework. Of specific importance, within project information, is to identify exactly when, where, and how private sector companies can get involved. It essentially presents a point of entry into any programme or project that is being run by the government that is focused on youth development.

v. Knowledge Advisory Services A vast body of knowledge and information on youth development resides outside of the NYDA. With Treasury’s emphasis on results-based management and evidence-based planning, it is very important that the NYDA forms strategic partnerships that will provide it with access to these bodies of knowledge. The main targets for these partnerships are public and private research institutes, as well as universities.

vi. Marketing, Communication, and Public Relations (Multiple locations driven by NYDA) The SAIYDS represents quite a considerable departure from how the nation traditionally dealt with its response to youth development. Its approach is thoroughly integrated and requires high levels of coordination and collaboration between the public and private sectors and civil society. The role players are the same, but the “rules of engagement” have changed. To ensure that everybody understands how the landscape has changed, it will be necessary to have a strong marketing, communications, and media campaign.

vii. Civil Society Liaison The civil society liaison is the same as the private sector liaison. The only difference is the “customer” base that they service. b. Planning and Oversight Arrangements The Presidency is the custodian of the SAIYDS, and is responsible for developing and managing an integrated framework for implementation and monitoring.

The proposed institutional arrangements envisage a multi-level framework, at national, provincial, and local levels, as reflected in Figure 107.

143 Members: Meets: Presidential SAIYDS Forum Ministers of PME, Economic Development, Education, Health, Social Development. Annually Chaired By: President Sports & Recreation, Arts & Culture, Public Works, Public Enterprises, Trade & Industry

Members: Meets: SAIYDS Preparatory Forum Deputy Ministers of Economic Development, Education, Health, Social Development. Bi-annually Chaired By: Minister - PME Sports & Recreation, Arts & Culture, Public Works, Public Enterprises, Trade & Industry

Members: Directors General of Economic SAIYDS Technical Meets: Development, Education, Health, Social Support Forum Development. Sports & Recreation, Arts & Quarterly Chaired By: DG - PME Culture, Public Works, Public Enterprises, Trade & Industry, CEO of the NYDA, CEOs of SOCs

Members: Meets: Premier’s SAIYDS Forum MECs of Economic Development, Education, Health, Social Development. Bi-annually Chaired By: Premier Sports & Recreation, Arts & Culture, Public Works, Mayors

Members: SAIYDS Provincial Meets: HODs of Economic Development, Technical Support Forum Education, Health, Social Development. Quarterly Chaired By: DG Sports & Recreation, Arts & Culture, Public Works, City Managers

NYDA: National, Provincial and Consolidated Performance Municipal Youth Desks and Monitoring & Intelligence Directorates: Gathering Programme Implementation

Figure 107: SAIYDS institutional arrangements Source: NYDA (2015): Unpublished Integrated Youth Development Strategy

8.2 NATIONAL LEVEL

Presidential SAIYDS Forum: Chaired by the president, this is the most senior structure within the SAIYDS and meets annually to receive updates on the status of the implementation of the SAIYDS. The Forum is empowered to:

• make significant revisions to targets and priority programmes; • instruct departments and provinces to increase focus on particular elements of the programme;

144 • propose revisions to funding arrangements, which will then be reconsidered by the relevant Treasury department at national or provincial level; and • identify policy or regulatory challenges that impact on successful delivery and instruct the respective ministries to address them accordingly.

SAIYDS Preparatory Forum: Chaired by the Minister for Performance Monitoring and Evaluation, the Forum comprises deputy ministers and meets bi-annually to receive feedback on progress and prepare for the annual meetings of the Presidential SAIYDS Forum. The Forum is empowered to:

• identify areas of duplication or lack of alignment and instruct departments or provinces to address them; and • address lack of progress in implementation of key programmes and identify mechanisms to fast-track delivery.

SAIYDS Technical Support Forum: Chaired by the Director-General of Performance Monitoring and Evaluation, the Technical Support Forum comprises all the relevant Directors-General, plus the chief executive officers (CEOs) of the relevant state-owned companies and the CEO of the NYDA. The forum meets quarterly to review progress and prepare for the SAIYDS Preparatory Forum. The focus of the Forum is to ensure that programmes’ targets are being met and that operational issues are addressed as quickly as possible.

8.3 PROVINCIAL AND LOCAL LEVEL

Premier’s SAIYDS Forum: Each province will establish an SAIYDS Forum, which is chaired by the premier and includes all the relevant Members of the Executive Council (MECs) and the mayors of the municipalities within the province. The Forum will meet bi-annually and prepare inputs for the national level Technical Support Forum and Preparatory Forum. The Premier’s Forum will be empowered, within the province, to:

• monitor progress within the province with regard to the attainment of targets and addressing areas of shortcomings; • instruct provincial departments to increase focus on particular elements of the programme; • achieve better alignment between provincial and municipal initiatives; and • identify policy or regulatory challenges that impact on successful delivery and either address what can be done at provincial level or raise them within the national forum.

SAIYDS Provincial Technical Support Forum: Chaired by the Provincial Director-General, the Forum will comprise heads of departments (HODs) of the relevant departments and municipal managers. The Forum will meet quarterly, to prepare for the Premiers’ Forum. The focus of the Forum will be on monitoring performance and addressing operational shortcomings in delivery.

With regard to programme implementation, it is important to recognise that the public sector is considered to be a key delivery agent in the implementation of the SAIYDS. To achieve optimal results, it will be necessary to ensure that the necessary institutional capacity is put in place to plan and execute tasks effectively:

145

b) At national, provincial, and municipal levels, either Youth Directorates or a Youth Desk should be established and staffed with appropriately skilled officials, tasked with the responsibility of developing youth plans for the sector or region and implementing them accordingly. c) Government departments, at national and provincial levels, should develop sector- specific strategies to advance SAIYDS goals. While not necessarily deviating from SAIYDS, sector strategies should balance the mandate of the specific department and the stated goals of the SAIYDS. The strategies should have a costed implementation plan, timeframes, and clear deliverables. d) Municipalities should develop youth strategies that are aligned to their provincial strategies, which in turn respond to the SAIYDS and a youth development plan, which is clearly identifiable in their Integrated Development Plans. e) The NYDA is tasked with ongoing SAIYDS monitoring and evaluation, incorporating not only public sector programmes, but also those driven by business and civil society. The key role of the NYDA is to facilitate linkages between all sectors of society, thereby maximising impact.

8.4 CONCLUSION

In order for any youth development policy intervention to be effective, strong, and functioning, institutional arrangements are necessary. SAIYDS is an instrument for implementing policy imperatives recommended in the NYP. Various organs of the state, led by National Treasury, are required to play a role in youth development. The integrated and mainstreamed approach to youth development aims to make youth development part and parcel of all state organs such that it is included in their budgets and their performance agreements. While current youth development institutional arrangements are intended to mainstream and integrate youth development in all sectors of society, the actual implementation still needs to be strengthened.

8.5 IMPLICATIONS

 The NYP 2015-2020 can only be implemented effectively and efficiently when all state organs are involved.

 The SAIYDS is the key instrument for implementing all the policy recommendations in the NYP 2015-2020.

 Coordination is very important if all the state organs, the private sector, and civil society are to contribute meaningfully to youth development. As the custodian of youth development, the NYDA has a major role to play in this regard.

 Sometimes bureaucratic red tape makes it difficult for the private sector and civil society to be involved in youth development programmes.

8.6 RECOMMENDATIONS

 It is important to constantly evaluate the performance of current youth development institutional arrangement so that they can be constantly improved to meet demand. 146

 As a catalyst, the NYDA could look at ways to improve lobbying and advocacy for the mainstreaming and integration of youth development in all state organs, the private sector, and civil society.

 It is recommended that the NYDA strengthens its coordination and liaison role.

 It is important that one of the key ways to maximise private sector and civil society participation is to devise ways to eliminate or minimise bureaucratic red tape.

147 CHAPTER 9: YOUTH WORK IN SOUTH AFRICA

9.1 INTRODUCTION

Youth work is the professional practice that focuses on the holistic development of the adolescent and young person. It offers learning opportunities that support and promote the personal, social, and economic development of young people. Central to that is the quality of the youth worker’s relationship with young people, and the consequent influence on their learning and development. Learning may occur in planned and focused programmes, or it may be spontaneous through informal encounters with individuals or groups.

Another important element of youth work is that it is a holistic development of young people, in order to equip them with the knowledge, skills, and values they require to make appropriate choices throughout their lives. It is therefore concerned with developing young people’s personal, social, and economic livelihoods, and offers opportunities for young people to acquire and develop knowledge, and understanding of the personal and social skills necessary for them to relate effectively with others, and to participate fully in the life of their own community and beyond.

The nature of youth work is that it is complementary to the role of teachers, corrective services personnel, and health personnel, such as psychologists and social workers. It is seen as a demanding, yet fulfilling, professional skill that needs to be developed through the training of youth workers and the professionalisation of the practice of youth work in order to provide responsive and effective youth programmes.

In many countries in sub-Saharan Africa and Britain, youth work is promoted under the Commonwealth Youth Programme (CYP). The CYP views young people as key partners in development and recognises that young people’s skills are essential for the future of the Commonwealth. The CYP therefore aims to create opportunities for young people to be active participants in the development of their communities. This is a change from some of the original emphases of youth work on correcting young people who have perceived deficiencies, rather than encouraging them to make informed choices about their lives.

In South Africa, there is still a need to define youth work, given all the confusion and misconceptions about the concept and the apparent overlaps with many other professions. According to the DSD (2008b), youth work in South Africa is practised by other professionals such as teachers, social workers, and psychologists, to mention just a few. In contrast, the contemporary definitions of youth work described above aim at an asset- based definition, rather than a deficit definition.

A youth worker is any person who is involved in work that primarily aims to address the needs of the youth and society, and seeks the active participation, liberation, and empowerment of young people. Youth workers are practitioners and volunteers who work either at the cutting edge of society with young people, or are managers of youth-based organisations. Youth workers play a number of roles, including those of trainer, educator, counsellor, social worker, and community development worker, for which they ought to

148 receive professional training. Consequently, youth workers play a critical role in the lives of young people in each of these roles. Youth work is both a practice and a profession. Youth workers are therefore practitioners and professionals.

9.2 ROLES OF YOUTH WORKERS

The main purpose of youth workers is to empower the youth, by developing and strengthening young people on an ongoing basis with knowledge, skills, competencies, information, counselling, and service provision so that they can control their destinies (South African Youth Workers Association [SAYWA], 2001; Commonwealth Secretariat, 2001). According to SAQA (2009), youth workers also assist young people in solving their problems and to become the community’s most valuable resource.

Youth workers help create a conducive environment for the youth to be involved in different activities that will enable them to meet their personal and social needs. It also ensures that young people express their minds in order to make themselves valuable and to have a positive impact or influence in the community/environment that they are living in. Lastly, youth workers coordinate youth development interventions by involving and engaging key role players and forming partnerships with stakeholders to benefit young people.

Table 31 outlines the roles of youth workers compared to other related social service professions. Table 31: Summary of role comparison amongst social providers Profession or field Client served Major emphasis or goal Worker’s role of practice Youth worker Youths Promote the total or Teacher, enabler, overall development of all advocate, guide, planner, young people, troubled or problem solver, mediator, not, to enable them to negotiator, and handle current and future coordinator challenges in the different spheres of their lives Social worker All individuals Promoting social change, Problem solver, (children, youth, problem solving in human counsellor, therapist, adults, and elderly relationships, and caseworker, advisor, persons), groups, and enhancing social teacher, enabler, communities functioning mediator, negotiator, broker, advocate, researcher, administrator, and planner Child and youth Children and youths in Providing assistance, care Counsellor, caregiver, care worker difficulty or at risk and treatment for children problem solver, therapist, and young people advocate, enabler, homemaker, researcher, administrator, and planner Community Communities, Enhancing the capacities Facilitator, catalyst, development neighbourhoods, and of communities to respond enabler, teacher, guide, worker groups, including to their needs by broker, advocate, and young people improving the capacity for researcher development Source: Hlagala (2012): Emergence and Future Status of Youth Work

149 9.3 ROLE PLAYERS IN THE FIELD OF YOUTH DEVELOPMENT

Table 32 shows the various role players in the field of youth development in South Africa. This suggests that youth development is multidimensional and that it cuts across the spheres of government and across state organs. Professionalisation of youth work and designing learning programmes for youth workers should take this into account.

Table 32: South African key structures that focuses on youth development Name of the structure Focus interventions The Presidency The Presidency is the highest office in government administration responsible for long-term planning, monitoring, evaluation, and administration of the services rendered by three spheres of government. The government is responsible for NYDA oversight, providing advice on strategy and departmental programme performance and legislation, conforming with regulation and policy, and monitoring and evaluation. NYDA A statutory agency of government, classified as schedule 3(A) and established in terms of the NYDA Act (No. 54 of 2008). Its mandate is to initiate, coordinate, implement, facilitate, and monitor youth development interventions and to develop appropriate policies, and lobby and advocate. Government Government departments at national level are expected to have youth focal departments at points/directorates, responsible for planning, coordination, policymaking and national level management, and monitoring and evaluation. Government Government departments at provincial level are expected to have youth focal departments at points/directorates, responsible programme design, implementation, provincial level facilitation, and monitoring and evaluation. Government Government departments at local level and district and local municipalities are departments at local expected to have youth focal points/directorates/units/desks responsible for level implementation and service provision. Community-based Non-government entities initiated by communities and located within the same organisations (CBOs) communities to address young people’s specific needs. Faith-based Organisations by religious group to address young people’s specific needs. They organisations (FBOs) often meet the spiritual needs of the youth. NGOs Established and emerging national/provincial non-government entities that are either youth led or youth serving intended to address the identified needs of the young people by completing the work of the government. Private sector Profit-making organisations with interventions that respond to the various needs of young people. Parastatals Government-owned (part or as a whole) institutions responsible for the delivery of a wide range of services to youths and youth-led and youth-serving organisations, e.g. research institutions, universities, and state-owned agencies. Source: Hlagala (2012): Emergence and Future Status of Youth Work

9.4 STATUS OF YOUTH WORKERS IN SOUTH AFRICA

Figures 108 to 112 give an indication of the nature, location, and distribution of youth workers in South Africa, based on the findings of the survey conducted by the DSD (2008b).

150 48% Female 52% Male

Figure 108: Gender breakdown of youth workers in South Africa Source: DSD (2008b): The State of Youth Work in South Africa

Most notably, there is a near-even spread of both male and female youth workers throughout the country. Fifty-two percent (52%) of youth workers are male and 48% are female. This distribution is relatively similar for five out of the nine provinces in South Africa. In the Northern Cape and North West, there are substantially more male youth workers than female youth workers, while in Mpumalanga and the Eastern Cape, more female than male youth workers were reported, according to this study (see Figure 109).

90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% Male 20% Female 10% 0%

Figure 109: Distribution of youth workers in South Africa by gender Source: DSD (2008b): The State of Youth Work in South Africa

Figure 110 shows that up to 85,17% (by far the highest proportion) of youth workers who participated in the survey were black Africans, followed by whites (11%), coloureds (4%), and Indians (under 1%). These results generally follow the demographics of South Africa’s population. However, it may also be argued that the high number of black African youth workers indicates black Africans’ enthusiasm to engage in youth development initiatives, since they have been the most marginalised population group in the past and the most in need of youth development.

151 90,00% 85,17% 80,00% 70,00% 60,00% 50,00% 40,00% 30,00% 20,00% 10,57% 3,79% 10,00% 0,46% 0,00% Indian White Coloured Black African

Figure 110: Distribution of youth workers by race Source: DSD (2008b): The State of Youth Work in South Africa

The findings from the DSD (2008b) survey furthermore indicate that in terms of the age distribution of youth workers, the majority are within the youth age cohort. Figure 111 shows that up to 68% of the youth workers are within the 20 to 34 age group. Less than 5% of youth workers in South Africa are over the age of 50. 30% 26% 25% 23%

20% 19%

15% 12%

10% 8% 7% 5% 5%

0% 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50 and over Age group Figure 111: Distribution of youth workers by age Source: DSD (2008b): The State of Youth Work in South Africa

The DSD (2008b) reported that almost 50% of the respondents were in full-time employment, with 11% employed on a part-time basis. The remaining 39% were either unemployed, doing voluntary youth work, or engaged in tertiary education while doing youth work. Of those who were employed, 45% were employed as youth workers.

With regard to levels of experience (see Figure 112), the DSD (2008b) survey found that the highest proportion of youth workers (36%) had between one and three years of experience. Twenty-six percent (26%) had between four and seven years’ experience and 9% had less than one year experience. In addition, 4% of youth workers had more than 20 years’ experience. This was the highest in the Western Cape and Gauteng (10% and 8% respectively).

152 40% 36% 35%

30% 26% 25%

20% 15% 15% 9% 10% 7% 4% 5% 3%

0% <1 year 1-3 years 4-7 years 8-10 years 11-15 years16-20 years >20 years

Figure 112: Experience in youth work Source: DSD (2008b): The State of Youth Work in South Africa

9.5 PROBLEMS AND CHALLENGES FACING YOUTH WORKERS

The challenges for the profession and practice of youth work include lack of employment opportunities, lack of support (not yet accepted by communities or others) and collaboration/cooperation with youths, and poor training and qualification opportunities.

Differences in curricula and core competencies offered by HEIs lead to a lack of uniformity, which reflects lack of identity to improve the quality of education and training and enhancing the status of occupations recognised as part of professional youth work. There is no linkage between the theory offered in the training and practical work and the youth worker.

Due to lack of specific qualifications for youth work, people with social pedagogy, social work, and cultural animation qualifications are mostly employed to do youth work (SAQA, 2009a; 2009b). The functions that are performed by youth workers overlap with those of social service providers due to the fact that youth workers do not have a monopoly for young people as a target group.

Qualified youth workers and those who are still studying are facing the challenge of unemployment (there is no job market or national register for youth workers). Because of this challenge, youth workers mostly work as volunteers in different departments such as Education, Health, Social Development, Correctional Services, Traditional Affairs, and Cooperative Governance (SAQA, 2009a; 2009b). In cases where youth workers manage to secure employment, the lack of standardisation of conditions of service for youth workers, particularly salaries, fringe benefits, and general working conditions, make them vulnerable to exploitation by potential employers.

The lack of support and low priority given to youth work is a further challenge facing youth workers. There is little or no collaboration between the government and youth workers on issues relating to youth policy and youth development. This frequently leads to a misunderstanding of youths and youth issues by stakeholders. Youth workers (and youth work organisations) also struggle to obtain consistent funding for their programmes. In addition, when funding is sourced from donors, programmes must frequently be tailored to the needs of the donors, rather than to young people’s contextual development needs.

153

The lack of recognition of youth work is also one of the reasons for the lack of support. As a result, many youth workers work voluntarily and have no formal qualifications or certification. This leads to high turnover among youth workers, which, in turn, affects the sustainability of projects.

Finally, the lack of capacity is evident in the gap between youth workers and trained professionals in general. This creates a fear and inferiority complex among youth workers, as trained professionals approach youth work from a theoretical perspective. This challenge should primarily be addressed through the provision of high-quality training and the standardisation of qualifications.

9.6 POSSIBLE AREAS THAT COULD BENEFIT FROM YOUTH WORK

The following are examples of areas in which youth workers may be based:

• Outreach programmes; • Social work authorities; • Educational authorities and youth employment bodies; • Information centres; • Community centres; • Schools, advice centres, and clinics; • Advocacy and lobbying agencies; • Corporate sector; and • Specialist programmes, such as HIV/Aids prevention programmes.

These wider placement areas are especially important if youth work is to become recognised as a professional practice.

9.7 CURRENT YOUTH WORK TRAINING

This section offers an overview of the current training available to youth workers. The nature of this training is discussed, as well as where youth work training takes place. The section also covers the recognition and accreditation of the qualifications offered by training institutions, and how rewards and remuneration compare to allied qualifications.

Education and training on youth work at an international level have been noted to be offered worldwide but it is offered more in Europe, South America, Central Africa, the Caribbean, South Pacific, the USA, and the United Kingdom (UK) (Association of Youth Care Practice & Child and Youth Care Certification Board, 2010; Broadbent & Corney, 2008; SAQA Act, No. 58 of 1995). World leaders in terms of offering degree programmes in youth work include universities such as Clemson University, Michigan University, Pennsylvania State University, and the University of Minnesota (Borden, Craig & Villaruel, 2004). Some qualifications purely focus on youth development, whereas others focus on youth care.

A number of universities and training institutions in South Africa offer a number of qualifications in fields related to youth work. Youth work training in South Africa began in the 1980s and has mainly been conducted by the Huguenot College in Wellington, which primarily trained social workers and community development workers at the time. At a later stage, other institutions offered youth work-related courses at diploma, degree, 154 master’s, and PhD level, with little distinction between youth work and child and youth care qualifications. HEIs that have offered youth work-related courses include the University of South Africa (UNISA), the University of Venda, Durban University of Technology, Nelson Mandela University, Monash University (South Africa), Technikon South Africa (TSA), and the University of Port Elizabeth.

Table 33 shows the HEIs that used to offer or are still offering youth work-related qualifications.

Table 33: HEIs offering youth work qualifications Nature of Location of HEI offering youth qualification Intake the Programme status work qualification offered programme Huguenot College Bachelor’s degree The 26th intake Department This institution no in Youth Work offered from of Social longer offers a youth 1981-2007 Work work qualification. The programme was moved to Stellenbosch University in 2008. Durban University Diploma in Child The 10th intake, Department The qualification of Technology and Youth a three-year of started as a Diploma in Development qualification; Community Residential Child Care in offered since Health 1996 and became a 2000 Studies National Diploma in 2000. It is only offered on a full-time basis. The qualification is more child and youth care orientated. Bachelor of The 10th intake, Department The B-Tech is still being Technology (B- four years full- of offered and is also Tech) Degree in time or five Community more child and youth Child and Youth years part-time Health care orientated. Development qualification; Studies offered since 2000 Nelson Mandela Bachelor’s Degree The 1st intake Department The qualification is University in Youth Work was in 2000, of Social being phased out and where three Development the last class attended students Professions in 2010. graduated. There will be no further intake of students after 2011 Monash University Course in Child and The 1st intake, School of Arts The course is in South Africa Youth there were 52 preparation for a formal Development and 117 qualification in child students in the and youth Ist and 2nd development. The semesters of structure of the 2010 curriculum currently respectively focuses on child care work, although it was expressed that the need arose for a youth development-focused

155 Nature of Location of HEI offering youth qualification Intake the Programme status work qualification offered programme curriculum to be introduced. TSA B-Tech in Child and The 9th intake Department The qualification was Youth (offered from of Public phased out after the Development. 1999-2008) Management merger of the TSA with UNISA. UNISA Diploma in Youth The 7th intake Adult and The programme is being Development Basic moved from one faculty Education to another, creating Department lack of stability. Stellenbosch Three-year The 29th intake Department The programme is still University bachelor’s degree, (started in 1981) of Theology being offered. master’s, and doctorate. Degree in Theological Studies (youth work specialisation) Stellenbosch Master’s degree The 7th intake School of The programme was University (MPhil) in Youth (offered from Sociology and terminated in 2000 due Development and 2001 to 2008) Anthropology to low intake and the Policy retirement of the convenor. University of Four-year Bachelor The 11th intake Institute for The programme is being Venda for Science of Art degree in (started in 1999) Gender and offered, but moved and Technology Youth Youth Studies from one faculty to Development in the School another, thus creating of Human lack of stability. and Social Sciences Source: Hlagala (2012): Emergence and Future Status of Youth Work

It should be noted from Table 33 that a number of institutions that used to offer youth work-related courses have been phasing out the courses and programmes. For instance, Stellenbosch University phased out the youth work in 2008 with the last of its graduates and it was followed by Nelson Mandela University in 2011 (Hlagala, 2012). The youth work qualifications in different universities, as shown in Table 33, were phased out due to lack of direction regarding professionalisation of youth work, lack of employment opportunities, instability in terms of the location of youth work programmes, and inadequate enrolment of students in the courses due to lack of interest (Hlagala, 2012).

UNISA, University of Venda, and Stellenbosch University are still offering youth work qualifications. Monash University offers child care work and it is anticipated that it might offer youth development in the near future. There is a difference between the core competencies and curricula (structural differences with regard to location of the academic programme and difference regarding academic qualifications) between institutions that are offering youth work-related qualifications and no uniformity in qualifications. Lack of uniformity reflects the weak identity of the field of youth work (Hlagala, 2012). It is evident that a great deal of work must still be done in the accreditation of youth work as a desirable qualification, and developing courses with an appealing curriculum. As with many tertiary programmes, people’s fears of a lack of exit/placement opportunities are likely to be among the reasons for this low rate of enrolment. Creation of employment opportunities will go a long way in creating a positive perception of youth work. 156

To illustrate the apathy and lack of interest by students in youth work-related courses in the recent past, Table 34 shows the student enrolment for the stand-alone youth work course, initiated at Huguenot College in 1981 before it moved to Stellenbosch University in 2008, where it is no longer a standalone course but now forms part of the theological programme. It is noteworthy that there was a high rate of enrolment in 1998 and 1999, with a total of 100 and 107 students enrolled respectively.

Table 34: Student enrolment 1997 to 2008: Huguenot College and Stellenbosch University Year 1st year 2nd year 3rd year Honours Master’s Doctoral TOTAL 1997 19 19 13 6 0 0 57 1998 26 24 20 3 27 0 100 1999 28 19 21 6 33 0 107 2000 22 16 17 5 21 0 81 2001 29 11 17 5 6 0 68 2002 27 24 10 3 13 2 79 2003 25 19 26 1 14 3 88 2004 18 24 20 7 14 4 87 2005 15 19 19 3 10 3 69 2006 9 8 17 5 5 2 46 2007 10 8 8 2 9 4 41 2008 8 10 10 5 8 0 41 Source: DSD (2008b): The State of Youth Work in South Africa

In the latter years, especially 2006 to 2008, the rate of enrolment nearly halved. While there is no ready indication of the reasons for this decrease, it is possible that the challenges mentioned above, especially the lack of placement opportunities and funding, affected enrolment. UNISA reported similar declines in enrolment for their B-Tech degree, as well as a high dropout rate in this course.

9.8 STATUS OF YOUTH WORK TRAINING

In order to fully engage in the profession, a youth worker needs to engage in programmes that respond to the needs of the youth. With the exception of Stellenbosch University, universities across the country have offered programmes that include youth work as a module under a specific main subject. These courses take the form of either practical theology “youth work” modules or community development with “youth work” modules. A number of South African universities have been offering undergraduate and graduate degrees, diplomas, and certificate programmes to those interested in a career in youth work. Of note in Table 34 is the fact that 18 people currently have doctorates in youth work in South Africa. This is an opportunity for the growth of the youth work profession.

9.9 RECOGNITION/ACCREDITATION OF QUALIFICATIONS

Despite training for youth workers being offered at many South African universities, employment opportunities for youth workers are still an issue, as many are struggling to secure employment after training. Youth work is not implicitly recognised as a profession on its own, when compared to other developmental disciplines such as social work. As a result, it is often difficult for youth work graduates to obtain stable employment outside NGOs and religious institutions and the majority of youth workers end up working as

157 volunteers in different organisations such as religious and charity organisations and government departments.

Even though youth work is ranked by the government as the fifth most important form of work in South Africa, little substantial effort has been made to create relevant opportunities for youth work. Even when youth workers have opportunities, the work is frequently unrelated to their youth work qualification.

HEIs play an important role in the standardisation and professionalisation of youth work, as they are responsible for the accreditation, standards, and curriculum required. The DSD (2009) argued that the professionalisation of youth work would improve the practice in the long run. Youth work is a profession, regardless of whether it is recognised or not (Sercombe, 2010). Youth work is currently regarded as an occupation and it is not recognised as a profession. In the South African context, this is especially important, so that youth workers can start at the same level of competence and aim for similar outcomes in their youth work – aligned to government priorities.

It follows therefore that youth work ought to be recognised and remunerated in the same way as other developmental disciplines. The development of the youth is essential for a country such as South Africa, which has emerged from oppression and deep inequality. It is not possible for this to happen without the professionalisation of youth work.

9.10 CONCLUSION

Youth work is not yet professionalised in South Africa, although there are attempts to do so. There are attempts to professionalise youth work, although there has been limited information in the public space about the status of the process. Academic institutions have an important role to play in developing youth work as a discipline. However, many of them have terminated the programmes as there is a low demand for them. The available data on the subject are relatively dated and scanty, which makes it difficult to provide a current and complete picture.

9.11 IMPLICATIONS

 To date, youth work has not been recognised as a professional practice, as no qualifications (or registration with a professional body) are required for individuals to be referred to as youth workers. This has implications for the practice of youth work in that if youth workers are not trained specifically as professional youth workers with specific credentials and licensure, any professional from the human science and social care field may be considered a youth worker. This is likely to deter the further academic and professional development of youth work as a specialised profession.

 One of the challenges of the professionalisation of youth work is the fear of some youth workers that they will be disqualified from the profession and/or lose their employment as they have no formal education. This has implications for the retention and recruitment of talented individuals.

 The academic sector seems to be very reluctant to explore, research, and develop this discipline. Indeed the growth of this profession is heavily reliant on academic and higher training institutions taking the lead in the development and professionalisation

158 of youth work. Many university programmes in youth work have either been discontinued or are included in other professional disciplines. This current state of training for youth work has implications for the growth of youth work as a profession. HEIs can play an important role in developing the profession and linking youth work as a pathway to employment for a number of youths who are interested in youth work as a profession.

 A further issue that needs to be addressed is the informal nature of youth work and lack of placement opportunities for youth work training and professional development. This limits the access of youth workers to professional support and training opportunities where funding and other resources might also be accessed. Addressing this issue will contribute to the endeavour being better understood by business, the government, and communities, including the ways in which it differs from professions such as social work and community development.

9.12 RECOMMENDATIONS

 HEIs play a critical role in the development and professionalisation of youth work. They provide formal and informal training of youth workers. These institutions can work to develop mechanisms for the standardisation and professionalisation of youth work. They can also nurture professionals by developing relevant curricula, standardising a youth work professional licensure process, and providing ongoing professional development for youth workers through retraining and professional development seminars. In addition, a requirement of standardisation dictates a body of knowledge that must be developed in order to ensure that graduates are able to use similar analytical techniques, apply problem-solving skills, and recognise and aim for best practice.

 In order for youth work to be professionalised, there is a need for a code of conduct to guide youth work behaviour much like in the case of teachers, doctors, lawyers, and social workers. The code of conduct could be developed to align with the National Qualification Framework (NQF), as well as SAQA standards. To fast-track the professionalisation of youth work, it would also be crucial to prioritise the legislative requirements for formalising the profession. This includes the development of a regulatory framework for the profession and the development of all the required standards for professionalisation.

159 CHAPTER 10: CONCLUSION

10.1 CONCLUSIONS

This report was compiled to comply with legislation and to inform youth development planning and implementation. In addition to small-scale focus groups conducted, the report was mainly compiled from surveys and studies conducted by other institutions. The inherent limitation of this is that the studies were designed for different purposes. In addition, some of the studies were once-off, which means that the available data are not necessarily up to date and therefore it is difficult to draw conclusions from the data.

According to the data, South Africa is a youthful country, with just above 66% of the population below the age of 34. Youths between the ages of 15 and 34 years constitute 36,1% or approximately 20,4 million of the total population of South Africa. Data also show that the population structure has changed from 2011, where the age categories 20 to 24 and 24 to 29 were higher than other age categories. By 2017 the age categories 25 to 29 and 30 to 4 were higher than other age groups. This suggests that short-term and medium- term interventions should give special attention to these age groups. In terms of geographic distribution, data show that 55,7% of the youth in South Africa resides in three provinces, namely the Eastern Cape (13,1%), KwaZulu-Natal (20,0%), and Gauteng (22,6%). Black African youths constitute about 83% of the South African youth population. The Western Cape (just over 50%) and the Northern Cape (about 35%) have a larger population of coloured youths because of historical population settlements in South Africa. In the Eastern Cape, Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Mpumalanga, and Limpopo the proportion of the youth population is higher than the total provincial proportions of the total population. Data also show that the majority of South African youths live in urban areas. This suggests that any intervention should consider the geographic dynamics as outlined above. The youthfulness of the South African population places the country in a position to take advantage of the demographic dividend that may accrue from this youth bulge.

The highest mortality rate occurs in the age category 30 to 34. This is attributable to the high prevalence of infectious diseases, road/traffic accidents, injuries, and violence within this age group. Data indicate that mortality rates are high at infancy, and then decline between the ages of five and 14 years. The rates then begin to rise again from age 15, until they peak between the ages of 30 and 34 years.

Young people are more likely to be poor than the older generation. Poverty levels among youths aged 18 to 24 years are at 58,6% and 63,7% for children between 0 and 17 years. African youths are more likely to live in poorer households than youths from other population groups. In 2016, KwaZulu-Natal (21,5%), the Northern Cape (19,2%), and the Western Cape (16,7%) had the highest number of youths living in households that reported hunger. Limpopo (4,8%), Mpumalanga (12,1%), and Gauteng (12,1%) had the lowest number of youths living in households that reported hunger. Youth access to basic services has improved since 1994, but it is still slightly lower than that of the general population.

In general, youth participation in both the labour market and entrepreneurship is very low. Narrow unemployment among the youth hovered around 36% between 2010 and 2016.

160 Compared to African average and developed counties average, South African TEA is low; for example, in the 25 to 34 age group it is less than half of the African average and it is considerably lower than the average for developed economies at 18%. Racial dynamics are once again reflected in the participation in the economy, with black African and coloured youths more likely to be unemployed and not being entrepreneurs as compared to white and Indian youths.

The South African healthcare system is still largely dominated by biomedical, clinically based healthcare services, where the cost of treatment dwarfs disease prevention and the promotion of healthier lifestyle choices among the population. South Africa has one of the highest HIV prevalence rates in the world, with the most affected subpopulation being the youth. There is also more sexual debut at an earlier age, which exposes young people to many risks. Although condom usage, as both a contraceptive and protection against sexually transmitted disease, has increased over the past few years, there is still room for improvement. Mental illnesses such as depression and suicide are some of the challenges facing young people. Obesity has been on the rise in South Africa, with data showing that in general South Africans consume more kilojoules than they should be consuming. Data further show that women in all age categories are more likely to have high rates of obesity than men.

While education is central to development and is foregrounded by the NDP as pivotal to development, data show that as matters stand, education has not sufficiently improved the ability of young people to participate in the economy. Although enrolments have improved at both basic and higher education levels, the success rates are still low by international standards. The situation is compounded by high dropout rates between Grades 10 and 12. Quality has also been flagged as a matter of concern, with regional and international studies on performance consistently ranking South Africa at the bottom. While Grade 12 achievement is an important indicator of how well the system is doing, it has its limitations – given the many young people who never complete Grade 12. Although there has been tremendous improvement in Grade 12 performance since 1994, dropout rates are still a cause for concern. Disparities in provincial Grade 12 performance is also of concern. While the Western Cape, Gauteng, and Free State have consistently achieved at a higher level for Grade 12, provinces like Limpopo and the Eastern Cape continue to perform poorly. Data also highlight socio-economic factors such as class difference and race as important contributors to disparities in both access to quality education and in performance.

Despite efforts by the government to make university education in South Africa more accessible to the most disadvantaged youths, the enrolment mix still remains skewed and unrepresentative of the racial grouping of the population. However, there has been a steady increase in the undergraduate success rate across all the population groups between 2002 and 2016. Funding is an important element of making higher education accessible. Since 2013, NSFAS has funded over 400 000 students at both universities and TVET colleges per annum, with the highest number in 2016 at 451 306. In December 2017, the president announced free higher education for students from households with an income below R350 000. This is intended to increase access to higher education for the poor.

A society like South Africa, which has a legacy of discrimination, can benefit from social cohesion and nation-building. Despite the international popularity of social cohesion as a concept in academic and policy arenas, there is nonetheless no standard method to 161 measure social cohesion in groups and societies. Social ties and social capital are created through, among others, youth involvement in public affairs, community activities such as sport, community crime prevention, and community volunteerism. In turn, these tend to enhance nation-building. This report only focused on a few dimensions of the concept, namely political and civic participation, social integration, participation in sports, and vulnerable youths. Youth participation in civic matters is lower than the other age groups. This is manifested in youth participation in elections, political organisation, and community organisations, for example. Data show that rural youths are far more likely to be interested in civic and public affairs than urban youths. Women are less likely to be interested in public affairs than men.

The NYS is a programme aimed at providing the youth with an opportunity to contribute to their communities while learning. NYS is defined as a structured programme that engages youths in strengthening service delivery, promoting nation-building, fostering social cohesion, and assisting youths to gain the occupational skills necessary to be able to access a sustainable livelihood. The design and implementation of the NYS programme failed to explicitly define outcomes so that its benefits could accurately be measured. There is insufficient data on the NYS, which makes it difficult to provide an accurate and complete up-to-date status of the NYS.

The critical success factor for the implementation of youth development programmes, of which the SAIYDS is central, is effective and responsive youth development institutions. SAIYDS is an instrument for implementing policy imperatives recommended in the NYP. South Africa adopted an integrated and mainstreamed approach to youth development. This means that all state organs at all spheres of government are expected to contribute to youth development. This is to be done through making youth development a priority in all state organs’ budgets and programmes. In addition, the private sector and civil society are expected to be part of integrated and mainstreamed youth development. This could be made easier through maximising the coordination and liaison role of the NYDA.

Youth workers are an important element of youth development. To date, youth work is not recognised as a professional practice in South Africa. At present, no qualifications (or registration with a professional body) are required for individuals to be referred to as youth workers. There have been efforts to create a professional body that will professionalise youth work. There is, however, ongoing debate on whether or not this process should be regulated. Although the professionalisation of youth work is being pursued, there has been limited information in the public space about the status of the process. Academic institutions have initiated training programmes on youth work, but these efforts have not yet yielded results that are seen by most academic institutions as attractive for investment purposes. This view is based on the small number of youth work practitioners enrolled in these institutions and the fact that some of these institutions are discontinuing the training programmes. In many countries in sub-Saharan Africa and Britain, youth work is promoted under the CYP. The CYP views young people as key partners in development and recognises that young people’s skills are essential for the future of the Commonwealth. HEIs can play a critical role in the development and professionalisation of youth work, as they provide formal and informal training of youth workers. South Africa has hosted two conferences on the professionalisation of youth work, and one of the resolutions was to speed up professionalisation.

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