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To order or to learn more about other titles at Fulcrum Publishing, visit: 4690 Table Mountain Drive, Suite 100 • Golden, Colorado USA 80403 Phone: 303-277-1623 • Fax: 303-279-7111 INTERNATIONAL Journal of Wilderness

APRIL 2013 Volume 19, Number 1

Features Science & Research Editorial Perspective 34 Motivations to Visit Designated Wilderness 3 Wilderness Visitor Experiences at Cumberland Island National Seashore BY CHAD P. DAWSON BY MATTHEW T. J. BROWNLEE and JEFFREY C. HALLO Soul of the Wilderness 4 Protecting Wild Waters in the 41 Wilderness Managers, Wilderness Scientists, Grand Canyon and Universities By Joel C. Barnes A Partnership to Protect Wilderness Experiences in the Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness Stewardship BY ALAN E. WATSON, ANN SCHWALLER, 9 Rocky Mountain National Park ROBERT DVORAK, NEAL CHRISTENSEN, and Wilderness after 35 Years WILLIAM T. BORRIE BY DAVID PETTEBONE

WILDERNESS DIGEST Science & Research 43 Announcements 14 How Do Migratory Species Add Ecosystem 47 Book Reviews Service Value to Wilderness? 47 The Spirit of the Appalachian Trail: Calculating the Spatial Subsidies Provided by Community, Environment, and Belief on a Protected Areas Long-Distance Hiking Path BY LAURA LÓPEZ-HOFFMAN, DARIUS by Susan P. Bratton SEMMENS, and JAY DIFFENDORFER 47 Wild: From Lost to Found on the Pacific Crest Trail by Cheryl Strayed 20 Living Waters Both reviewed by John Shultis Linking Cultural Knowledge, Ecosystem Services, and Wilderness BY LINDA MOON STUMPFF On the Cover The legendary Nahanni River — one of Canada’s most 26 The Application and Performance of famous “wilderness rivers” — wends its way through the Urine Diversion to Minimize Waste remarkable karst geology of the Nahanni National Park Management Costs Associated with Reserve and the land of the DehCho First Nations in Remote Wilderness Toilets Northwest Territories. The river bed and shores abound in BY GEOFF HILL and GREG HENRY marine fossils from the time when it was an ancient seabed, here held in the hands of the pioneering geologist for that region, Dr. Derek Ford. Photos © courtesy of Vance G. Martin, The WILD Foundation.

Disclaimer The Soul of the Wilderness column and all invited and featured articles in IJW, are a forum for controversial, inspiring, or especially informative articles to renew thinking and dialogue among our readers. The views expressed in these articles are those of the authors. IJW neither endorses nor rejects them, but invites comments from our readers. —John C. Hendee, IJW Editor-in-Chief Emeritus

APRIL 2013 • Volume 19, Number 1 International Journal of Wilderness 1 International Journal of Wilderness The International Journal of Wilderness links wilderness professionals, scientists, educators, environmentalists, and interested citizens worldwide with a forum for reporting and discussing wilderness ideas and events; inspirational ideas; planning, management, and allocation strategies; education; and research and policy aspects of wilderness stewardship.

EDITORIAL BOARD H. Ken Cordell, Southern Research Station, U.S. Forest Service, Athens, Ga., USA Robert Dvorak, Central Michigan University, Mount Pleasant, Mich., USA Lisa Eidson, University of Montana, Missoula, Mont., USA Greg Kroll, Santa Fe, New Mexico, USA Vance G. Martin, WILD Foundation, Boulder, Colo., USA Rebecca Oreskes, White Mountain National Forest, Gorham, N.H., USA John Shultis, University of Northern British Columbia, Prince George, B.C., Canada Alan Watson, Aldo Leopold Wilderness Research Institute, Missoula, Mont., USA

EDITOR-IN-CHIEF AND Managing Editor Chad P. Dawson, SUNY College of Environmental Science and Forestry, Syracuse, N.Y., USA

EDITOR-IN-CHIEF EMERITUS John C. Hendee, Professor Emeritus, University of Idaho Wilderness Research Center, Moscow, Idaho, USA

ASSOCIATE EDITORS—International Andrew Muir, Wilderness Foundation Eastern Cape, South Africa; Karen Ross, The Wilderness Foundation, Capetown, South Africa; Vicki A. M. Sahanatien, World Wildlife Fund, Minarut, Canada; Anna-Liisa Ylisirniö, University of Lapland, Rovaniemi, Finland; Franco Zunino, Associazione Italiana per la Wilderness, Murialdo, Italy.

ASSOCIATE EDITORS—United States Greg Aplet, The Wilderness Society, Denver, Colo.; David Cole, Aldo Leopold Wilderness Research Institute, Missoula, Mont.; John Daigle, University of Maine, Orono, Maine; Greg Friese, Emergency Preparedness Systems LLC, Plover, Wisc.; Gary Green, University of Georgia, Athens, Ga.; Kari Gunderson, University of Montana, Missoula, Mont.; Dave Harmon, Bureau of Land Management, Washington, D.C.; Bill Hendricks, CalPoly, San Luis Obispo, Calif.; Christopher Jones, Utah Valley State College, Orem, Utah.; Cyril Kormos, The WILD Foundation, Berkeley, Calif.; Ed Krumpe, University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho; Yu-Fai Leung, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, N.C.; Bob Manning, University of Vermont, Burlington, Vt.; Jeffrey Marion, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Va.; Christopher Monz, Utah State University, Logan, Utah; Connie Myers, Arthur Carhart Wilderness Training Center, Missoula, Mont.; David Ostergren, Goshen College, Wolf Lake, In.; Trista Patterson, USFS, Sitka, Alas.; John Peden, Georgia Southern University, Statesboro, Ga.; Kevin Proescholdt, Wilderness Watch, Minneapolis, Minn.; Joe Roggenbuck, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Va.; Keith Russell, Western Washington University, Bellingham, Wash.; Rudy Schuster, USGS, Fort Collins, Colo.

International Journal of Wilderness (IJW) publishes three issues per year Submissions: Contributions pertinent to wilderness worldwide are (April, August, and December). IJW is a not-for-profit publication. solicited, including articles on wilderness planning, management, and allocation strategies; wilderness education, including descriptions of key Manuscripts to: Chad P. Dawson, SUNY-ESF, 320 Bray Hall, One programs using wilderness for personal growth, therapy, and environ- Forestry Drive, Syracuse, NY 13210, USA. Telephone: (315) 470-6567. mental education; wilderness-related science and research from all Fax: (315) 470-6535. E-mail: [email protected]. disciplines addressing physical, biological, and social aspects of wilderness; and international perspectives describing wilderness worldwide. Business Management and Subscriptions: The WILD Articles, commentaries, letters to the editor, photos, book reviews, Foundation, 717 Poplar Ave., Boulder, CO 80304, USA. Telephone: announcements, and information for the wilderness digest are encour- (303) 442-8811. Fax: (303) 442-8877. E-mail: [email protected]. aged. A complete list of manuscript submission guidelines is available from the website: www.ijw.org. Subscription rates (per volume calendar year): Subscription costs are in U.S. dollars only—Online access $35; online access and Artwork: Submission of artwork and photographs with captions are printed journal $50; online access and printed journal (Canada and encouraged. Photo credits will appear in a byline; artwork may be signed Mexico) $62; online access and printed journal (international) $74. by the author. We do not offer an agency discount price. No refunds. Website: www.ijw.org. All materials printed in the International Journal of Wilderness, copyright © 2012 by the International Wilderness Leadership (WILD) Foundation. Printed on recycled paper. Individuals, and nonprofit libraries acting for them, are permitted to make fair use of material from the journal. ISSN # 1086-5519.

SPONSORING ORGANIZATIONS Aldo Leopold Wilderness Research Institute • Conservation International • SUNY College of Environmental Science and Forestry • The WILD® Foundation • The Wilderness Society • University of Idaho • University of Montana, School of Forestry and Wilderness Institute • USDA Forest Service • USDI Bureau of Land Management • USDI Fish and Wildlife Service • USDI National Park Service • Wilderness Foundation (South Africa) • Wilderness Leadership School (South Africa) FEATURES

Editorial Perspectives

Wilderness Visitor Experiences

BY CHAD P. DAWSON

s the 50th anniversary of the 1964 Wilderness Act professionals and a conscious attempt to foster another gen- approaches, many managers, rangers, scientists, eration of wilderness scientists and managers. It is hoped visitors, educators, and wilderness advocates will that other such groups will convene or be part of 50th anni- reflectA back on the progress and challenges of stewarding versary workshops, conferences, and seminars to produce and maintaining the wilderness resource and managing parallel reflections on the science and stewardship of all bio- visitor experiences. One such group of 21 managers and physical, social, cultural, and inspirational aspects of scientists convened for four days in April 2011 under the wilderness that comprise the NWPS. If the NWPS is to be direction of David Cole at the Lubrecht Experimental an enduring resource, then we must foster successional Forest near Missoula, Montana. The purpose was to reflect stages of stewards and scientists to carry that torch. on and document both the progress over 50 years in In this issue of IJW, another two articles continue the research and management toward providing quality visitor wilderness ecosystem services theme of the December 2012 experiences and the influence of visitor experiences on wil- issue of IJW: Laura López-Hoffman and colleagues discuss derness stewardship in the National Wilderness Preservation how migratory species add ecosystem service value to wilder- System (NWPS). ness, and Linda Moon Stumpff relates how linking cultural That workshop consisted of both presentations and knowledge, ecosystem services, and wilderness provides directed discussion on a wide variety of topics related to insights into how traditional wisdom views the water in wil- visitor experiences in wilderness. The results were published derness. David Pettebone discusses wilderness over the last 35 by the U.S. Forest Service in a proceedings compiled into years in Rocky Mountain National Park. Joel C. Barnes sum- three sections: (1) 12 papers that reviewed literature or marizes the debate about and need for Wild and Scenic Rivers described empirical research about wilderness visitor experi- designation for the Colorado River within the Grand Canyon ences, (2) three papers on management frameworks and the National Park. Hill and Henry make the case for minimizing perspectives of planners and managers, and (3) five papers the cost of human waste management in wilderness. on wilderness experiences and the future (Cole 2012). The proceedings represent a comprehensive overview of both References Cole, David N., comp. 2012. Wilderness visitor experiences: Progress where the scientists and managers have been working and in research and management, April 4–7, 2011, Missoula, MT. practicing and a roadmap for future work that needs to be Proceedings RMRS-P-66. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of conducted to further the science and management of visitor Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. experiences in wilderness. CHAD P. DAWSON is editor in chief and managing editor of the The workshop process was, for some participants, also a International Journal of Wilderness and professor emeritus from the “passing of the torch” from retiring professionals who were SUNY College of Environmental Science and Forestry at Syracuse, documenting and commenting on their work to younger NY, USA; email: [email protected].

APRIL 2013 • Volume 19, Number 1 International Journal of Wilderness 3 FEATURES SOUL OF THE WILDERNESS

Protecting Wild Waters in the Grand Canyon

By Joel C. Barnes

or those who directly experience the Grand Canyon, which represents the gold the river and its tributaries come to represent the heart standard for river conser- and soul of the place. These waterways are largely vation throughout the responsibleF for carving the Canyon’s magnificent landscape nation and provides long- over millions of years, and these riparian corridors have term protection for those evolved into a textbook example of a keystone habitat in that waterways under its wing. they support an unusually high percentage of the canyon’s That the Colorado biological diversity (Barnes 2005a; Stevens and Perla 2008). River and its tributaries With estimates of Arizona’s remaining healthy riparian habitat in and around the Grand being low (Omart and Anderson 1986), Grand Canyon’s Canyon have yet to be Joel C. Barnes. Photo by Jason Arbetter. waterways represent an extensive and relatively intact system honored with WSR des- of aridland riparian habitat. We also know that these waters ignation comes as a have had a formative influence on the cultures that have surprise to many – even those actively involved in river con- explored the canyon, from prehistoric hunter-gatherers to servation. One could easily assume that the spectacular hikers and boaters of the new millennium. A living vestige of Colorado River and its tributaries in Grand Canyon are the our southwest natural and cultural heritage, they are prime southwestern gems of the National Wild and Scenic River candidates for Wild and Scenic River (WSR) designation, System. In fact, WSR designation has eluded a number of our most notable wildland river systems here in the arid Southwest, including the San Pedro, Agua Fria, Hassayampa, and the Grand Canyon’s share of the Colorado River system (see Figure 1). Studies show that more than 90% of Arizona’s riparian areas are in poor and/or degrading condition due to a century of overgrazing, urban development, groundwater withdrawals, and more (Omart and Anderson 1986; Zaimes et al. 2007). In contrast to this bleak piece of news about the state of Arizona, Grand Canyon’s river, streams, seeps, and springs have been largely exempt from these nearly ubiqui- tous impacts. These waterways and canyons represent the largest intact system of nearly pristine riparian areas left in the American Southwest – a living vestige of our bioregional heritage. The Grand Canyon’s riparian areas account for Figure 1 – The Nankoweap Creek Granaries. The Colorado River and its tributaries only 0.5% of the park’s total landscape, yet they provide in Grand Canyon have yet to be honored with Wild and Scenic River designation. Photo by Joel C. Barnes. critical habitat to more than 35% of the plant and bird species and 80% of wildlife species overall (Stevens et al. 1999;

4 International Journal of Wilderness APRIL 2013 • Volume 19, Number 1 Hubbard 1977). These corridors and sonable cause for not pursuing WSR Council and board member of Arizona patches not only function as habitat designation. But increasing pressures Wilderness Coalition. “Wild and Scenic for biodiversity, they are also central on our national parks from beyond River designation for Grand Canyon’s regulators of the flow of energy and their political boundaries are very real, Colorado River and its tributaries makes matter through the region’s landscapes as evidenced by the latest resuscitation solid ecological sense, and would mag- and ecosystems. Compared to wetter of a large-scale tourism project in the nificently complement the Canyon’s environs, ecosystem processes in arid town of Tusayan – the infamous national park and World Heritage Site landscapes such as those of Grand Canyon Forest Village proposal from status” (Crumbo, personal communica- Canyon are more closely tied to the the late 1990s (Barnes 1999). If the tion, July 28, 2012). Crumbo served temporal rhythms and spatial patterns water required for this development for almost 20 years at GCNP as wilder- of hydrologic cycles (Sowell 2001). depends on groundwater (which is ness manager and river ranger. Hydrologic cycles exert an ecological likely), it will have to be pumped up A comprehensive WSR Study ripple effect on the surrounding land- from the Redwall-Muav aquifer. This Report was conducted in GCNP that scape that is disproportionate to the aquifer underlies the town of Tusayan helps set the stage for WSR designation scarcity of water. As such, these riparian and the eastern portion of GCNP. (Barnes 2005b). This study identifies areas function like a keystone species Most important, it feeds some of the the outstanding riverine attributes along but at the habitat and ecosystem levels tributaries, seeps, and springs of eastern 577 river miles (929 km) of 50 river (Barnes 2005a; Stevens and Perla Grand Canyon (Barnes 1999). This is and stream segments in and adjacent to 2008). Grand Canyon’s riparian areas where the importance of WSR desig- Grand Canyon, and compiles this provide a compelling case for applying nation plays into the stewardship of information into a GCNP WSR narra- the keystone concept at the habitat these resources. tive catalog and database with GIS and ecosystem levels to help guide The Wild and Scenic River Act maps and digital photographs. These park policy, and this holds merit even (WSRA) provides the most compre- 50 segments are identified as eligible for considering the views of Mills et al. hensive legal protection available for WSR designation through regional (1993) that the concept of a keystone the instream flows of river systems. comparisons that highlight the cumula- species has been applied too simplisti- The WSR designation guarantees that tive and synergistic qualities of a broad cally in resource management and enough water stays in a stream to sup- spectrum of Grand Canyon’s resource conservation. In fact, Mills et al. port the values for which it was values. The study also illustrates how (1993) suggest that conservation plan- designated. The WSRA is potentially Grand Canyon’s wild, free-flowing ning and policy would benefit from as significant to the water resources of waters play a central role in the geo- shifting its focus on single species to parks as the Wilderness Act is to our physical, biocultural, and sociopolitical emphasize the complexity of natural land resources. Wild and scenic river realms of this remarkable landscape, systems at the habitat, ecosystem, and designation would maintain and which reveals how riparian areas func- landscape levels. Indeed, in aridland enhance long-term protection for the tion as a keystone habitat. Viewing parks such as Grand Canyon, riparian Colorado River in Grand Canyon, Grand Canyon’s riparian systems as a systems play a central role in main- including its tributaries, seeps, and keystone habitat helps not only to taining the ecological integrity of the springs – some of which are clearly better understand how these arid land- overall landscape. Unfortunately, even threatened by activities beyond the scapes function ecologically but also to Grand Canyon’s springs, seeps, and park’s boundaries. develop effective strategies for conserva- streams are now threatened, and WSR “In a world of increasing threats – tion. Finally, the WSR Study Report designation can help save them. including short-sighted pumping of identifies issues pertaining to WSR groundwater that’s essential for the suitability, with the intention of helping Suitability for Wild and park’s springs – and especially in light of GCNP conduct a complete suitability Scenic River Designation increasing aridity due to climate disrup- study as part of its planning process (see Managers and conservationists alike tion, Grand Canyon needs all the tools Figure 2). cite the fact that the Colorado River available to avoid impairment of During the past three decades, and its tributaries, seeps, and springs America’s greatest national park,” says southwestern riparian systems have are already protected by Grand Canyon Kim Crumbo, conservation director been identified time and again as an National Park (GCNP) status as rea- with the Grand Canyon Wildlands endangered ecosystem of North America

APRIL 2013 • Volume 19, Number 1 International Journal of Wilderness 5 omnibus bill could be patterned after WSR bills already passed into law in Michigan, Oregon, and Alaska (Raffensperger 1993). WSR legislation for Grand Canyon’s river and tributaries would protect a contiguous portion of the Colorado River system, would dramatically increase protection of the region’s biodiversity, and could place these aridland waters at the heart of a regional conservation strategy.

The WSR Study Process Before Congress legislates a WSR designation, a WSR study process is conducted by the lead federal land agency managing those lands, and it involves three steps: (1) eligibility, (2) classification, and (3) suitability. For a waterway to be eligible for WSR designation, it must be free flowing and exhibit one or more “outstandingly remarkable values” (ORVs) as described in the Wild and Scenic River Act of 1968 (U.S. Public Law 90-542). Once a river or stream segment is determined to be eligible, it is then given a tentative classification of either “wild,” “scenic,” or “recreational.” These categories reflect levels of development and natural conditions along a river segment. Finally, the suitability step evaluates the consequences of designation and the manageability of the river if it is designated, which would consider biological, Figure 2 – Saddle Creek Falls. Grand Canyon’s wild, free-flowing waters are central to the ecological political, and economic factors. After integrity of this remarkable landscape. Photo by Joel C. Barnes. the WSR study process is complete and depending on its recommendations, (Omart and Anderson 1986; Noss should embrace a regional river system Congress is then prompted to act with 1997). These southwestern riparian and watershed-based approach to WSR legislation, which can take years and ecosystems have continually suffered as designation, as opposed to the segment- even decades to occur (Crumbo 1996). demands on water resources increase. by-segment approach adopted in most This situation calls for a regional and WSR proposals. The segment-by-seg- What Would WSR systems approach to water resource ment approach has proved to be a Designation Do for the conservation – one that recognizes the painfully slow political process, and Ecoregion? interconnections between aridland river overlooks the ecological importance of WSR designation in GCNP would systems and their surrounding water- riparian areas as a keystone habitat in mandate protection for the exceptional sheds. Thus, a successful conservation aridland ecosystems such as those in natural and cultural values of the strategy for the waterways of GCNP Grand Canyon. A GCNP WSR Colorado River main stem and tribu-

6 International Journal of Wilderness APRIL 2013 • Volume 19, Number 1 taries, particularly those “outstandingly remarkable values” identified in the eligibility and suitability steps of the WSR study process. Moreover, identifying in the WSR study process the unique wilderness values that enhance river recreation on the Colorado River through Grand Canyon would establish important legislative and management connections between the park’s (currently proposed) wilderness and its wild and scenic rivers. The WSRA also recognizes preexisting types and levels of river recreation where they do not conflict with the existing goals of river management. Figure 3 – Granite Falls Rapid. WSR designation would help protect the unique wilderness values that However, the WSRA does not freeze enhance river recreation on the Colorado River through Grand Canyon. Photo by Joel C. Barnes. the status quo in a river corridor when it is designated. Rather, the WSRA stem, designation would finally put to Southwest – a living vestige of our codifies a “nondegradation and rest any of the dams that are proposed natural heritage. Activities outside enhancement policy” for all designated from time to time in Congress. The GCNP – especially the pumping of river areas, regardless of classification. WSRA provides the highest level of groundwater that feeds tributaries, These details are mentioned here to legal protection available to ensure seeps, and springs inside the park – elucidate important differences and that no dam projects from Congress pose imminent threats to the park’s similarities between the Colorado would be authorized for the Grand surface waters and associated riparian River main stem and tributaries in Canyon (see Figure 3). areas (Barnes 1999). A Grand Canyon regard to how WSR designation could The WSRA’s allowance for preex- Wild and Scenic River omnibus bill affect their ecology and management. isting types and levels of river would be good public policy and For example, by identifying ORVs recreation, where they do not conflict resource stewardship, adding a critical along the tributaries that are directly with the existing goals of the river’s layer of protection focused specifically dependent on existing base flows (e.g., management, could be interpreted to on this keystone habitat. riparian vegetation, wildlife, and fish), support the controversial status quo of Grand Canyon National Park is the WSR study process could help set commercial use on the river (including currently in the process of revising its a legal stage for protecting future large motorized trips). Moreover, pop- Backcountry Management Plan instream flows of the seeps, springs, ular interpretation of the WSRA states (BCMP), which represents the best and tributaries in and around Grand that WSRs are managed primarily for opportunity for gaining WSR status for Canyon. Because the act acknowledges the values for which they were desig- the Colorado River and its tributaries existing river management goals, des- nated (IWSRCC 1999). Additionally, (visit parkplanning.nps.gov/grca). ignation would not impose any the WSRA codifies a nondegradation Unfortunately, in the initial phase significant influence on the scheduled and enhancement policy for desig- of the BCMP public scoping (held in flows (essentially Glen Canyon Dam nated rivers and directs administering fall 2011), WSRs were identified as an releases) of the Colorado River. agencies to improve conditions in river issue beyond the scope of the plan The upstream existence of Glen corridors where necessary. (NPS 2011). This is particularly puz- Canyon Dam would not violate the zling in light of the fact that, in early “free-flowing” criterion of the WSRA Conclusion 2000s when the Colorado River as evidenced by other such situations The Grand Canyon’s share of the Management Plan was being revised, where river segments were designated Colorado River system represents the the park took this same “beyond the below existing dams. More important, largest intact system of nearly pristine scope of the plan” position and assured in regard to the Colorado River main riparian areas left in the American stakeholders that WSRs would be

APRIL 2013 • Volume 19, Number 1 International Journal of Wilderness 7 included in future plans or processes, Symposium, ed. R. R. Johnson and D. A. Jones., pp. 14-18. USDA Forest The Grand Canyon’s most likely in the next BCMP revi- Service General Technical Report sion (NPS 2002). If the park passes RM-43. Fort Collins, CO: Rocky share of the Colorado up this chance to designate WSRs, Mountain Research Station. IWSRCC (Interagency Wild and Scenic River system represents the future possibility of WSRs in Rivers Coordinating Council). 1999. Grand Canyon would be uncertain at Wild & Scenic Rivers Reference Guide. the largest intact Interagency Wild and Scenic Rivers best. In light of the fact that the park’s Coordinating Council, Washington, DC. system of nearly original 1980 wilderness recommen- Retrieved from National Wild & Scenic dation has yet to be forwarded to Rivers System website, www.nps.gov/ pristine riparian areas rivers/. Congress, we could find ourselves Mills, S., M. Soule, D. Doak. 1993. The key- left in the American “waiting for Godot” in regard to both stone-species concept in ecology and conservation. Bioscience 43(4): Southwest. wilderness and WSR designation in 219-224. GCNP (Crumbo 1996). Noss, R. 1997. Endangered major ecosystems of the United States. Wild Earth. References 7(2): 43. Ecology and Conservation, ed. L. Omart, R., and B. Anderson. 1986. Riparian Barnes, J. 1999. Seeps, springs, and Tusayan Stevens and V. Meretsky. Tucson: Habitat. Tucson: Arizona State growth. In Boatman’s Quarterly Review University of Arizona Press University Press. 12(4): 6 . U.S. Public Law 90-542. Wild and Scenic NPS (National Park Service). 2002. Colorado ———. 2005a. Protecting wild waters in a Rivers Act of October 2, 1968. 82 Stat. River management plan. Soundings dry world: The role of wild and scenic 906. Newsletter (June), Grand Canyon, AZ. rivers in the conservation of aridland Zaimes, G., M. Nichols, D. Green, and M. ———. 2011. Backcountry management river systems and watersheds of the Crimmons, eds. 2007. Understanding plan open house public scoping American Southwest. PhD diss., The Arizona’s Riparian Areas. Arizona meeting. Station 1, poster 2 (June 1), Union Institute and University, Cooperative Extension. Tucson: Flagstaff, AZ. Cincinnati, OH. University of Arizona, College of Raffensperger, C. 1993. The Wild and Scenic ———. 2005b. Protecting Wild Waters in a Agriculture and Life Sciences. Rivers Act: Problems and successes in Dry World. A Proposal for Wild and promoting biodiversity. Wild Earth 3(3): Scenic Rivers in Grand Canyon National 52-59. Note: A similar version of this article Park. Report submitted to Grand Sowell, J. 2001. Desert Ecology. Salt Lake Canyon National Park Science Center, appeared in the Winter 2012–2013 issue City: University of Utah Press. Grand Canyon, AZ. of the Boatman’s Quarterly Journal. Stevens, L., K. Burke, and K. Crumbo. 1999. Crumbo, K. 1996. Wilderness management State of the Grand Canyon ecoregion. at Grand Canyon: “Waiting for Godot?” Wild Earth 9(3): 70-71. Joel C. Barnes is a professor at Prescott International Journal of Wilderness Stevens, L, and B. Perla. 2008. Biodiversity 2(1): 19-23 . College in Prescott, Arizona, where he and productivity at an undisturbed Hubbard, J. P. 1977. Importance of riparian teaches environmental studies and adven- spring in comparison with adjacent ecosystems: Biotic considerations. In ture education and is the director of the grazed riparian and upland habitats. In Importance, Preservation and Aridland Springs in North America Graduate Teaching Assistant Program; Management of Riparian Habitat: A email: [email protected].

8 International Journal of Wilderness APRIL 2013 • Volume 19, Number 1 STEWARDSHIP

Rocky Mountain National Park Wilderness after 35 Years

BY DAVID PETTEBONE

Introduction land protected within the park’s wilderness has historically Rocky Mountain National accommodated a variety of human uses, including recre- Park Wilderness (RMNP) ation, farming and ranching, hunting, and mining. Emerging encompasses some of the issues such as increasing levels of day-use recreation, elk and most scenic landscapes in vegetation management, and insect infestations pose diffi- the southern Rocky cult choices for park managers entrusted to be wilderness Mountains (see Figure 1). More than one-third of the park is above tree line, with 60 peaks above 12,000 feet (3,658 m) and panoramic views of the David Pettebone. Continental Divide that draw visitors from all over the world. The park also protects a variety of natural habitats such as montane and subalpine biomes as well as the best representation of tundra ecosystems in the southern Rockies. For well over a century people have come to this area to experience these natural wonders, which has led to a long history of protection efforts. Like many large western national parks, the story of RMNP describes our country’s evolving relationship with wild land. Since the late 19th century, the United States has set aside large tracts of land for the public’s benefit. In terms of RMNP this legacy began in 1905 when President Theodore Roosevelt extended Wyoming’s Medicine Bow Forest Reserve into northern Colorado and included the land in today’s RMNP. Ten years later, the establishment of RMNP redefined how people interacted with and managed these mountains to emphasize preservation over resource extraction. RMNP’s inclusion in the Wilderness Preservation System in 2009 ensures the highest level of land protection afforded by the United States. Figure 1 – Alpine summits and panoramic views are some of the scenic RMNP’s wilderness designation presents a variety of landscapes of Rocky Mountain National Park. Photo courtesy NPS. opportunities and challenges for park managers because the

APRIL 2013 • Volume 19, Number 1 International Journal of Wilderness 9 stewards. These choices require philo- a mountain guide named Enos Mills. some people about the goals of preser- sophical as well as practical and Mills was particularly outspoken vation. In 1922, Horace Albright, the ecologically based considerations to regarding the establishment of a assistant park service director, balance utilitarian and preservation national park because he believed that responded to these concerns by clari- ideals. The tension between these forest reserves emphasized utilitarian fying that “certain wild sections of ideals is a recurrent theme throughout purposes such as timber extraction and every park should be forever reserved RMNP’s history and inherent in many cattle grazing rather than protection of from any development except by trails, issues that confront the park today. scenic beauty and natural resources first because the National Parks are This article provides a short historical (Buckholtz 1983). destined to soon be the only sections background about RMNP’s legislative Mills envisioned a 1,000 square of wilderness left in America, and path toward wilderness designation mile (2,590 sq. km) park with the town second because wildlife thrives best in followed by brief overviews of a few of Estes Park at its center. The United untouched wilderness” (Buckholtz current issues in the park in order to States Forest Service (USFS) took excep- 1983, p. 161). However, Albright also illustrate some of the challenges in tion to the creation of a national park strongly believed that parks were estab- managing wilderness in a popular and suggested instead that a game lished for all people and not just national park. reserve be established to protect wildlife adventurous and hearty individuals for recreation purposes (Buckholtz with the ability to penetrate remote Legislative Path to 1983). In 1915, the national park idea wilderness. Roads such as Trail Ridge Wilderness in the southern Rocky Mountains was Road provided access for those with Since the late 1800s, RMNP has been realized; however, Mills’s dream of a physical limitations who were not oth- associated with resorts, recreation, 1,000 square mile park did not come to erwise able to enjoy rugged and remote tourism, and development around the pass. Resolutions and compromises areas of the park. gateway communities of Estes Park and among competing interests resulted in a Interest in RMNP continued to Grand Lake. Nationally, the conserva- bill that established a 358.5 square mile increase throughout the years. After tion movement began taking shape (929 sq. km) national park; nonethe- World War II, in 1948, park visitation during the 1890s, and, in 1891, less, the establishment of RMNP increased dramatically and exceeded 1 Congress passed a law that provided the created the foundation for natural and million visitors (NPS 2012). By 1950, president authority to set aside land cultural resource protection that bene- facilities throughout the national park reserves. President Benjamin Harrison fits us today. system, including RMNP, were out- exercised this authority by establishing The creation of RMNP was a dated and inadequate to accommodate the Yellowstone Forest Reserve on milestone for the region that fueled the growing demand of increased visi- March 30, 1891, followed by the estab- development in and around the park in tation, and in 1956, the NPS launched lishment of four forest reserves in order to accommodate greater demands the Mission 66 program to upgrade Colorado. The idea of a forest reserve in for tourism. RMNP’s history after facilities. Projects to renovate facilities the Estes Park area was put forth as 1915 closely parallels the broader his- such as bathrooms, roads, and visitor early as 1892 in order to protect water- tory and goals of the National Park centers were well underway by the late sheds that supported agricultural Service (NPS) to promote parks, 1950s and sparked public debate over practices east of the Rocky Mountains increase access for automobiles by whether the NPS was catering too (Buckholtz 1983), and, as mentioned constructing roads, and develop infra- much to its mandate to provide recre- earlier, in 1905, President Theodore structure (e.g., campgrounds, trails, ation opportunities at the expense of Roosevelt expanded the Medicine Bow administrative buildings, ranger patrol natural resource preservation. Forest Reserve in Wyoming to include cabins). These efforts were clearly suc- Mission 66 provided momentum the area now known as RMNP (United cessful, as visitation in RMNP grew for the growing wilderness movement States Forest Service 2012). dramatically from 31,000 visitors in that wanted to emphasize preservation of Soon after the designation as a 1915 to nearly 275,000 people in 1929 nature over development for recreation forest reserve, many local residents to more than 600,000 visitors annually (Sellers 1992). In 1964, the Wilderness began calling for the creation of a in the late 1930s (NPS 2012). Act was passed, and throughout the national park. Among local constitu- Infrastructural development in United States land agencies were tasked ents advocating for a national park was national parks sparked concerns from with developing recommendations for

10 International Journal of Wilderness APRIL 2013 • Volume 19, Number 1 public lands to be included in the nation of 35 years of effort to gain people (NPS 2012). Because recre- Wilderness Preservation System. In wilderness protection and ensures ation is a stated purpose in the 1974, under the Nixon administration, that natural and cultural resources Wilderness Act and accessibility approximately 240,000 acres (97,166 within the park are protected in their enhances recreational value, this is ha) within RMNP were first recom- natural state, free from the influence both a unique value and a challenge mended for wilderness protection. of society. for park managers trying to maintain Although RMNP was recom- the park’s wilderness character. mended for wilderness protection in Managing RMNP as However, the Wilderness Act directs 1974, it was not until 1994 that the agencies to simultaneously provide first legislation to designate the park as wilderness is both outstanding opportunities for solitude wilderness was introduced to Congress. a privilege and a or primitive and unconfined experi- This first attempt did not succeed, and ences. Clearly, high levels of visitor use between 1996 and 2006, 11 more bills challenge. can diminish opportunities for soli- were introduced to Congress to desig- tude, but are park managers required nate RMNP as wilderness, none of RMNP’s inclusion into the to provide for these qualities all the which passed. Wilderness Preservation System is the time, everywhere, and at any expense? During this time, a number of latest evolution in our relationship Because of the popularity of RMNP, a other wilderness laws were passed that with these public lands and reaffirms a variety of opportunities are provided affected land surrounding RMNP. In long-standing effort to balance recre- for various types of users who visit. 1978, The Indian Peaks Wilderness, the ation use and resource protection. As During the summer months, pop- Arapaho National Recreation Area, and such, there are a number of challenges ular trailheads such as Bear Lake, Wild the Oregon Islands Wilderness Area Act regarding the preservation of wilder- Basin, and Long’s Peak accommodate established the Indian Peaks Wilderness ness character that confront RMNP high levels of day-use visitors; how- to the south of RMNP. The Colorado managers. For example, high levels of ever, there are many less-used trailheads Wilderness Act of 1980 created the day use during the summer months where visitors can escape from crowds Never Summer Wilderness, Cache La affect visitors’ ability to find intimate and find solitude just minutes up the Poudre Wilderness, Comanche Peak wilderness experiences, extirpation of trail. The park also manages overnight Wilderness, and Neota Wilderness areas predators such as wolves has allowed use through a permitting system to that border RMNP and changed the the park’s elk population to grow to ensure a variety of experiences are boundaries of the NPS and USFS to unsustainable numbers, and epidemic available throughout the park. the “natural” north and south ridgeline. levels of insect infestations associated Overnight campers can choose a Lands transferred from the USFS with warming due to climate change variety of recreation opportunities in remained in the National Wilderness has affected wilderness campsites. A the park’s wilderness during the Preservation System, and lands trans- brief overview of these issues is dis- summer, including camping in desig- ferred from the NPS to the USFS were cussed in the following sections. nated sites, cross-country zones, and incorporated into the Indian Peaks bivvy zones (for technical rock climbs). Wilderness. As a result, RMNP was Visitor Use To promote solitude, designated camp- charged with managing the northern- Rocky Mountain National Park’s wil- sites are located out of sight from trails most 2,960 acres (1,198 ha) of the derness is an exceptionally accessible and other campsites, and only a lim- Indian Peaks Wilderness. and popular natural area. The park is ited number of campsites are offered Finally, the Omnibus Public Land adjacent to Estes Park, which is only a within each drainage. For example, the Management Act of 2009 (P.L. one-hour drive from the cities of Glacier Gorge drainage teams with 111-11) was signed into law on March Boulder and Fort Collins, and less day users, but there is only one over- 31, 2009. This law established 14 than two hours from Denver. night campsite available, thus new wilderness areas in the United Approximately 4 million people live outstanding opportunities for an inti- States, including 249,126 acres along the neighboring Front Range mate and personal experience in this (100,861 ha) in RMNP. RMNP’s Urban Corridor, and in 2011, the often-busy area is available for over- inclusion into the Wilderness National Park Service estimated the night campers. Cross-country camping Preservation System marks the culmi- park’s annual visitation at 3.5 million zones without designated campsites

APRIL 2013 • Volume 19, Number 1 International Journal of Wilderness 11 provide opportunities for visitors who under natural conditions, resulting in of annual precipitation has caused epi- seek more primitive and self-reliant declining biodiversity within aspen and demic levels of beetle populations that wilderness experiences. Similarly, over- willow communities. have affected and killed the majority of night users during the winter months In 2006, RMNP developed the lodgepole pine trees within the park. are not required to camp in designated Elk and Vegetation Management Plan Limber pines and fir trees are also sites and are free to choose their camp- (USDI 2007) to consider various being affected by MPB, and large site within designated zones. actions to address these concerns. numbers of spruce trees are declining Renewed culling operations as well as due to the spread of spruce beetles Elk and Vegetation fencing to limit browsing around throughout the park. Management affected aspen and willow communi- Although Section 4d of the The elk population that winters on the ties were approved to restore Wilderness Act gives agencies authority eastern side of RMNP has grown to overbrowsed vegetation. Some of these to control insects within wilderness levels that are severely impacting aspen actions take place within the park’s areas, RMNP managers have largely and willow communities. Elk are native wilderness and clearly affect the nat- chosen to let this natural process run to the area in and around RMNP and ural, undeveloped, and primitive its course within the park’s wilderness. lived in the vicinity for thousands of character of the area. However, the However, safety in overnight campsites years until they were eliminated in the choice to pursue these actions illus- is a concern because of potential hazard 1870s due to extensive unregulated trates the difficult trade-offs park trees that surround tent pads where hunting. Elk were reintroduced in managers must consider in a wilder- visitors sleep. The park has taken an 1913–1914 before the park was estab- ness area that is heavily influenced by adaptive management approach to lished in 1915, and after gray wolves its history and surrounding nonwil- address visitor safety that includes reg- (their only natural predator) were extir- derness areas. ular monitoring within sites and pated around 1900. Because hunting prescribed actions such as selective was not allowed within RMNP or Estes Insect Infestations cutting of hazard trees within striking Park and because they had no natural Over the last decade, RMNP has been distance of tent pads when tree removal predators, elk populations increased experiencing a large infestation of bark is less than 30% of trees within striking dramatically, and as early as the 1930s beetles in its forests. The mountain distance around a campsite. The RMNP managers expressed concern pine beetle (MPB) is species native to threshold of 30% was identified as a about impacts to vegetative communi- the park whose populations have standard because standing trees are ties browsed by elk. grown to epidemic levels in the last 10 more likely to fall due to wind throw Culling operations began in 1944 years (see Figure 2). MPB tend to when this standard is exceeded. by park rangers, and for the next 25 affect pine trees that are larger than 4 Campsites that have had 30% of trees years the RMNP elk population was inches (10 cm) diameter. Beetles bore within striking distance of a campsite maintained at between 350–800 ani- tunnels into the phloem layer of the removed are closed and relocations mals. In 1969, park staff reconsidered tree and leave behind a blue stain considered if safer and sustainable sites active management of the elk popula- fungus carried on their wings. The can be located. Similarly, creation of tion and discontinued interventions to fungus clogs tree cells responsible for dispersed camping zones is considered control its size. It was believed that nutrient and water exchange, which to replace closed backcountry camp- hunting in areas adjacent to the park ultimately kills the tree. sites where appropriate. would act as a control on the size of the Historically, MPB populations population. However, studies from the were regulated by cold winters, with Summary mid- to late 1990s concluded that large numbers dying off due to tem- RMNP has a long history and relation- about 1,000 elk wintered in low-eleva- peratures dropping below –13°F for ship with its surrounding communities. tion areas of RMNP, and another 2,000 consecutive days (Amman and Cole Tourism, hunting, and ranching were wintered within Estes Park, private 1983). More recently, temperatures important early activities during the land, and USFS lands (Lubow et al. during winter months rarely persist United States’s westward expansion, 2002). Moreover, the elk population below 0° long enough to reduce beetle and early local settlers recognized the had become less migratory and more populations. The change in tempera- potential for tourism as an industry and concentrated than would be expected ture dynamics along with lower levels vehicle to protect the mountains adored

12 International Journal of Wilderness APRIL 2013 • Volume 19, Number 1 by so many residents. This led to strong public support for federal land protection of the mountains surrounding local communities, and through the years much has been learned about balancing use and preservation in RMNP. At times it seems development and recreation took priority over preservation, but this process has ultimately culmi- nated in RMNP’s recent designation as part of the Wilderness Preservation System. Managing RMNP as wilderness is both a privilege and a challenge. Throughout the park’s history, a variety of uses incompatible with the National Wilderness Preservation System have been allowed. Currently, RMNP is engaging in a number of activities to enhance its natural character and to Figure 2 – Infestations by bark beetles in Rocky Mountain National Park challenge wilderness managers. Photo provide recreation opportunities to visi- by Debbie Mann. tors. These actions are evaluated using the Wilderness Act’s mandate to consider Minimum Requirements to become more appropriate. Once again, speak with a park ranger and agree to administer an area. Often these choices there are few clear solutions. use Leave No Trace behaviors while have no clear answer and reveal the Similarly, the MPB epidemic illus- camping in the park. Clearly there are limits of a completely hands-off trates the paradox of public land trade-offs related to wilderness char- approach. The example of excessive elk management that requires balance of acter associated with the approaches populations was provided as an illustra- use and preservation. In some ways, presented in this article, but it is clear tion of a difficult choice, but RMNP is established campsites reduce primitive that the choice to not manage these currently grappling with a myriad of conditions as well as an individual’s self- issues has consequences as well. issues, including proliferation of inva- reliance. The current overnight system Despite the challenges presented sive species, habitat loss due to climate used in RMNP was developed about 40 in this paper, RMNP’s designation as change (e.g., American pika), nitrogen years ago in response to natural resource wilderness is cause for celebration for deposition across the landscape, and impacts – such as excessive vegetation all who cherish this precious resource. changing wildfire regimes. Ideally, as trampling, soil compaction, and Wilderness protection ensures that the vegetation communities within RMNP increased erosion potential – which majority of RMNP will not be subject recover, some actions, such as elk resulted from high levels of unregulated to developmental or extractive pres- fencing, can be reduced. However, overnight use. Vegetation recovery is sures and that this wilderness resource other issues, such as warming due to very slow in areas with high use levels is protected for future generations. climate change, will continue to affect over successive years, and park man- the natural resources within RMNP, agers chose to establish a limited number References of campsites in order to concentrate use Amman, G. D., and W. E. Cole. 1983. and park managers will be faced with Mountain Pine Beetle Dynamics in difficult philosophical decisions about and limit impacts (Cole 1987). Lodgepole Pine Forests. Part II: how to respond to changing conditions. Monitoring and maintaining these sites Population Dynamics. General Technical Report INT-145 Ogden, UT: U.S. It is possible that accelerated environ- ensures that overnight use in the park’s Department of Agriculture, Forest mental change will become the “natural wilderness does not unnecessarily Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. condition” and that a minimal-inter- degrade natural resources. Moreover, vention management approach will the permit system requires that visitors Continued on page 25

APRIL 2013 • Volume 19, Number 1 International Journal of Wilderness 13 SCIENCE & RESEARCH

How Do Migratory Species Add Ecosystem Service Value to Wilderness? Calculating the Spatial Subsidies Provided by Protected Areas

BY LAURA LÓPEZ-HOFFMAN, DARIUS SEMMENS, and JAY DIFFENDORFER

Abstract: Species that migrate through protected and wilderness areas and utilize their resources, deliver ecosystem services to people in faraway locations. The mismatch between the areas that most support a species and those areas where the species provides most benefits to society can lead to underestimation of the true value of protected areas such as wilderness. We present a method to communicate the “off-site” value of wilderness and protected areas in providing habitat to migratory species that, in turn, provide benefits to people in distant locations. Using northern pintail ducks (Anas acuta) as an example, the article provides a method to estimate the amount of subsidy – the value of the ecosystem services provided by a migratory species in one area versus the cost to support the species and its habitat elsewhere.

Introduction Wilderness and protected areas generate benefits well beyond their boundaries – many species that migrate through wilderness areas and utilize their resources, deliver ecosystem services to people in faraway locations (Semmens et al. 2011; López-Hoffman et al. 2010). Migratory species – animals such as birds, mammals, fish, and insects that regularly migrate between two or more different areas – pro- Laura López-Hoffman Darius Semmens Jay Diffendorfer vide ecosystem services to people, such as controlling crop pests, pollinating food plants, or supporting recreational many other migratory species depend on wilderness areas for hunting, fishing, and bird-watching. For example, the food, shelter, and breeding habitat (see Figure 1). migratory Mexican free-tailed bat (Tadarida brasiliensis This mismatch between the areas that most support a mexicana) helps control cotton crop pests in the south- species and those where the species provides most benefits to western United States and northern Mexico. Female bats society can lead to underestimation of the true value of pro- migrate annually from central Mexico to the U.S.-Mexico tected areas such as wilderness. People, and most critically borderlands where they feed on corn earworm/cotton boll- decision makers, may not realize that locally used ecosystem worm, providing an estimated $700,000 worth of pest services may be linked to (supported by) distant protected control annually in one region of Texas (Cleveland et al. areas. In the United States, in an era of concern about visita- 2006). Throughout the yearly cycle of migration, bats and tion rates to national parks and wilderness areas (Pergams PEER REVIEWED

14 International Journal of Wilderness APRIL 2013 • Volume 19, Number 1 spatial subsidies one location provides to, or receives, from others. All locations regularly used by a migratory species can both provide and receive benefits via migration support. Locations provide benefits by contributing to the overall viability of migratory species that in turn provide services to humans elsewhere in their range. Locations receive benefits in the form of services provided locally by migratory populations that are dependent on distant areas. Therefore, the net ecosystem service subsidy either provided or received by an area is a balance between the services received Figure 1 – Mexican free-tailed bats near Bracken Cave near San Antonio, Texas. Photo by A. Russell. from a species dependent on other locations and the support the area pro- and Zaradic 2008; Cordell et al. 2008), communicate the value of protected vides to the species. The following it is important to be able to under- areas to people and decision makers in description of how the subsidy can be stand, calculate, and communicate the distant locales. calculated is excerpted from Semmens full value of wilderness (Watson and et al. (2011), which can be referenced Venn 2012), including the “on-site” Calculating the Spatial for additional details. benefits provided within or near pro- Subsidy Provided by a For a single species, the gross tected areas and the “off-site” benefits Wilderness Area migration support provided (out) by provided to people far beyond area Consider a wildlife refuge on a migra- location A to all other locations, MAo, boundaries (Loomis and Richardson tory flyway that is widely judged a is simply the value of migratory ser- 2001). The purpose of this article is to “critical” stopover site for birds. vices provided at all other locations present a method to communicate the Scientists trying to ascertain the eco- multiplied by the species’ proportional “off-site” value of wilderness areas in system service “value” of this refuge dependence on location A: providing habitat to migratory species would traditionally consider the that, in turn, provide benefits to people number of visitors, how much the (1) in distant locations. average visitor spends, and any other Where VS is the total value of ser- What is the full ecosystem service goods or services extracted from or vices provided by a species S throughout value of protected areas? How do pro- provided by the refuge. If they were to its range, VSA is the value of services tected areas support the delivery of consider the birds, however, they provided at location A, and DSA is the ecosystem services in distant locations would recognize the refuge plays an proportional dependence of the spe- by providing habitat for migratory important role in supporting bird cies’ population on location A. species? Using northern pintail ducks migration and thus the overall ability Locations can be defined in any (Anas acuta) as an example, we (1) of the species to provide ecosystem manner and number, provided they outline a method to estimate the services in other locations – a service encompass the full migratory range of amount of subsidy – the value of the that was previously unaccounted for in a species. Values for DS must satisfy ecosystem services provided by pintails the valuation of the refuge. This the following two requirements: in one area versus the cost to support “migration support” is a type of sup- 0 ≤ DSL ≤ 1 the species and its habitat elsewhere, porting service (sensu Millennium (2) describe how the approach can be Ecosystem Assessment 2003) provided applied to account for individual wil- by ecosystems. By understanding the where DSL represents the propor- derness areas, and (3) suggest how nature of migration support as an eco- tional dependence at any given such an approach could be used to system service, it is possible to quantify location, and L encompasses all m

APRIL 2013 • Volume 19, Number 1 International Journal of Wilderness 15 locations used by a species. The latter tial subsidies for three species: northern requirement assumes migratory spe- pintail ducks, monarch butterflies cies are dependent on the persistence (6) (Danaus plexippus) and Mexican free- of favorable conditions across their tailed bats. entire range; they cannot be more or less than 100% dependent on their (7) Global Importance of environment. Wilderness for Migratory The gross migration support The migratory ranges of each spe- Species received (in) by a location from all cies need not overlap completely. Around the world, many wilderness other locations, MAi, is the product of Equation 6 still satisfies the require- and protected areas support migratory a species’ dependence on all other loca- ment of Equation 4, provided that the species, often by design. For instance, tions and the value of services provided combined spatial extent of all ranges is the Monarch Butterfly Biosphere locally: considered. Reserve in Mexico supports overwin- Despite the conceptual frame- tering congregations of eastern North (2) work, estimating real values for VS and American monarchs, and the Maasai The migration support values cal- DS presents a substantial challenge. Mara/Serengeti National Parks in Africa culated in Equations 1 and 2 are based Estimates of VS must be location spe- support massive migrations of wilde- on the annual monetary value of ser- cific, yet measured across all locations. beests and other ungulates. In the vices provided by the migratory species This creates considerable hurdles both United States, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife (see Semmens et al. 2011 for a discus- in the required ecological under- Service refuge system and other man- sion of how nonmonetary values could standing of a species and its valuation aged lands in the Prairie Pothole Region be incorporated into this approach). at each location. Estimates of DS must account for only 2% of the breeding The net difference between out- allow comparisons of different sites in habitat for all waterfowl, yet contribute going and incoming migration support terms of their contribution to overall to 23% of the overall waterfowl pro- is the spatial subsidy for location A population growth or viability. The duction (USFWS 2007), indicating (YA): most difficult aspect of estimating DS that these managed lands play an (3) and VS lies in developing demographic important role in waterfowl demog- Positive values indicate location A and economic data across all sites – raphy. Many other reserve systems is subsidizing other areas. Negative very few studies approach migratory around the world support migratory values indicate location A is being sub- species from a population level, or birds, such as Keoladeo National Park sidized by other areas. When applied systematically address their functional in India, Radipole Lake nature reserve to all locations, L, throughout a spe- interactions with humans. As a result, in the UK, the nature reserve system in cies’ range, Equation 3 satisfies the data limitations will hamper the appli- Israel (an important geographic loca- requirement that the sum of all subsi- cation of our approach in the short tion for bird migration between Africa, dies is zero, or term and permit analyses for only Europe, and western Asia), and those charismatic, endangered, or eco- numerous World Heritage sites. Within (4) nomically important species that are countries or regions, reserve systems the best studied and monitored. In the also support smaller-scale altitudinal For a given location, the total long term, the approach demands sub- migration, such as the migration of annual value resulting from its use by stantial investment in, and coordination resplendent quetzals and other tropical a migratory species is the sum of the of, new data collection, monitoring, forest birds in Costa Rica, and ungu- spatial subsidy and value of services and database development to system- lates in Wyoming, United States. provided locally: atically address migratory species. To date, there are no published examples Example of Northern (5) of spatial subsidy calculations. Pintail Ducks Equations 3 and 5 can be rewritten However, a U.S. Geological Survey Northern pintail ducks are a popular to accommodate multiple species by Powell Center for Analysis and species for hunting and wildlife simply summing across all n species of Synthesis working group led by the viewing. Pintails generally overwinter interest. authors is attempting to calculate spa- in the southern United States and

16 International Journal of Wilderness APRIL 2013 • Volume 19, Number 1 Mexico and fly north each spring to breed in the northern United States and Canada (the majority of the pintail population occurs in the western part of the continent, despite a broad distribution across North America). Through their migration, pintail ducks create ecological and economic links between distant locations. The potential for a large ecosystem service subsidy exists because the vast majority of the harvested birds (80–90%, Miller and Duncan 1999) are taken in the United States, yet breeding habitats in Canada play a large role in overall pintail population dynamics. Indeed, the leading Figure 2 – Northern pintail ducks in Kolkata, West Bengal, India. Photo by J. M. Garg. License held by Creative hypothesis for historic pintail declines Commons. is the intensification of agriculture in the prairie pothole region of western To assess the subsidy provided by subsidy or proportional dependence Canada (Miller and Duncan 1999; an individual protected area, we sug- values among subareas, such as a wild- Podruzny et al. 2002; Miller et al. gest adapting Mattson et al. (2012) to life refuge. These types of geographic 2003) (see Figure 2). understand how pintail demographic analyses are becoming commonplace How can we estimate the spatial processes vary across the modeled given the increasing use of species dis- subsidies in ecosystem services (harvest regions. The maps of protected area tribution modeling (Scott et al. 2002) of pintails) between locations where boundaries could be compared to maps and provide a potentially powerful birds are harvested versus places that of how the landscape contributes to a method for overcoming the scale dis- support the pintail population? A prom- species’ demography to estimate the crepancy between the regional ising approach is to combine harvest subsidy provided by particular pro- population models with which pro- value information with a demographic tected areas. For pintails in the Prairie portional dependence is estimated and model of pintails via the method Potholes, this is nearly possible. the more local scale at which subsidy described earlier. Mattson et al. (2012) Podruzny et al. (2002) analyzed data values are needed. developed a demographic model for from 72 transects spanning an area pintails in North America. The model about 600 x 400 miles (1000 x 600 Applications included three breeding populations km) in the Canadian Prairie Potholes. Migratory Species and Spatial (Alaska, northern Canada, and the This area represents about 60% of the Subsidies as a Communication Tool Prairie Potholes), and two nonbreeding Prairie Pothole breeding population in In a large and diverse country such as populations (California and the Gulf Mattson et al. (2012). The analysis the United States, communicating the Coast). It modeled both fall and spring determined geographic features that value of a given protected area can be migratory dynamics and was parame- influenced where pintails “settled” or challenging. For example, managers of terized using a wide array of data from chose to breed after their spring migra- parks and wilderness areas west of the nest studies, aerial waterfowl surveys, tion to the prairie. The analysis also Rocky Mountains need to demon- and harvest records. The model can be generated detailed maps of the density strate their value to decision makers used to estimate DS for each of the five of breeding pintails across the region located in the nation’s capital, regions, while harvest data can be used and developed an understanding of Washington, D.C. – more than 2,000 to estimate VS. At this broad geographic how particular vegetation types, agri- miles away – and to stakeholders from scale of North America, the subsidy cultural practices, and pond density around the country. Previous work by calculations can inform policy between affected breeding bird density. Using natural resource economists has sug- the United States and Canada for pin- these maps it would be straightforward gested that the value of wilderness be tail management. to quantitatively partition regional communicated in terms of on-site and

APRIL 2013 • Volume 19, Number 1 International Journal of Wilderness 17 off-site values (Loomis and Richardson may want to convince the people who for their management and protection. 2001). On-site values are the benefits receive benefits from a migratory spe- The issue of paying a management received or enjoyed locally, such as cies to share in the cost of protecting agency for protecting land that they are recreation, protection of fish and wild- the species’ critical habitats in distant already charged with protecting arose in life habitat, and increased revenues to protected areas. Our method provides the Forest to Faucets Initiative where local communities from visitor expen- a way of identifying who is receiving the Denver, Colorado, water utility is ditures. The primary metrics of off-site benefits from migration support, paying the U.S. Forest Service for ero- values, to date, are improved down- quantifying the “value” of those bene- sion control and wildfire prevention stream water quality and passive-use fits, and connecting them back to activities in agency-owned forests above existence values to people who many source areas via an equitable subsidy the city’s water-supply reservoirs. Both never visit the area but derive satisfac- calculation. Resource managers could the Forest Service and the city have tion from knowing the area exists and is protected (e.g., Pate and Loomis This approach provides a quantitative means to 1997; Chichilnisky and Heal 1998; Bateman et al. 2006). assess the need for increased conservation for Downstream water-quality im- migratory species and the wilderness and provements are an effective way of demonstrating the regional benefits of protected areas that support them. protected areas – that is, benefits to downstream users – but may not use the calculated subsidy values to argued that the funds are for additional communicate why more distant stake- guide how much people in a receiving actions specifically designed to protect holders should care about protecting location might pay to support conser- and enhance the ecosystem service in wilderness. On the other hand, exis- vation efforts in the protected area(s) question (Denver Water 2011). tence values do capture how distant supplying the subsidy. stakeholders value wilderness but may Payments to support conservation Conclusion be viewed by some as less convincing and land management efforts and pro- In an era of concern over the numbers (Defries and Pagiola 2005). Our tect ecosystem services have been of visitors to wilderness and protected method of expressing the value of pro- termed “payments for ecosystem ser- areas, park managers and other conser- tected areas to distant people through vices,” or PES. A wide and growing vation advocates in the United States migration support can communicate literature describes PES programs, the are examining new ways to express the the value of protected areas, and it opportunities they present, the chal- value of protected areas and wilderness does so in a way that is quantitative lenges of implementing them, and to decision makers and stakeholders. and easily understandable. As such, it possible negative consequences of Here we present a new approach for provides a valuable addition to the doing so (Engel et al. 2008; The accounting for the value of protected portfolio of tools used by managers Economist 2009; Norgaard 2010). areas through migration support – the and conservation advocates to articu- These important issues must be provision of habitat and resources to late the value of wilderness. addressed when considering PES. Most migratory species that in turn supply of these issues, however, are beyond benefits to people in distant locations. Migratory Species and Spatial the scope of this short communication We believe this approach provides an Subsidies as a Framework for – but we do address one particular effective tool for communicating the Conservation Funding concern that might arise in the United value of protected areas, in particular to As described earlier, protected areas States when considering developing people and decision makers located far can subsidize the delivery of ecosystem PES programs for protected areas that from the areas in question. In addition, services in other locations. In an ideal provide migration support services. this method could be used by decision world of abundant resources for con- In the United States, wilderness makers to communicate the value of a servation, this situation may be tenable. and other protected areas are public migratory species and why protecting However, with the current reality of lands – lands that are owned and set the species’ critical habitats in distant shrinking budgets for conservation, aside by local, state, or federal govern- wilderness and protected areas is impor- park managers and decision makers ments – and receive government funds tant. Through a U.S. Geological Survey

18 International Journal of Wilderness APRIL 2013 • Volume 19, Number 1 Powell Center working group, the 37-71. Washington, DC: Island Press. Pergams, O. R. W., and A. Zaradic. 2008. Denver Water. 2011. From forests to fau- Evidence for a fundamental and perva- authors and colleagues are imple- cets. Retrieved June 14, 2011, from sive shift away from nature-based menting this approach for three North www.denverwater.org/SupplyPlanning/ recreation. Proceedings of the National American migratory species, as we WaterSupply/PartnershipUSFS/. Academy of Sciences 105: 2295–2300. The Economist. 2009. Seeing the wood: A Podruzny, K. M., J. H. Devries, et al. 2002. refine and make the techniques more special report on forests. September Long-term response of northern pin- accessible. This approach provides a 25, 2009. tails to changes in wetlands and Engel, S., S. Pagiola, and S. Wunder. 2008. agriculture in the Canadian Prairie quantitative means to assess the need Designing payments for environmental Pothole Region. The Journal of Wildlife for increased conservation for migra- services in theory and practice: An Management 66(4): 993–1010. tory species and the wilderness and overview of the issues. Ecological Scott, J. M., P. Heglund, M. L. Morrison, J. Economics 65(4): 663–674. B. Haufler, M. G. Raphael, W. A. Wall, protected areas that support them. Loomis, J. B., and R. Richardson. 2001. and F. B. Samson. 2002. Predicting Economic values of the U.S. Wilderness Species Occurrences: Issues of system: Research evidence to date Accuracy and Scale. Washington, DC: Acknowledgments questions for the future. International Island Press. This work was conducted as part of Journal of Wilderness 7(1): 31–34. Semmens D. J., J. E. Diffendorfer, L. López- López-Hoffman L., R. G. Varady, K. W. Flessa, Hoffman, and C. Shapiro. 2011. the Animal Migration and Spatial and P. Balvanera. 2010. Ecosystem ser- Accounting for the ecosystem services Subsidies: Establishing a Framework vices across borders: A framework for of migratory species: Quantifying migra- transboundary conservation. Frontiers tion support and spatial subsidies. for Conservation Markets working in Ecology and the Environment 8(2): Ecological Economics 70: 2236–2242, group supported by the John Wesley 84–91, doi:10.1890/070216. doi:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2011.07.002. Powell Center for Analysis and Mattson, B. J., M. C. Runge, J. H. Devries, USFWS. 2007. Waterfowl production areas: G. S. Boomer, J. M. Eadie, D. A. Prairie jewels of the national wildlife Synthesis, funded by the U.S. Haukos, J. P. Fleskers, D. N. Koons, W. refuge system. Retrieved on February Geological Survey. Additional support E. Thogmartin, and R. G. Clark. 2012. A 28, 2012, from www.fws.gov/refuges/ modeling framework for integrated smallwetlands/WPAs/FactSheetWPA- comes from the National Science harvest and habitat management of june2007.pdf Foundation award (DEB-1118975) to North American waterfowl: Case-study Watson, A. and W. Venn. 2012. Wilderness L. López-Hoffman. of northern pintail metapopulation ecosystem services, a focus on applica- dynamics. Ecological Modelling 225(1): tions. International Journal of Wilderness 146–158. 18(3): 3, 7. Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA). References 2003. Ecosystems and Human Well- Bateman, I. J., B. H. Day, S. Georgiou, and I. Being: A Framework for Assessment. LAURA LÓPEZ-HOFFMAN is an assistant Lake. 2006. The aggregation of environ- Washington, DC: Island Press. professor in the School of Natural Resources mental benefit values: Welfare measures, Miller, M. R., and D. C. Duncan 1999. The and Environment and assistant research distance decay, and total WTP. Ecological northern pintail in North America: Economics 60(2): 450–460. Status and conservation needs of a professor at the Udall Center for Studies in Chichilnisky, G., and G. M. Heal. 1998. struggling population. Wildlife Society Public Policy, the University of Arizona. 803 Economic returns from the biosphere. Bulletin 27(3): 788–800. E. First Street, Tucson, AZ, 85719, USA; Nature 391: 629–630. Miller, M. R., D. C. Duncan, K. L. Guyn, P. L. email: [email protected]. Cleveland, C. J., M. Betke, P. Federico, J. D. Flint, J. E. Austin. 2003. The northern Frank, T. G. Hallam, J. Horn, J. D. Lopez, pintail in North America: the problem and G. F. McCracken, R. A. Medellin, A. a prescription for recovery. Proceedings DARIUS SEMMENS is a research scientist Moreno-Valdez, C. G. Sansone, J. K. of the Northern Pintail Workshop, 23-25 at the Geosciences and Environmental Westbrook, and T. H. Kunz. 2006. March 2001, Sacramento, California, pp. Change Science Center, U.S. Geological Economic value of the pest control ser- 6-27. Sacramento, CA: U.S. Geological Survey, Denver Federal Center, Bldg. 25, vice provided by Brazilian free-tailed bats Survey, Ducks Unlimited Canada, and Room 1719, MS980, Denver, CO 80225, USA; in south-central Texas. Frontiers in Ecology Canadian Wildlife Service. and the Environment 4: 238–243. Norgaard, R. B. 2010. Ecosystem services: email: [email protected]. Cordell, H. K., J. B. Carter, and G. T. Green. From eye-opening metaphor to com- 2008. Nature-based outdoor recreation plexity blinder. Ecological Economics JAY DIFFENDORFER is a research scientist trends and wilderness. International 69: 1219–1227. at the Geosciences and Environmental Journal of Wilderness 14(2): 7–13. Pate, J., and J. Loomis. 1997. The effect of Change Science Center, U.S. Geological DeFries, R., and S. Pagiola. 2005. Analytical distance on willingness to pay values: approaches for assessing ecosystem A case study of wetlands and salmon Survey, Denver Federal Center, Bldg. 25, condition and human well-being. in California. Ecological Economics 20: Room 1719, MS980, Denver, CO 80225, USA; Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, pp. 199–207. email: [email protected].

APRIL 2013 • Volume 19, Number 1 International Journal of Wilderness 19 SCIENCE & RESEARCH

Living Waters Linking Cultural Knowledge, Ecosystem Services, and Wilderness

BY LINDA MOON STUMPFF

Abstract: American Indian tribes value pristine water sources that often originate in wilderness areas to support provisioning and cultural benefits. Based on interviews with four traditional leaders, this article focuses on the concept of living waters in ways that connect ecosystem service benefits to wilderness. Cultural knowledge connects indigenous water stewardship and protection of living waters throughout watersheds as threats increase due to climate change and development.

Cycle of Life ally, and internationally outside Water energizes the cycle of life at the intersection between their internal roles. They were all culture, ecology, and spirituality. Pristine, cool water can be asked to answer 10 open-ended thought of as the most important asset held by the environ- questions in an ethnographic- ment over long periods of time. It encompasses weather, style interview. All four have mists, underground springs, precipitation, drainages, and grown up in traditional culture watersheds in a system of human cooperation and steward- and are cognizant of the fact that ship. In recent literature these assets held within the watersheds transcend land-use environment are referred to as ecosystem services (Daily et boundaries. They come from four al. 2009). Water is more than a resource, it is living water to different tribes, three from the Linda Moon Stumpff. native people. northwest and one from the Weidner (2011) suggested that ecologists, economists, southwest United States. The first three take a regional modelers, and geographers would have to work together to focus. Billie Frank Jr., of the Nisqually Tribe, speaks of living help build spatial tools that support ecosystem services waters connected to Mount Rainier and its wilderness. assessments. Traditional ecological knowledge will also Delbert Miller, a spiritual leader of the Skokomish Tribe, enhance this work. This article employs a simple definition shares origin narrative associated with wilderness and adja- of traditional ecological knowledge and adaptive ecological cent areas in Olympic National Forest and Olympic National knowledge developed through intimate reciprocal relation- Park. Calleen Sisk-Franco is the traditional leader of the ships between groups of people in a particular place over Winneman Wintu Tribe in California. She speaks of alpine time (Ecological Society of America 2012). wilderness areas on Mount Shasta as a source of living waters. Lomayumtewa Ishii, chair of Native Studies at The Speakers and the Method Northern Arizona University and a Hopi priest, gives the This article brings together knowledge from four in-depth final southwestern interview, focusing on the relationships interviews with native wisdom keepers, chosen for their between living water and wilderness areas on the San knowledge of the cultural, spiritual, and ecological values of Francisco Peaks. All spoke of spiritual and cultural uses of water. Each articulated knowledge within their cultures, and water and the need to prevent disruption of the natural sys- they all enjoy the role of elder wisdom keepers within their tems that produce clean, clear water. cultures and play recognized leadership roles locally, nation-

PEER REVIEWED

20 International Journal of Wilderness APRIL 2013 • Volume 19, Number 1 Living Water as an for economic markets is the greatest of Ecosystem Service “takings,” for it denies people’s origins. It was clear in all interviews that mois- The willingness of tribes to use enor- ture, as it arrives in the form of snow mous amounts of their resources to high in the alpine peaks, is critical. fight for the protection of sacred peaks The peaks are the true homelands evidences the respect with which they because they are the homes of the are held. They communicate the indig- spirits and the origins of the people, of enous understanding of their water, and of all life. Snow, ice, and importance as the origin point of ser- rain at these high elevations represent vices that sustain their culture and the purest, coldest, and most valuable their existence. form. Cultural narratives recount ori- For the Winnemem Wintu Tribe gins in these alpine areas where spiritual in northern California, the icy water beings make contact with humans and high on Mount Shasta (see Figure 2) is recharge the systems of life. The quality the home of their benefactor, the and quantity of these headwaters pre- McCloud salmon. Their cultural exis- dict the water supply below and the tence is threatened without the icy sustainability of human occupation. water and the salmon (Sisk-Franco Speaking for the water, Billy Frank Jr., 2011). Access to clean river water is an international leader on fisheries essential for the young women’s cere- from the Nisqually and chair of the mony: young women swim across the Figure 1 – Mount Rainier. Photo by Dave Graber. Northwest Indian Fish Commission, river in the ceremony in the process of holds an intimate connection to the becoming a woman of the tribe. For the and their understandings and practices watersheds and springs related to Hopi and the Navajo and other Arizona related to the support of ecosystem ser- Mount Rainier and the Nisqually River tribes, the San Francisco Peaks (see vices through the protection of the (see Figure 1). He gives us a descrip- Figure 3) represent a homeland for waterscape. The cultural existence of tion of the reverence and respect for which they bear a responsibility to pro- indigenous people who have lived on these living waters: tect as a source of spiritual and life-giving the land for thousands of years is in The creator gave us all the gift benefits. The threat to their cultural itself an ecosystem service because their of water; we respect it. It is for existence includes the loss of their residence records an interaction with Indian people and it is for all people. wisdom, their respectful relationships, the environment that supports a rich It is what life is all about. Cool, clear water. Water is key to the culture and way of life, the spiritual and the cultural. We are gatherers and harvesters. Both quantity and quality of water are important. The salmon and the shellfish need it. … Indians still go to the springs at the foot of our mountain Tahoma and get water to take home. Spring water. It is beautiful there. Blue water. Beautiful blue water. You can drink it right out of your hand. It generates from under the earth. I’ll take you there sometime. (Frank 2011)

These high elevations are holy Figure 2 – Middle Falls on the McCloud River. Photo courtesy of the U.S. Forest Service. places. To commodify these resources

APRIL 2013 • Volume 19, Number 1 International Journal of Wilderness 21 Figure 3 – San Francisco Peaks. Photo by John Batchelder. cultural and religious life. This is the sells treated sewage water to be piped on the peaks. They return to us as only long-term record of human inter- to the top of the San Francisco Peaks rain. (Ishii 2011) action with the ecosystem that comes next to the Kachina Wilderness to from a direct, original source. make artificial snow. Evaporation and Commodified water piped out of Indigenous scientists with parallel displacement disrupt the cleansing the watershed and sprayed in the air Western scientific training recognize return to the aquifer. With a focus on misses the natural cleansing process of the significance of origin stories that the market price of water alone, the seeping deeply into the earth to be function as primary sources of con- city failed to understand the intercon- purified, balancing out its human use nectedness and continuity. The same nectedness signaled by Hopi elders. with its pristine, icy origins atop the understanding is transmitted by Ishii describes the connectedness of peaks. Snowmaking machines lack the Western scientists who have deep and living water as it flows, rises, and tran- ecosystem functions of the natural long-term dedication to understanding scends land management boundaries: seasonal flows that support the peaks’ indigenous knowledge. Physicist David It is better for the water to rare alpine meadows, plant willows, Peat (2005), for example, writes: “That return to communities through the herbaceous plants used for medi- to deny a people’s origins is to cut natural systems to carry out daily cines, and life-forms in all seven life them off not simply from the land life projects … it is all part of a zones. Thirteen tribes in Arizona, rec- they physically occupy but also inter- system. … Fir boughs are used by ognizing the critical functions that the nally – from the very sense of their the Kachinas because the firs live peaks and the associated precipitation own bodies.” In Arizona, tribes worked higher and they need water: clouds provide, continue to fight to protect to establish the Kachina Wilderness as live on the boughs of these trees. By them on native religious grounds. But a way of protecting such values. But using fir boughs in ceremonies, the federal courts, unable to recognize today, the city of Flagstaff, Arizona, prayers will return to the Kachinas the broad meanings drawn from indig-

22 International Journal of Wilderness APRIL 2013 • Volume 19, Number 1 enous epistemology that connect the was frozen and went into a fast. … direct linkages between water and food belief system with ecosystem services People swim in those tears: it is the that are impacted by climate change. beyond land management boundaries, kind of water they drink and set aside The right to have salmon as food is fall silent. The very nature of water is for cooking. The water is called “sweet founded in the responsibility to care to move, flow, permeate, evaporate, water.” It waters the sacredness within for the water. Indigenous adaptation is and precipitate in ways that cannot be us: it waters our internal sacredness the constant practice of the responsi- contained. Nor can the impacts to the and spirituality. (Miller 2011) bility to keep the water clean, founded associated spiritual beliefs be con- in spiritual practice and connected tained: “Certain deities, such as The ecosystem functions of living with the right to take salmon: Kachina (Hopi) or Ga’an (Apache), water are poetically described in The salmon need clean water. dwell on the peaks, and that snow- Delbert Miller’s narrative: We pray for blessing of the water, no making (irrespective of the source of There are a few basic rhythms refuse to be in the water. … Some water) will negatively impact the dei- of life: fish swimming back and beings became the Tree People whose ties, potentially causing drought or forth, wind coming down to the leaves fall and hit the ground and other suffering” (Ishii 2011). valley, streams coming from they called to the Salmon People. The Echoing the southwestern mountains to the valleys, butterflies leaves hit each other on the way down example, the life-producing wild flying, leaves falling. It’s a living and called to the Salmon People to waterscape that was threatened in the dance. Do not change the dance of come home, telling them that the Northwest impacted the culture of the the stream. Every year the stream people have kept the water clean. The Skokomish Tribe. Their culture is so moves, creating different places. You Father of the salmon comes; he is the water dependent and so closely con- return and it’s different because it’s first for the Salmon Ceremony. In the nected with fish that they recognize alive and dancing. They dress Salmon Ceremony, his remains are the salmon as their ancestor. Delbert themselves by logjams, by flowers put into the water and he would Miller relates the emergence of the and trees, and they give refuge for swim back to his home and tell the people from the second branch of the the ones they are to protect. They salmon that people have done the Skokomish creation story that mirrors know they are home to fish and ceremony and the leaves have fallen, the deep sense of connectedness with things that live there. They give so it’s time to return home to the the salmon and its continuous celebra- retreat for things that need a place. people. (Miller 2011) tion in the origin of the Water (Miller 2011) Ceremony: “They climbed out of When a species such as salmon is water, now turning into humans. You Water and Ecosystem critical to healthy diet, water issues, and could still tell they were half salmon, Services under Conditions cultural uses, a careful assessment is the first ones. The Father came and of Climate Change needed as climate change proceeds. We said, ‘I will return and you prepare for The contribution of clean, cold waters are reminded that life-forms are vulner- me.’ They prepared the blessing of the for fish habitat is integral to the indig- able and require certain qualities of Water Ceremony. They began to do enous diet, but this is being impacted water to be sustained. Billy Frank Jr. that as instructed” (Miller 2011). by climate change. Salmon represent talks of the critical free-flowing clean, one of the most efficient systems in cold water habitat required for salmon, Clear, cold, pristine water is needed nature. They leave the streams of their and he identifies the direct impacts to for the Skokomish Water Ceremony birth as tiny fingerlings and go to the ecosystem services from climate change: held at high elevations. Ceremonial ocean where they absorb the nutrients In the past, glaciers melted bathing in icy water at high elevations and resources of the sea. They return slowly during the summer months ties spiritual beliefs to indigenous life to the icy streams of their birth with and helped contribute cool, clean activities through origin stories: pounds of rich, healthy flesh for the water to the rivers where salmon The Changer wept and said: diets of wildlife and humans. Almost begin and end their lives. But today “These are my beloved people … no other ecosystem service is as effi- our rivers are getting warmer and our wherever they go wild roses will cient, as bountiful, or as healthy as the glaciers are disappearing, harming grow.” This is the beauty of the gift. production of salmon from cool stream salmon at every stage of their life … It was so sacred that everything habitats. Northwest cultures make cycle. Salmon and Indian people

APRIL 2013 • Volume 19, Number 1 International Journal of Wilderness 23 evolved together over centuries, but Prehistoric and historic reactions larly sensitive to pollution, so clean, climate change is happening in the to major shifts in climate often com- natural snow provides the moisture that blink of an eye. It’s happening too bined with human conflict over water. is needed. Cultural symbols mark these quickly for salmon – and us – to Fagan (2011) agrees that migrations relationships and underline the need for keep up. (Frank 2011) and dispersal were often the result of good heart, for collaboration, and for changes in climate, and he suggests good behavior as part of indigenous Embedded in the Skokomish that cultural landscapes can be rede- stewardship. origin stories are descriptions of climate fined as homelands under adaptive Like the Skokomish oral tradi- change and adaptation to changing management. Even so, without the tions, Hopi understandings bridge the ecosystem services that narrate the peo- preservation of cultures, migrations long history of prehistoric agriculture ple’s move from forest to coast, from may result in significant impacts and and what happens when humans dis- deer and elk to salmon. The reproduc- loss of the wisdom that supports living rupt the natural and ceremonial cycles tive capacity of salmon is recorded in sustainably within the watershed, and to upset critical ecosystem services. Ishii the portion of the narrative that marks the sustainability of ecosystem services warns of unknown and uncontrolled the increasing abundance of offspring. is intimately connected to culture and effects as he indicates the predictive The connection with cedar is also the recognition of connectedness. capacity of indigenous knowledge. embedded in the cultural narratives of Traditional stories hold markers that the Skokomish people: “Grandmother Living Waters and the may indicate when the range of vari- Cedar taught generosity. … For thou- Weather Cycle ability experienced and recorded in sands of years it stands … the Plant The respondents agreed all types of traditional knowledge is exceeded: People are cheering, applauding the water provide important cultural and What interferes with these salmon coming home … see them provisioning benefits: the liquid, cycles when unknown effects occur? standing together “ (Miller 2011). flowing water, the gas vapor in the We have the stories of drought from Medicinal plants and herbs pro- clouds and mists, the dew on the Chaco Canyon. What happened duced by the forest’s interaction with boughs of spruce, the solid ice and there? What got out of balance when healthy watersheds define a provi- snow, and various types of precipita- the water and animals went away? A sioning service that requires sufficient tion. They are understood as part of a spiritual disconnection of some kind amounts of pristine water for growth system that moves precipitation to occurred. This approach is guided by that may be affected by climate change. seepage into groundwater, from run- an indigenous way of thinking, Tribal members have specific gathering ning streams to gurgling springs. acting, and the ceremonial cycles. areas for medicinal plants. Traditional Weather patterns take place over long We look at things through time: ecological knowledge describes their periods of time and may be little under- versus the now thing. How people potency as dependent on certain gath- stood by newcomers who take them to were in cycle in the past and how ering sites, sacredness, and human be static and absolute (Logan 2008), so they will be in the future are tied. interaction with these sites. memories of indigenous people are What will happen … not what The mountain is like a phar- important in discerning shifting pat- happens. The world we used to macy. Plants are adapted to a water terns. The intersection of special forms know. (Ishii 2011) system that provides pure water at of water with the shifting cycle of specific times and quantities. weather patterns is specific to a given Protecting Living Waters, Religious uses of plants are important region. These are understood and shared Cultural Knowledge, and like gathering of (certain plants) for through a ritual calendar that recog- Wilderness the kiva, the need for pure and nizes the role of weather in sustaining Traditional ecological knowledge as unpolluted sources of material. ecosystem services and in stories and expressed through the concept of living Impure water can have a bearing on prophesies that record cataclysmic waters and indigenous water steward- spiritual practice … you cannot events. For example, the montane ship strengthens cultural/ assume the threat is the same to all meadows that produce the medicinal community-based institutions, pre- tribes, since they have different herbaceous plants for the Hopi and serves long-term traditional ecological practices. (Ishii 2011) Navajo are dependent on snowmelt. knowledge, and points to the need to Alpine and subalpine plants are particu- conserve connected watersheds.

24 International Journal of Wilderness APRIL 2013 • Volume 19, Number 1 Cosmologies that articulate the balance dietary changes. The seriousness of Shallenberger. 2009. Ecosystem services in decision making: Time to between Father Sky and Mother Earth this loss should not be underestimated. deliver. Frontiers in Ecology and connect precipitation and weather If the fish are gone from their icy Environment 7(1): 21–28. cycles with water systems on earth. This homes, if the practice of indigenous Ecological Society of America. 2012. Traditional ecological knowledge. is a source of long-term knowledge fishing and agriculture stop, the inter- Retrieved August 1, 2012, from www. about weather and water sources: “A connected practical knowledge of the esa.org/tek/. Fagan, Carl. 2011. Keynote presentation at good number of American Indians and species and their place in the cycles of the George Wright Conference, March Alaska Natives have maintained living water will be lost. It isn’t possible 14, 2011, New Orleans, Louisiana. thousand- and hundred-years-old rela- to assess the tipping point for eco- Frank, Billy Jr. 2011. Personal interview with Linda Moon Stumpff, July 28. tionships with specific landscapes and system services unless the whole can be Ishii, Lomatewa. 2011. Personal interview seascapes. The knowledge embodied in described. Traditional ecological with Linda Moon Stumpff, July 8. Logan, Michael F. 2008. The Lessening these deep spatial relationships to knowledge is embedded in the land Stream. Tucson: The University of homelands have served indigenous peo- and living waters for each indigenous Arizona Press. ples well.” (Wildcat 2009, p. 3) nation that has participated, observed, Miller, Delbert. 2011. Personal interview with Linda Moon Stumpff, August 16. Indigenous markers identified and recorded information for thou- Peat, F. David. 2005. Blackfoot Physics. through traditional ecological knowl- sands of years (Stumpff 2006; Turner Boston: WeiserBooks. Sisk-Franco, Calleen. 2011. Personal interview edge operationalize the traditional and Clifton 2009). It is virtually irre- with Linda Moon Stumpff, March 23. values of indigenous stewardship into placeable and deserves consideration. Stumpff, Linda. 2006. Reweaving earth: An knowledge and practice. They point to New strategies are needed to protect indigenous perspective on restoration planning and NEPA. Environmental important strategies and alternatives these water-based ecosystem services Practice 8: 93–103. when the earth-sky balance reaches a connected to wilderness. This reaf- Turner, N. J., and Clifton, H. 2009. It’s so different today: Climate change and tipping point. This deserves consider- firms protection of traditional indigenous ways in British Columbia, ation in wilderness management along ecological knowledge and the cultures Canada. Global Environmental Climate with strategies to protect watersheds that carry it. The idea of living waters Change 19: 180–190. Weidner, Emily. 2011. Ecosystem services: adjacent to wilderness areas. Failure to engages deep discussions beyond land Just another catch phrase? International ensure provisioning and cultural ben- management boundaries. It paints an Journal of Wilderness 17(2): 33. Wildcat, Daniel R. 2009. Red Alert: Saving efits basic to indigenous cultures results ongoing mural so we can see ancient the Planet with Indigenous Knowledge. in the disappearance of bodies of scenarios, their contemporary evolu- Golden, CO: Fulcrum Publishing. knowledge, practices, and technologies tion, and the future of living water. LINDA MOON STUMPFF is a faculty member that emerged from a long evolution of at The Evergreen State College, 2700 interaction with wild places. Without References Daily, G. C., S. Polasky, J. Goldstein, P. M. Evergreen Parkway, Lab One, Olympia, WA enhanced protection, climate change Kareiva, H. A. Mooney, L. Pejchar, T. H. 98505, USA; email: stumpffL@evergreen. may result in forced migrations and Ricketts, J. Salzman, and R. edu.

Continued from ROCKY MOUNTAIN NATIONAL PARK, page 13

Buckholtz, C. W. 1983. Rocky Mountain National Park Service. 2010. NPS Stats, elkveg_mgmt_plan_feis.htm. National Park: A History. Boulder: National Park Service Public Use United States Forest Service. 2012. Land Colorado Associated University Press. Statistics Office. Retrieved from www. areas of the National Forest System. Cole, D. N. 1987. Effects of three seasons nature.nps.gov/stats. United States Forest Service. Retrieved of experimental trampling on five mon- Sellers, R. W. 1997. Preserving Nature in from www.fs.fed.us/land/staff/lar/ tane forest communities and a the National Parks. New Haven, CT: LAR2011/LAR2011_Book_A5.pdf. grassland in western Montana, USA. Yale University Press. Biological Conservation 40: 219–244. United States Department of the Interior. Lubow, B. C., F. J. Singer, T. L. Johnson, and 2007. Final environmental impact DAVID PETTEBONE is the wilderness pro- D. C. Bowden. 2002. Dynamics of statement, Elk and Vegetation gram manager for Rocky Mountain National interacting elk populations within and Management Plan, Rocky Mountain adjacent to Rocky Mountain National National Park, Colorado. Washington Park, 1000 Highway 36, Estes Park, CO Park. Journal of Wildlife Management DC: National Park Service. Retrieved 80517, USA; email: david_pettebone@nps. 66: 757–775. from www.nps.gov/romo/parkmgmt/ gov.

APRIL 2013 • Volume 19, Number 1 International Journal of Wilderness 25 SCIENCE & RESEARCH

The Application and Performance of Urine Diversion to Minimize Waste Management Costs Associated with Remote Wilderness Toilets

BY GEOFF HILL and GREG HENRY

Abstract: The diversion of urine away from fecal matter, prior to contact, has the potential to improve a wide variety of public toilet systems managed at remote wilderness sites. In order to evaluate the reduction in mass, cost, and impact associated with human waste management at the Kain Hut, Bugaboo Provincial Park, British Columbia, Canada, we designed and tested three alternative waste treatment systems, all of which involved the diversion of urine with urinals and urine-diversion seats. By quantifying the mass of excreta deposited per toilet use, we were able to compare the baseline excreta mass collected per use in an unmodified barrel fly-out toilet system with that collected in a barrel toilet modified with urine diversion (urinals and urine diversion seats), urine diversion with solar dehydration, and urine diversion with 110V evaporation.

Introduction tions, these standard methods of disposal should have little Parks Canada is aiming to increase annual wilderness visita- risk of ground or surface water pollution, pathogen trans- tion to 22.4 million visits in 2015 from 20.7 million visits mission, or negative visitor experience (Cilimburg et al. in 2008 (Parks Canada 2011). 2000). However, should any of these criteria not exist, the Total waste volume and waste risks associated with human waste outlined by Temple et al. management costs increase (1982), Cilimburg et al. (2000), Moore et al. (2010), and directly with increased visita- Banerjee (2011) should stimulate the implementation of tion. In wilderness areas waste management plans. experiencing low usage, Human waste management in wilderness, and especially human waste may be ade- alpine wilderness, is very challenging. Remote sites frequently quately managed by pack out, lack standard municipal infrastructure, including road access, cat holing (in areas with ade- sewerage, electricity, and water supply. Without these basic quate soil structure; Cilimburg services the removal or treatment of human waste can et al. 2000), or desiccation by become an expensive, intensive, offensive, and dangerous smearing (dry/hot; Ells and task. Additional challenges at alpine sites include short sum- Geoff Hill conducting research in Monz 2011). Under ideal con- mers, large diurnal fluctuations, frequent freeze-thaw events, Assiniboine Provincial Park, British Columbia, Canada. ditions of low use as well as extreme weather, shallow and weak soils, limited vegetation, suitable environmental condi- and challenging terrain (Weissenbacher et al. 2008). PEER REVIEWED

26 International Journal of Wilderness APRIL 2013 • Volume 19, Number 1 Nonetheless, the proper management The diversion of urine away from feces below the pit. Moore et al. (2010) of human waste is essential in order to is commonly practiced in Scandinavian provide an in-depth summary and prevent environmental contamination, countries, primarily in order to cap- calculation templates for separation ensure adequate user sanitation, and ture and reuse uncontaminated distances and risk tolerance. In light of meet legal requirements. nutrients in urine (Jönsson and the likely impacts of pit toilets on There are two approaches to waste Vinnerås 2007). However, there are a water quality, they may no longer be a management programs in parks and number of other beneficial uses of reasonable choice except where proof wilderness areas: pack out or provision urine diversion, especially when of vertical and horizontal separation of toilets. Pack out involves the collec- applied to remote site waste manage- from groundwater and surface/well tion of fecal matter in bags, transport ment toilet systems. water is suitable for soil type and sea- throughout the wilderness visit, and sonal flux in water table. It may be disposal at an approved septic waste The majority of urine possible to eliminate the pollution risk disposal facility. Toilet provision involves can be diverted from associated with pit toilets if urine is the construction, maintenance, collec- diverted away from the pit, and the pit tion, and either on-site treatment and fecal matter in barrel sealed with an impermeable liner. on-site disposal of end products or fly-out toilets, resulting North American mixed latrine- transport for off-site treatment. style composting toilets propose to Effective pack-out programs have a in considerable employ aerobic bacteria and microor- specific set of criteria (Robinson 2010 operation and ganisms to decompose excrement to the and White 2010). In all other wilder- point at which end products are “safe” ness areas, where annual visitation or maintenance cost for on-site discharge, making them an intensity exceeds the loading rate man- reduction. attractive alternative for pit-toilet sites. ageable by open defecation and cat However, the body of literature on holing, toilets are generally provided. Pit toilets are one of the least mixed latrine-style composting toilets, There are a variety of toilet systems expensive toilet systems to build and especially from field studies, indicates used in North American remote wilder- operate, as they function both as col- that they are unreliable in the produc- ness areas, including pit toilets, barrel lection and on-site treatment by relying tion of compost suitable for discharge collection toilets (barrel fly-out), com- on natural soil to attenuate pathogens into a public park environment posting toilets, and dehydrating toilets. and nutrients (Gunn and Odell 1995). (Matthews 2000; Redlinger et al. 2001; There is a wider selection of waste treat- Despite research indicating that >20 m Holmqvist and Stenstrom 2002; ment technologies available in Europe, (65.6 ft.) unsaturated soil must exist Guardabassi et al. 2003; Jenkins 2005; as wilderness travel in Europe is sup- below a pit toilet in order to effectively Jönsson and Vinnerås 2007; Tonner- ported and serviced by large networks remove viral pathogens from water 50 Klank et al. 2007; Jensen et al. 2009; of popular and high-use huts, but many m (160 ft.) horizontally away (Moore Hill and Baldwin 2012; Hill et al. of theses require running water or et al. 2010), common practices fre- 2013). Moreover, this style of com- power (Becker et al. 2007). quently either place the pit into posting toilet is expensive and hazardous Human excrement is composed of groundwater (McCrumb, pers. comm. to maintain as material must be removed urine and feces, the majority of which 2012) or require only 1–2 m (3.3–6.6 annually (Hill and Baldwin 2012). is urine. Urine, containing the majority ft.) of vertical separation from sea- With the diversion of urine away of nutrients and much lower pathogen sonal-high groundwater (Gunn and from feces, the feces become a viable content than feces, could conceivably Odell 1995). Horizontal separation to feedstock for invertebrate-driven be treated on-site with minimal surface water is reported by Gunn and decomposition (vermicomposting) and impacts by natural soil processes, Odell (1995) to be 10–20 m (32.8–65.6 the source of odor is eliminated (am- assuming leachate to groundwater was ft.), depending on soil type, but with monia from urea), making them far not allowed. Feces, having high organic more recent concerns over enteric virus superior in performance and hazard matter and pathogen content, is much survival and transport, these distances reduction (Hill and Baldwin 2012). more difficult to treat on-site, and in may be as high as 1,000–3,000 m However, there are currently no com- most cases – except where collected in (3,280–9,842 ft.), depending on soil mercially available public-utility pits – is removed for off-site treatment. type and depth of unsaturated soil urine-diversion systems available in

APRIL 2013 • Volume 19, Number 1 International Journal of Wilderness 27 North America. Urine-diversion seats intrusion of helicopters to regularly simplicity in quantifying excrement and urinals, commonly used in residential remove barrels from wilderness destina- collected in easily managed drums. In Scandinavia, require testing in a public tions is large and can cost thousands of order to evaluate and enumerate the environment to prove their worth. dollars per year at high-use sites reduction in excreta associated with In rare circumstances, dehydrating (Hanson, pers. comm. 2011). By each mass reduction treatment, we toilets and incinerating toilets can be diverting urine, which constitutes 75% established each treatment at a high-use found, but there is limited data on of daily excreta mass per capita, away backcountry wilderness site and peri- these systems in North American wil- from the collection barrel into a shallow odically measured the change in mass derness environments, and their ability septic field or wetland, considerable collected per average toilet use under needs to be evaluated prior to greater expense, intrusion, and risk associated each toilet treatment system. Based on market uptake. with helicopter removal of excreta could the reduction in mass, potential cost Alpine sites, generally not suitable be minimized. The remaining fecal savings were estimated using available for pit toilets (lack of soil) or com- matter, high in moisture, could be fur- financial data. posting toilets (too cold), are frequently ther minimized through desiccation. serviced with barrel fly-out collection The performance of urine diver- Methods toilets in Canada. Barrels are trans- sion by urine-diversion seat and urinal We chose the Conrad Kain Hut, ported annually by helicopter for off-site would be most effectively evaluated at a Bugaboo Provincial Park, British treatment. However, the expense and barrel fly-out toilet site because of the Columbia, elevation 2,100 m (6,890

Figure 1 – Alternative toilet waste management treatments at Kain Hut, Bugaboo Park, BC Canada. (A) Urine diversion toilet seat. (B) Urinal with 1-inch braided drain pipe to collection barrel. (C) Lower toilets with UD12V solar hot-air panel (i) above a 5W PV panel (ii). (D) Upper Kain Hut toilet insulated basement, 110V heater, and 110CFM exhaust fan positioned around a 200 L plastic barrel with double garbage bags to collect solids.

28 International Journal of Wilderness APRIL 2013 • Volume 19, Number 1 ft) above sea level, as a site to test three diversion (UD), which included both a toilets equally during their stay so as to alternative waste treatment technolo- men’s urinal and urine-diverting seat ensure an even and unbiased distribu- gies. The hut sits 5 km (3.1 miles) from EcoVita (Bedford, MA) (see tion of toilet use (e.g., potential from and 700 m (2,297 ft) above the Figures 1A and 1B). The second preference for left vs. right). trailhead, 45 km (28 miles) west of involved the urine-diversion system In order to determine mass reduc- Brisco, British Columbia. Accom- plus solar dehydration (UD12V). This tion performance with respect to the modating 40 overnight occupants, it is system transfers incoming solar radia- standard BFO, we recorded the used principally in the summer by tion to sensible heat inside a thin, flat, number of door counts at 6 to 24 hour hikers, climbers, and guides. It is one transparent panel; the hot air is then intervals over the course of the 3-to- of the more popular destinations in driven through ducting by a fan and 6-day sample periods. The interval and the Canadian alpine and is serviced 12V photovoltaic panel to the surface period length depended on the inten- with propane for cooking and lighting. of the excrement pile. The 0.5m2 solar sity of hut visitation; we increased Water from above the hut is piped hot-air panel, 100-cubic-feet-minute sampling intensity with increased visi- directly to plumbing in the hut for (CFM) fan, and 5W photovoltaic panel tation. We targeted 10–30 toilet uses cooking and drinking. Gray water is were purchased from Clear Dome Solar per interval in order to maximize the gravity fed to a solids-separating tank (San Diego, CA). We designed our number of intervals, while minimizing or direct to disposal field in a natural own solar dehydrating toilet system differentiable mass change at the col- sedge meadow overlying solid granitic based on Arnold’s (2010) design (see lection barrel below each toilet. Change parent material 30 m (98 ft.) below the Figure 1C). The third system com- in barrel mass was determined by hut. There are three outdoor toilets: bined urine diversion with a 110V weighing the collection barrel with a one close to the hut and two down a 800W heater and a 110V 110 CFM veterinary pet scale before and after short flight of stairs. Prior to our blower and exhaust fan inside an insu- each sampling. Door counters were experimental manipulations, the toilet lated chamber (UD110V) (see Figure EPC-MAG1 model made by Inter- close to the hut was used as a urine- 1D). The toilet closest to the Kain Hut Dimensional Technologies, Inc. (Hop only toilet; a mesh grate just below the was chosen for UD110V due to its Bottom, PA). A 10-second delay func- toilet surface dissuaded fecal matter proximity to 110V outlets. The base- tion was employed in order to eliminate additions. Urine from the urine-only ment chamber at this toilet was erroneous readings caused by wind or toilet was diverted into the gray-water insulated with 4-cm (1.6 in.) thick door-closing errors. We subtracted the disposal pipe. The hut and toilets sit Styrofoam boards. Data were collected unit’s final count from its initial and on a small bedrock knoll with unob- during two sample periods in August divided the difference by two in order structed solar exposure until and September, during which time to obtain the total toilet uses. Dividing mid-afternoon when Snowpatch Spire access to the other toilets was restricted the change in barrel mass by toilet use interrupts direct incoming solar radia- so as to account for all toilet uses. BFO, eliminated the effect of variable sam- tion. This site was chosen for research UD, and UD12V treatment systems pling interval length and established a as it was representative of other mod- were established at the lower two toilets robust quantifiable baseline in the erate to high-use alpine sites, was for three-to-six-day periods, according assessment of remote site waste treat- guaranteed to have adequate visitation to following schedule: BFO/BFO, ment performance. A simple mass to accumulate necessary excrement for August 14–18; BFO/UD12V, August balance equation was used to quantify measurement, and provided attractive 18–20; UD/UD12V, September 4–10; performance. Temperature and sanitation amenities, including run- BFO/UD, September 14–19. During humidity sensors connected to data ning water for hand washing and these sample periods, access to the loggers (HOBO U12, Onset Computer bathing – important for researchers UD110V upper toilet was restricted as Corp.) were used to collect ambient and assistants conducting this biohaz- much as possible without creating lines and treatment system air temperature ardous research. so as to maximize the use in the lower and relative humidity data. Wind We designed and assessed three toilets and ensure no preference or bias speed at the outlet of the ducting alternative toilet waste management was occurring in toilet selection (e.g., above the barrel was measured with a systems that could be retrofitted into upper toilet for urination, lower toilets Kestrel 4500 (Nielsen Kellerman). any standard barrel fly-out toilet for defecation). In addition, hut visi- All three alternative treatment sys- (BFO). The simplest system was urine tors were instructed to use all available tems were tested twice. BFO was tested

APRIL 2013 • Volume 19, Number 1 International Journal of Wilderness 29 three times. Combined, there were resentative 20-hour nine treatment runs conducted sample interval, the between August and September 2010. system increased the Each run was divided into three to six average basement tem- sample periods. Measurements with perature and reduced fewer than five toilet uses per sampling the relative humidity period were not used in order to by an average of reduce variability. +24.7oC and –44%, JMP 9 (SAS Institute) was used to respectively, up to a analyze our data. For all statistical maximum of +30.5oC tests, the alpha value was set at 0.05. and –63%. The system One outlier was removed from the averaged an actual Figure 2 – Mass of excreta mass per toilet use by treatment type (kg/use) o BFO treatment dataset after it was temperature of 31 C (wet solids). Data are measurements from each 24-hour interval over the discovered that a dysfunctional door and 17% relative summer. Significantly different treatments denoted with different letters (A, B, C) as determined by pair-wise comparisons using the Wilcoxon latch caused an overestimation of toilet humidity. method (a=0.05). use. No other alterations or transfor- Change in barrel mations were made or required for the mass per toilet use data analysis. data were compared between sampling ft.) in elevation to access the facility, periods within treatment type with and the main activities include hiking Results robust, rank sum, nonparametric and mountaineering, both of which The installation of the urine-diversion Wilcoxon Kruskal-Wallis tests; none of are likely to induce dehydration. Fecal seat and urinal required one hour (see the treatment runs was significantly mass reported here is on par with Figures 1A and 1B). The solar hot-air different. Therefore, in order to fecal mass of the average European/ system was tested prior to installation increase sample sizes, we grouped treat- North American (see Table 1). The on August 16 on an exposed meadow ment runs into treatment types (see fecal mass we reported might also be adjacent to the Kain Hut. The sky was Figure 2). The relationship between slightly elevated due to the assump- cloudless and winds were calm over mean change in excreta mass per toilet tion that all matter collected in the the course of the day. The solar hot-air use by treatment type was significant UD treatment was fecal matter; it is panel consistently raised the air tem- (p<0.0001), with largest mass associ- likely that a small fraction of urine perature and reduced the relative ated with BFO toilets (median = 0.27 bypassed the urine-diverting seat and humidity for eight and a half hours by kg/use; 0.60 lb./use), followed by UD urinal. If the efficiency of urine diver- an average of +10oC and –14%, respec- (median = 0.11 kg/use; 0.24 lb./use), sion was 90%, the fecal mass/toilet tively, with a maximum heating of UD12V (median = 0.086 kg/use; 0.19 use would drop to 99 g/use (3.5 +15oC and drying of –19%. Wind lb./use), and UD110V (median = ounces/use) and the urine mass/use speeds at the outlet of the vent varied 0.009 kg/use; 0.02 lb./use). would increase 176 g/use (6.2 ounces/ from 0–3 m/second (0-9.8 ft/ second). use), bringing our values closer into The solar hot-air system required eight Discussion the middle range of these studies. hours to plan and install at the lower The median values of urine mass/ Our results indicate that with the toilet site (see Figure 1C). Over the toilet use (feces mass/toilet use sub- addition of a urine-diversion seat and course of two sample periods spanning tracted from excreta mass/event), urinal, up to 0.16 kg (0.35 lb.) can be four days, the treatment consistently feces mass/toilet use (UD mass/use), eliminated from the barrel fly-out raised the air temperature and reduced and excreta mass/toilet use (BFO system. This equates to a 60% reduc- the relative humidity for 6.8 hours per mass/use) were found comparable to tion in barrel fly-out mass. Equipped day. The hot-air panel produced a values from other locations (see Table with urine-diversion equipment, each maximum of 3 m/second (9.8 ft/ 1). Urine volume reported here was barrel will hold 2.5 times as many second) air flow, heating of +7oC, and slightly lower than for other studies, excrement deposits as compared with drying of –18%. but this could be explained by the standard all-in-one barrel collection UD110V system assembly and remote location. All site visitors are systems, greatly reducing the total testing required 15 days. During a rep- required to ascend >1000 m (3,280 numbers of barrels filled at each site.

30 International Journal of Wilderness APRIL 2013 • Volume 19, Number 1 A urine-diversion seat and plastic Table 1—Range/Median Urine, Feces, and Excreta Mass Per urinal costs less than $200CDN and is Toilet Use. Modified from Schouw et al. (2002) simple and quick to install. The urinal was easier to maintain than the urine- Location Urine range Feces range Excreta range References diversion seat, which occasionally (g/toilet use) (g/toilet use) (g/toilet use) became clogged with toilet paper. After Vietnam 164–240 87–93 198–267 Polprasert et al. (1981) such events the toilet was inoperable in Schouw et al. (2002) and posed a health hazard for other Developing Feachem et al. (1983) toilet users and required cleaning, nations 240 87–347 290–310 in Schouw et al. (2002) which was done by the on-site hut Europe/ Feachem et al. (1983) custodian. More research and develop- North America 240 67–133 270 in Schouw et al. (2002) ment are needed to develop low Thailand 120–240 80–267 188–306 Schouw et al. (2002) maintenance public-utility urine- diversion systems (Shiskowski 2009). Canada This study * * There are two commercial urine diver- backcountry 160 110 270 sion products that are likely to require *Assumes UD efficiency was 100%. less regular maintenance: an inclined Table 1 – Range/median urine, feces, and excreta mass per toilet use. Modified from Schouw et al. (2002) by dividing reported generation rate of urine, feces, and excreta per person per day by the average number of foot-operated treadmill (Ecosphere urination events per person per day (5), average number of fecal deposits per day (1.5), and estimated average Technologies, France) and the adhe- number of excreta events per day (5). sion and gutter systems (NatSol Ltd., Wales), but neither is available com- dration is a viable waste reduction being closest to the hut and likely used mercially in North America. The first treatment. Given labor and capital costs most frequently for quick urination author has filled the need for public- to set up and take down the dehy- trips at night and the lowest number utility urine-diversion technology in drating equipment and variable weather of sample intervals. These factors lead North America by designing two conditions that would reduce the effi- us to place low confidence in the data system: the TTS-Basic and the TTS- cacy of the dehydrating system, we do from this treatment and the practi- Mechanical (Toilet Tech Solutions, not think dehydration through this cality of this waste management Squamish, BC), but testing is required type of retrofit is likely to be a reliable system. Instead, we suggest further to verify long-term performance. solution for these alpine areas. More research should be conducted on com- Urine could be diverted into pre- effective commercial toilet systems mercially available dehydrating toilet existing gray-water systems for dilution maximize the surface area of fecal matter systems, which reportedly can dry and to reduce the chance of struvite and the time it is exposed to a desic- material with only solar energy, to the precipitation and potential flow con- cating environment; the best example point at which it can be burned on-site striction. Sites without a preexisting of this is the cloth bagging carousel (Neau, pers. comm. 2012). gray-water treatment system would systems developed by Ecosphere Fecal matter must have <15% need to design and construct a leach Technologies where a urine-diverting moisture content before it is easily field according to local septic field treadmill moves fecal matter onto the burnable (Pretzsch, pers. comm. 2010); codes to ensure sufficient soil surface surface of a rotating carousel (where applying this to the average wet fecal area to attenuate nutrients and low cloth bags hang), ensuring subsequent deposit measure here of 110 g/toilet use levels of pathogens given estimate fecal deposits do not cover up the most (3.9 ounce/use), the estimated desic- flows of urine (Steinfeld 2007). For recent additions, and even those buried cated end product would need to be sites that generate more than three bar- can desiccate through the cloth fabric. <16.5 g/toilet use (0.58 ounce/use), rels of excrement per year (the max The UD110V treatment had the which is slightly higher than the result load of a Bell 407), installing a UD lowest mean excreta mass per toilet use obtained in the UD110V of 8.6 g/toilet system could reduce the total cost of but is the most inappropriate system use (0.3 ounce/use). However, we barrel removal by 60%. for most wilderness toilets due to its attempted to burn the end product of With nonsignificant differences reliance on electrical power and con- the UD110V treatment on-site with a between UD and UD12V, we are stant maintenance. This toilet also had portable SmartAsh cyclonic incinerator unable to conclude whether solar dehy- the greatest degree of sampling error, by Elastec (Carmi, IL) without success,

APRIL 2013 • Volume 19, Number 1 International Journal of Wilderness 31 casting doubt on the ability to burn below 430 kg/ha (384 lbs./acre) in Urine diversion can also render feces desiccated fecal matter. More research is grassland soils to ensure ammonia does into a suitable feedstock for vermi- needed to verify the claims that this not build up in the soil, thereby inhib- composting (Yadav et al. 2010) and material can be incinerated on-site. If iting microbial processes as occurs presumably other forms of inverte- validated, this treatment would result in with high concentrations of cattle brate decomposition. Vermicomposting the lowest mass/toilet use, management urine (Orwin et al. 2010). These find- is a low-temperature process that exposure, and off-site transport cost. ings come from experimental studies requires very little management, Diverting urine away from the col- simulating the effects of climate making it suitable for treatment of lections barrel resulted in a much change, snow-cover change, or land- fecal matter at wilderness locations, thicker residual material, which did not use change. To the best of our reducing total mass, volume, pathogen slosh when dragged out from under the knowledge, no studies on the impacts content, and handling risk (Yadav et toilet. This is an important aspect of of human urine diversion have been al. 2010; Hill and Baldwin 2012). waste management, as park visitors are conducted, and more research on this However, urine-diversion seats proved required to exchange full barrels for topic is necessary before urine diver- unreliable as a public utility. empty ones at many wilderness sites sion becomes common practice. managed by the Alpine Club of Canada. Many wilderness destinations in Acknowledgments Full barrels of conventional excrement the Canadian Rocky Mountains are The research was supported by grants are predominantly urine and are diffi- used for winter travel. Fortunately, from Mountain Equipment CO-OP, cult and hazardous to handle but easier nutrient uptake even occurs in winter the Alpine Club of Canada, Backcountry for the septic truck to evacuate. The in both alpine and Arctic tundra under Energy Environment Solutions (BEES), evacuation of the urine-diverted barrel snowpacks (Bilbrough and Welker and the Natural Sciences and took four times as long (20 minutes as 2000; Schimel et al. 2004). There is Engineering Research Council opposed to a standard 5 minutes) and some concern with frozen urine causing (NSERC). We thank Knut Kitching, required an equal volume of added blockages in pipes or at the discharge Benard Faure, ACC hut custodians, Dr. water to waste. The success of this point, but pilot projects have demon- Sue Baldwin, Dr. Anthony Lau, and Joe step was critical in proving the benefits strated this concern is limited when Arnold for their assistance. of urine diversion in this context. plumbing runs are short, piping is of References Septic truck costs ($225CDN/hr.) are appropriate diameter, and discharge Arnold, J. 2010. Solar dehydrating toilets in much lower than helicopter costs occurs under snow (insulating) (Neau, Rocky Mountain National Park. Paper pers. comm. 2012). presented at the Exit Strategies: ($2,000CDN/hr). Many septic trucks Managing Human Waste in the Wild carry water tanks. Nevertheless, until a Conference, Golden, Colorado. reliable urine-diversion system becomes Conclusion Banerjee, G. 2011. Underground pollution travel from leach pits of on-site sanita- available, urine should be diverted only The majority of urine can be diverted tion facilities: A case study. Clean from urinals to prevent toilet-seat clog- from fecal matter in barrel fly-out toi- Technology and Environmental Policy 13: 489–497. ging issues. lets, resulting in considerable operation Becker, W., M. A. Schoen, and B. Wett. Discharged urine will have a plant and maintenance cost reduction. 2007. Solar-thermic sewage sludge fertilization effect favoring grasses, Further reduction in moisture content treatment in extreme alpine environments. Water Science and Technology sedges, and deciduous shrubs and is by dehydration was not efficient, but 56(11): 1–9. not likely to enhance invasive species further research on commercial dehy- Bilbrough, C. J., J.M. Welker and B. Bowman. 2000. Early spring nitrogen uptake by (Bowman et al. 1995; Wang et al. dration systems may prove otherwise. snow-covered plants: A comparison of 2010; Ells and Monz 2011). Urine diversion can also benefit the arctic and alpine plant function under Competition for nutrients found in other common toilet systems. If pit the snowpack. Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research 32(4): 404–411. urine – by both microbes and plants toilets were modified to isolate fecal Bowman, W. D., T. A. Teodose, M. C. Fisk. – is strong, and risk of leaching matter from groundwater and urine 1995. Physiological and production responses of plant growth forms to nitrogen into water bodies is low if were diverted and discharged to sur- increases in limiting resources in alpine unsaturated soil is discharged into, face aerobic soil, the risk of pathogen tundra: Implications for differential even in alpine and Arctic soils (Brooks transmission to groundwater would be community response to environmental change. Oecologia 101: 217–227. et al. 1996; Jones and Murphy 2007). eliminated without much increase in Brooks, P.D., Williams, M.W., and Schmidt, Nitrogen loading rates should be kept operation and maintenance costs. S., 1996. Microbial activity under alpine

32 International Journal of Wilderness APRIL 2013 • Volume 19, Number 1 snowpacks, Niwot Ridge, Co. Environmental Health 8: 57. mitigation strategies. Paper presented Biogeochemistry 32 (2): 93-113. Jönsson, H. and B. Vinnerås. 2007. at WCW Conference and Trade Show, Cilimburg, A., C. Monz, and S. Kehoe. 2000. Experiences and suggestions for col- Winnipeg, Manitoba. Wildland recreation and human waste: lection systems for source-separating Steinfeld, C. 2007. Liquid Gold: The Lore and A review of problems, practices, and urine and feces. Water Science and Logic of Using Urine to Grow Plants. concerns. Environmental Management Technology 56(5): 71–76. New Bedford, MA: EcoWaters Books. 25(6): 587–698. Jones, D.L. and Murphy, D.V. 2007. Microbial Temple, K. L., A. K. Camper, and R. C. Ells, M. D., and C. A. Monz. 2011. The con- response time to sugar and amino acid Lucas. 1982. Potential health hazards sequences of backcountry surface additions to soil. Soil Biology & from human wastes in wilderness. disposal of human waste in an alpine, Biochemistry 39: 2178–2182. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation temperate, and arid environment. Matthews, W. 2000. Waterless composting 37(6): 357–359. Journal of Environmental Management toilets in NSW. Australian Alps Best Tønner-Klank, L., Møller, J., Forslund, A., et 92(4): 1334–1337. Practice Human Waste Management al. 2007. Microbiological assessments Guardabassi, L., A. Dalsgaard, and M. Workshop. of compost toilets: in situ measure- Sobsey. 2003. Occurrence and survival Moore, C., and Institute of Environmental ments and laboratory studies on the of viruses in composted human feces. Science and Research (N.Z.) staff. survival of fecal microbial indicators Sustainable Urban Renewal and 2010. Guidelines for Separation using sentinel chambers. Waste Wastewater Treatment 23. Danish Distances Based on Virus Transport Management 27: 1144-1154. Environmental Protection Agency, between On-Site Domestic Wastewater Wang, C., R. Long, Q. Wang, W. Liu, Z. Jing, Danish Ministry of the Environment. Systems and Wells. ESR Communicable and L. Zhang. 2010. Fertilization and Gunn, I. and Odell, A. 1995. Wastewater Disease Centre, Porirua, New Zealand. litter effects on the functional group servicing for remote area recreational Orwin, K. H., J. E. Bertram, T. J. Clough, et biomass, species diversity of plants, facilities. Masters thesis, School of al. 2010. Impact of bovine urine depo- microbial biomass, and enzyme activity Engineering, the University of sition on soil microbial activity, biomass, of two alpine meadow communities. Auckland, NZ. and community structure. Applied Soil Plant Soil 331: 377–389. Hill, G. B., and S. A. Baldwin. 2012. Ecology 44, 89–100. Weissenbacher, N., E. Mayr, T. Niederberger, Vermicomposting toilets, an alternative Parks Canada. 2011. Parks Canada Agency C. Aschauer, S. Lebersorger, et al. to latrine style microbial composting Corporate Plan. Retrieved April 1, 2012, 2008. Alpine infrastructure in Central toilets, prove far superior in mass from www.pc.gc.ca/docs/pc/plans/ Europe: Integral evaluation of waste- reduction, pathogen destruction, com- plan2011-2012/sec01/index.aspx. water treatment systems at mountain post quality, and operational cost. Redlinger. T., J. Graham, V. Corella-Barud, et refuges. Water Science and Technology Waste Management 32: 1811–1820. al. 2001. Survival of fecal coliforms in 57(12): 2017–2022. Hill, G.B., Baldwin, S.A., Vinnerås, B. 2013. dry-composting toilets. Applied and White, E. 2010. The Mt. Shasta Human Composting toilets a misnomer: Environmental Microbiology 4036–4040. Waste pack-out system. Paper pre- Excessive ammonia from Urine inhibits Robinson, R. 2010. Evolution of Denali sented at Exit Strategies conference in microbial activity yet is insufficient in waste practices. Paper presented at Golden, Colorado. sanitizing the end-product. Journal of Exit Strategies conference in Golden, Yadav, K. D., V. Tare, and M. M. Ahammed. Environmental Management. (in press). Colorado. 2010. Vermicomposting of source-sepa- Holmqvist, A., and A. T. Stenstrom. 2002. Schimel J. P. et al. 2004. Increased snow rated human faeces for nutrient recycling. Survival of Ascaris suum ova, indicator depth affects microbial activity and Waste Management 30, 50–56. bacterial and Salmonella typhimurium nitrogen mineralization in two arctic phage 28B in mesophilic composting of tundra communities. Soil Biology & household waste. EcoSanRes, Stockholm Biochemistry 36(2):217-227. GEOFF HILL, Department of Geography, Environment Institute, Sweden. Schouw, N. L., S. Danteravanich, H. University of British Columbia, 1984 West Jenkins, J. 2005. The humanure handbook. Mosbaek, and J. C.. 2002. Composition Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T1Z2, Canada; email: White River Junction, VT: Chelsea of human excreta – A case study from [email protected]. Green Publishing. southern Thailand. The Science of the Jensen, P. K. M., P. D. Phuc, F. Konradsen, Total Environment 286: 155–166. et al. 2009. Survival of Ascaris eggs Shiskowski, D. 2009. Global nitrogen man- GREG HENRY, Department of Geography, and hygienic quality of human excreta agement – The role of wastewater University of British Columbia, Vancouver, in Vietnamese composting latrines. management and urine separation as BC; email: [email protected].

APRIL 2013 • Volume 19, Number 1 International Journal of Wilderness 33 SCIENCE & RESEARCH

Motivations to Visit Designated Wilderness at Cumberland Island National Seashore

BY MATTHEW T. J. BROWNLEE and JEFFREY C. HALLO

Abstract: Evaluating wilderness visitors’ motivations to use a specific area is important because effective management requires understanding visitors’ opinions and behavioral drivers. However, most wilderness managers do not possess fundamental information about the characteristics of their visiting population, including their motivations for use. In 2010, researchers conducted a study of visitors (n = 329) to Cumberland Island National Seashore (CUIS) wilderness to explore their motivations to visit. Results indicate people use CUIS wilderness for five distinct reasons and that these motivations relate to visitors’ characteristics, elements of the visitor experience, and perceived crowding. The authors discuss two implications stemming from this study: (1) using motivations to visit as one method to inform site-specific recreational zoning, and (2) using motivations to assess visitors’ potential responses to site changes and management action.

n 2010, researchers conducted a study of visitors to Cumberland Island National Seashore (CUIS) designated wilderness area to explore motivations to visit and Iwhether these motivations related to visitors’ residence proximity to CUIS, repeat visitation level, trip length, and perceived crowding. Evaluating motivations to visit an area is important because effective management of outdoor recreation, in areas such as designated wilderness, requires

understanding visitors’ opinions and behavioral drivers Matthew T. J. Brownlee. Photo by Jeffrey C. Hallo at Denali National (Hendee and Dawson 2002; Manning 2011). However, Matthew Brownlee. Park, Alaska. Photo by Martha wilderness visitors are diverse, and one example of diversity Manning. is represented in the types and degrees of motivations to visit (Cole 2012). According to Cole (2012), many motivations Regardless of the diversity of motivations, some vari- to visit exist, but some are more notable than others. Some ables are common (although to different degrees) among all people visit for spiritual experiences (Heintzman 2010, wilderness visitors, such as residence proximity to the area, 2012) or personal growth (Priest and Gass 2005), to experi- repeat visitation to the area, and trip length. These elements ence adventure and risk (Brown and Haas 1980), to socialize are often recorded on wilderness permits and are readily with friends (Anderson et al. 2008), or because of accessi- available to managers. Understanding how these elements bility or cost (Ewert 1998). relate to motivations is one way managers can identify

PEER REVIEWED

34 International Journal of Wilderness APRIL 2013 • Volume 19, Number 1 potential support for management tial category includes motivations such enhance self-identity (Williams, actions in response to environmental as a desire to experience nature, adven- Haggard, and Schreyer 1989) and pro- and experiential conditions. For ture, risk, exploration and discovery, vide opportunities for spiritual example, Andereck and Knopf (2007) and to receive inspiration (Dawson et al. outcomes (Heintzman 2012). found that outdoor recreationists 1998; Ewert 1998). Others indicate that seeking social experiences in wilder- challenge and closeness to nature are Research Questions ness settings perceived impacts to important experiential factors in wilder- Based on gaps in the literature and water, soil, and experiential conditions ness experiences (Anderson et al. 2008; managers’ need to understand motiva- (e.g., crowding) differently from those Patterson et al. 1998). tions to visit CUIS, the researchers motivated to visit for natural or educa- External factors such as visitors’ investigated three primary questions: tional reasons. residence proximity to designated wil- R1: Do visitors possess different moti- Although the connections between derness or trip costs may motivate use vations to use designated wilderness visitor and trip attributes (such as resi- of a specific area. Ewert (1998) found at CUIS? If so, what are the differ- dence proximity, repeat visitation, trip that accessibility and low cost were ences in their types and levels of length, perceptions of crowding) and identified as strong motivators for visi- motivations? motivations have management implica- tors. Also, residence proximity to a R2: What are the relationships between tions, these relationships are not fully wilderness area or natural park is influ- motivations to visit and residence understood. For example, Hall, ential when making decisions to visit proximity, repeat visitation, and Seekamp, and Cole (2010) indicate (Fesenmaier 1998; Perdue 1986). trip length? that although some studies identify Interpersonal factors, such as R3: Do different categories of motiva- motivations to visit, most do not spending time with family or friends, tions (e.g., interpersonal, external) examine the connections between moti- are salient motivators for engaging in relate to visitors’ perceptions of vations and other variables (such as activities in natural environments crowding? perceptions of crowding). Other (Russell 2009). Although, experiencing researchers contend the relationships solitude is a hallmark of wilderness Description of the Study between motivations to visit, repeat experiences (Hendee & Dawson 2002; Area visitation, and residence proximity Nash 2001), social interaction has been CUIS is Georgia’s largest barrier island. should be further investigated (Anderson found more important for some nature- Access to the island is by boat only, et al. 2008). Cole and Wright 2004 based recreationists (Anderson et al. and most visitors reach CUIS via a report only 24% of wilderness man- 2008). Also social interaction can be National Park Service (NPS) conces- agers possess fundamental information related to resident proximity, with indi- sionaire ferry service. The island is about the characteristics of their users, viduals who live closer to the outdoor approximately 17 miles (27.4 km) including motivations to visit. recreation area reporting social interac- long, and 3 miles (4.8 km) wide, with Therefore, this study addresses tion as significantly more important more than 50 miles (80.6 km) of two needs. First, it provides CUIS (Fesenmaier 1988; Perdue 1986). hiking trails traversing sand dunes, managers with information about wil- A substantial amount of literature maritime forests, salt marshes, and derness visitors, including their indicates that people may be moti- freshwater swamps (see Figure 1). The different motivations to visit. Second, vated to visit wilderness to facilitate wilderness area on Cumberland Island it helps address the gap in the litera- intrapersonal benefits, such as spiritual was designated in 1982 and encom- ture regarding the relationships among growth, personal reflection, and resto- passes 9,886 acres (4,002 ha), which is motivations to visit, residence prox- ration of self. Fredrickson and managed by the NPS (CUIS 2010). imity, repeat visitation, trip length, Anderson (1999) found that individ- Backpacking is the main visitor activity, and perceptions of crowding. uals in a structured trip experienced and the area houses numerous estab- empowerment, feelings of hopeful- lished campsites. Motivations to Visit ness, and spiritual inspiration. Ewert Wilderness (1998) indicates that some reported a Methods Motivations can be segmented into spiritual experience as a motivating Researchers mailed a paper question- experiential, external, interpersonal, and factor for visiting wilderness. Others naire to past CUIS wilderness visitors intrapersonal categories. The experien- assert that wilderness experiences can (2008–2009) using a three-stage

APRIL 2013 • Volume 19, Number 1 International Journal of Wilderness 35 During the final step, the researchers used a series of multiple regressions to assess the relationships among motivation categories, residence proximity, repeat visitation, trip length, and perceptions of crowding. The geographic center of respondent zip codes was used to calculate residence proximity (as a function of driving distance to the fer- ryboat departure). Repeat visitation was measured using a dichotomous variable, which identified respondents who visited more than once in the last five years (i.e., frequent and infrequent visitors). A five-year frame was used because it helped distinguish a recent recurring visitor in an objective and comparable manner. Following practices in other studies (e.g., Manning 2007), visitors’ perceived crowding at CUIS was mea- Figure 1 – Photo by J. Adam Beeco. sured using a nine-point Likert scale (1 = not crowded at all; 9 = extremely multiple mailing procedure (Dillman in the literature (e.g., experiential, inter- crowded). 2007). Postal addresses were obtained personal, intrapersonal, external). The from backcountry permits, and the research team followed standard proce- Results questionnaire contained multiple dures (e.g., Fabrigar et al. 1999; As a result of the mailing procedure, inquiries about perceptions of crowding Tabachnick and Fidell 2007; Vaske 329 of the 489 eligible participants and a matrix of 18 items that mea- 2008) to evaluate the measurement returned a completed questionnaire, sured motivations to visit. These 18 properties of (1) each item (e.g., factor yielding a response rate of 67.3%. The items have been used in previous loadings and variance), (2) the entire EFA results indicate that visitors studies with wilderness visitors (e.g., scale (e.g., reliability coefficients, per- potentially consider five categories that Ewert 1998), and the current cent of variance explained), and (3) are divided conceptually and statisti- researchers suspected the items repre- each item’s relationship with other items cally when reporting motivations. sented multiple motivation categories. (e.g., cross loadings and convergent Although diverse motivations exist Also, these items represented a diverse, validity). Next, each respondent was beyond what is presented here, the five well-accepted understanding of existing assigned an individual score (i.e., a categories identified in this study align wilderness motivations. Respondents factor score) for each motivation cate- well with the motivation categories in rated each motivation item using a gory by summing an individual’s the wilderness literature (experiential, four-point scale anchored with “did response to each item and dividing by external, interpersonal, and intraper- not influence (1)” and “strongly influ- the number of items. As a result, each sonal). Specifically, people are enced (4).” The researchers used a respondent received his/her own score motivated to visit CUIS to (1) experi- four-point scale without a neutral cat- representing the importance of each ence nature (experiential), (2) realize egory in order to influence respondents motivation category. This is a concep- personal benefits (intrapersonal), (3) to provide a directional response. tual description of computing factor participate in social relationships During data analysis, the researchers scores. Factor scoring also uses the dif- (interpersonal), (4) seek adventure first performed an Exploratory Factor ferences in loadings to help account for (experiential), and (5) capitalize on Analysis (EFA) to assess how well the unequal contributions from each item convenience (external). The impor- 18 motivation items represented dif- (i.e., weighted sum scores; DiStefano, tance of each motivation category is ferent categories of motivations found Zhu, and Mindrila 2009). significantly different among visitors

36 International Journal of Wilderness APRIL 2013 • Volume 19, Number 1 Table 1 – Exploratory Factor Analysis results with the means proximity), the more influential using and standard deviations of motivations to visit. the area for adventure is reported as being in deciding to visit (b = 0.14, p l* M (SD)b RHOa % of variance < 0.05). Visitors with higher residence (Eigen) proximity to CUIS reported conve- Nature (experiential) — 3.69 (0.40)b 0.81 11.49% (2.30) nience as more influential in their View scenery 0.60 3.79 (0.43) — — decision to visit (b = 0.20, p < 0.01). Close to nature 0.66 3.79 (0.44) — — Pristine, clean area 0.60 3.71 (0.54) — — The majority of respondents Absence of human-made objects 0.51 3.56 (0.72) — — (60.5%) reported visiting more than Wildlife watching 0.67 3.52 (0.73) — — once in the last five years (i.e., frequent Personal benefits (intrapersonal) — 3.12 (0.70)b 0.78 8.22% (1.65) visitors). Using CUIS wilderness for Solitude 0.63 3.70 (0.65) — — personal benefits seems more impor- Escape routine 0.66 3.33 (0.83) — — tant for frequent visitors than Slow my mind down 0.83 3.00 (1.02) — — infrequent users (b = 0.12, p < 0.05). Spiritual experience 0.56 2.47 (1.18) — — The same appears true for the catego- Social (interpersonal) — 2.94 (1.02)b 0.77 6.32% (1.26) Do something with others 0.84 2.98 (1.20) — — ries of nature and adventure, which are Recreate with family and friends 0.80 2.93 (1.20) — — more important for frequent visitors Adventure (experiential) — 2.80 (0.79) b 0.83 26.65% (5.33) b= 0.15, p < 0.05; b = 0.12, p < 0.05, Adventure 0.57 3.60 (0.70) — — respectively). Risk and challenge 0.77 2.92 (1.05) — — Visitors reported spending one to Personal achievement 0.80 2.70 (1.13) — — eight days in CUIS wilderness, with an Preparation for future trip 0.72 2.20 (1.15) — — average trip length of 3.23 days (SD = Convenience (external) — 2.12 (0.86) b 0.84 6.70% (1.34) Low cost 0.71 2.73 (1.07) — — 1.26). Visitors with shorter trip lengths Easy to get to 0.83 1.91 (1.06 — — reported social motivations as more Short drive 0.79 1.77 (1.01) — — important (b = –0.16, p < 0.05). No Note: l = standardized factor loadings derived using a Maximum Likelihood Extraction with an other motivation categories were sig- Oblique Promax Rotation; rotated solution displayed. nificantly related to trip length. aReliability coefficient RHO is an adjusted Cronbach’s Alpha to account for unequal contributions from the items. The RHO for the entire scale was 0.91. Wilderness at CUIS is managed bAll composite means for wilderness use motivation categories differ significantly from each other at p < 0.01. to provide opportunities for solitude, and therefore visitors’ perceptions of (see Table 1; all composite means for of the respondents reported living crowding is important evaluative feed- motivation categories differ signifi- within 268 miles of CUIS. Only the back regarding desired management cantly from each other at p < 0.01). motivation categories of adventure and goals. Visitors reported experiencing Visiting for experiential reasons (e.g., convenience were significantly related limited crowding during their experi- nature: to view scenery, be away from to residence proximity. The closer a ence (M = 2.96 out of 9; SD = 2.86). human-made objects, watch wildlife) visitor lives to CUIS (higher residence However, visitors who expressed was reported as the highest motivation (M = 3.69) and visiting for external Table 2 – Relationships between residence proximity, repeat motivations (e.g., convenience: low visitation, trip length, and wilderness use motivations. cost, short drive) was least important M Residence proximity Repeat visitation Trip length ( = 2.12). Interpersonal motivations b (t) b (t) b (t) (e.g., social: do something with others, Nature — 0.15* (2.46) — recreate with family and friends) had Personal benefits — 0.12* (1.97) — the largest standard deviation (1.02), Social — — — 0.16** (–2.58) indicating that large differences about Adventure 0.14* (2.36) 0.12* (1.96) — the importance of this category exist Convenience 0.20** (3.01) — — 2 among visitors. R 0.19 0.24 0.21 The mean residence distance from Note: b = standardized regression coefficients; t = t-values; obtained from a series of multiple regressions. *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01 CUIS was 354 driving miles, and 50%

APRIL 2013 • Volume 19, Number 1 International Journal of Wilderness 37 experiencing nature as important to opportunities, such as fishing, sailing, reported experiencing more crowding. their visit reported a higher perception and kayaking. Also near CUIS are This suggests that wilderness visitors of crowding at CUIS (b = 0.24, p < large urban areas such as Atlanta, with these specific motivations may be 0.05). Visitors reporting personal ben- Georgia, and Jacksonville, Florida. more sensitive to crowding. efits and adventure as important Visitors residing close to CUIS may Additionally, residence proximity and motivations reported higher perceived visit to continue their nature-based trip length did not relate to perceived crowding (b = 0.14, p < 0.05; b = adventure aspirations (e.g., kayaking crowding in this study. This suggests 0.16, p < 0.05, respectively). Residence and sailing) and also escape these met- that managers and researchers may proximity and trip length were not ropolitan areas. need to evaluate visitors’ motivations significantly related to visitors’ percep- Frequent visitors were more likely to fully understand perceptions of tion of crowding (p > 0.05). than infrequent visitors to report the crowding. Although this study revealed dif- Table 3 – Relationships among wilderness use motivations, ferent categories of motivations and residence proximity, trip length, and perceived crowding. correlations with visitor and trip char- Perceived crowding acteristics, limitations do exist. First, b (t) the study is cross-sectional, repre- Nature 0.24* (3.13) senting a set of responses regarding * Personal benefits 0.14 (1.87) one experience. It is likely that some Social — Adventure 0.16* (2.13) motivation categories may vary in Convenience — importance during different visits by Residence proximity — Trip length — the same individual (e.g., backpacking R2 0.19 as a family in the spring season vs. Note: b = standardized regression coefficients; t = t-values; obtained from a multiple regression; backpacking solo in the fall season). perceived crowding was measured using a nine-point Likert scale (1 = not crowded at all; 9 = extremely crowded). *p < 0.05. Second, respondents received the questionnaire at home after their visit, and Discussion categories of nature, adventure, and this delay in time and distance from The results identified in this study personal benefits as important factors CUIS may influence recollections and align with the motivation categories in influencing their decision to visit perceptions. Third, the motivation the previous literature regarding wil- CUIS. Perhaps individuals with more items investigated here were adopted derness experiences (experiential, frequent visits to CUIS wilderness from a previous study and do not rep- external, interpersonal, and intraper- have realized the experiential and resent the full breadth of motivation sonal). This study also found that intrapersonal benefits of wilderness categories. Finally, potentially impor- people are motivated to visit CUIS experiences and are therefore moti- tant visitor and trip characteristics wilderness to (1) experience nature vated by these factors to return. Visitors were not included in this study (e.g., (experiential), (2) realize personal ben- with short trip lengths reported that age, education, miles hiked, days spent efits (intrapersonal), (3) participate in recreating with family and friends or annually in wilderness areas), which social relationships (interpersonal), (4) doing something with others influ- may have relationships with motiva- seek adventure (experiential), and (5) enced their decision to visit. This may tion categories. capitalize on convenience (external). indicate visitors with short wilderness Visitors who live close to CUIS trips may focus more on the intra- Implications for reported adventure and convenience as group processes and social outcomes Management significant motivators to visit. The than on resource conditions or the Management of designated wilderness relationship between the importance physical components of the activity. is bound by numerous legal and fiscal of adventure and residence proximity Crowding at high-use wilderness considerations (Hendee and Dawson could be a function of the recreation areas is often cited as a primary man- 2002), and it is not always feasible or focus and metropolitan development agement concern (Cole and Hall 2007) appropriate to incorporate visitor in the region. The coastal region where and in this study, visitors who expressed motivations or preferences into all CUIS is located possesses an abun- nature, personal benefits, and adven- management decisions. However, this dance of outdoor recreation ture as important motivations to visit study provides two major implications

38 International Journal of Wilderness APRIL 2013 • Volume 19, Number 1 challenging trails and component of convenience). If visitors remote camping loca- are motivated to visit to experience tions, with limited nature, they may be more sensitive to crowding, to accom- crowding resulting from increased back- modate these desires. country use or encroaching development. The social cate- Also, visitors who are motivated by gory was related to experiential (e.g., being close to nature) shorter trip lengths, and intrapersonal categories (e.g., spiri- and convenience was tual experiences) may be more sensitive related to residence to NPS vehicles patrolling the beach proximity, which area in or near wilderness. Therefore, may indicate that managers could use knowledge of visi- some visitors may tors’ motivations to identify and respond desire shorter trip to groups sensitive to inter- and intra- lengths to more site influences, which could help predict accessible wilderness and prevent conflict between managers locations where the and visitors. social element of wilderness experiences Conclusion can be the focus. Wilderness visitors have diverse motiva- Creating and zoning tions to use a specific area, and these areas where camping motivations relate to residence prox- locations are close to imity, repeat visitation, trip length, and access points (e.g., perceived crowding. As Cole and Wright trailheads), and (2004) reported, approximately three- shorter (e.g., two- quarters (76%) of wilderness managers for managers and researchers of wilder- day) circular routes do not have basic information about ness to consider: (1) using motivations could potentially accommodate these their visitors, including their motiva- to visit as one method to inform recre- visitors’ motivations. Managers at tions to visit. Additionally, changing ation zoning, and (2) using motivations CUIS could potentially identify desires of contemporary wilderness visi- to assess visitors’ potential responses to existing zones that accommodate com- tors (Hallo and Manning 2010) suggests management actions. binations of all five motivation a further need to comprehensively Wilderness use motivations to categories. This prescriptive and inten- understand the visiting population. inform recreation zoning: Wilderness tional zoning informed by knowledge Assessing motivations to visit wilder- visitors’ motivations to recreate at of visitors’ motivations may increase ness has the capacity to inform CUIS varied, which may require intra- the enjoyment of the visitor experi- management decisions regarding recre- site zoning to accommodate different ence, which is a primary management ational zoning, crowding-related issues, motivation categories. For example, goal and a component of the Wilderness and intra- and intersite changes. the categories of nature, adventure, Act of 1964. Therefore, a better and more thorough and personal benefits were positively Motivations and potential understanding of wilderness visitors’ related to repeat visitation and per- responses to management action: motivations, throughout the National ceived crowding (see Figure 2). This Knowledge of visitors’ motivations can Wilderness Preservation System, may suggests that frequent visitors may help managers identify groups who may assist managers as they continue to pro- desire settings that allow for connec- be sensitive to specific management vide high quality visitor experiences tions with nature, opportunities for actions or changes occurring in or near while protecting the resource. challenge and adventure, and the real- a wilderness area. For example, opposi- ization of personal benefits. Therefore, tion to increased fees for backcountry Acknowledgements managers may need to purposefully permits may exist for visitors motivated We thank the NPS and CUIS for zone areas to provide longer and more because of convenience (low cost is one funding and contributing to this

APRIL 2013 • Volume 19, Number 1 International Journal of Wilderness 39 ———. 2012. Spiritual outcomes of wilder- Understanding of wilderness visitors’ motivations ness experience. Park Science 28(3): 89-92, 102. ... may assist managers as they continue to Hendee, J., and C. Dawson. 2002. Wilderness Management: Stewardship and provide high quality visitor experiences while Protection of Resources and Values. Golden, CO: Fulcrum Publishing. protecting the resource. Manning, R. E. 2007. Parks and Carrying Capacity: Commons without Tragedy. Washington, DC: Island Press. research. These findings, conclusions, Wilderness areas. In Proceedings of the Manning, R. 2011. Studies in Outdoor 1997 Northeastern Recreation Research and recommendations are those of the Recreation: Search and Research for Symposium, ed. H. Vogelsong. Gen. Satisfaction, 2nd ed. Corvallis: Oregon authors and do not necessarily reflect Tech. Rep. NE-241, Radnor, PA: USDA State University Press. the views of the NPS or CUIS man- Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Nash, R. 2001. Wilderness and the American Experiment Station; p. 257-260. agement. Additionally, we thank Mind. New Haven, CT: Yale University Devellis, R. F. 2003. Scale Development: Press. Brandi L. Smith. Theory and Applications (Applied Social Patterson, M., A. Watson, D. Williams, and Research Methods), 2nd ed. Thousand J. Roggenbuck. 1998. An hermeneutic Oaks, CA: Sage Publishing. approach to studying the nature of References Dillman, D. 2007. Mail and Internet Surveys: wilderness experiences. Journal of Andereck, K., and R. Knopf. 2007. The rela- The Tailored Design Method, 2nd ed. Leisure Research 30(4): 423–452. tionship between experiences sought, New York: John Wiley and Sons. Perdue, R. 1986. Traders and nontraders in preferred settings, resource condi- DiStefano, C., M. Zhu, and D. Mindrila. recreational destination choice. Journal tions, and management motivations in 2009. Understanding and using factor of Leisure Research 18: 12–25. an urban-proximate recreation area. scores: Considerations for the applied Priest, S., and M. Gass. 2005. Effective Journal of Park and Recreation researcher. Practical Assessment, Leadership in Adventure Programming. Administration 25(4): 39–61. Research and Evaluation 14(20): 1–11. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Anderson, D., S. Stanis, I. Schneider, and J. Ewert, A. 1998. A comparison of urban- Russell, R. 2009. Past Times: The Context Leahy. 2008. Proximate and distant proximate and urban-distant wilderness of Contemporary Leisure. Champaign, visitors: Differences in importance rat- users on selected variables. IL: Sagamore. ings of beneficial experiences. Journal Environmental Management 22: Tabachnick, B.G., & Fidell, L.S. 2007. Using of Park and Recreation Administration 927–935. multivariate statistics. New York: 26(4): 47–65. Fabrigar, L.R., Wegener, D.T., MacCallum, Pearson. Brown, P. J., and G. E. Haas. 1980. Wilderness R.C., and Strahan, E.J. 1999. Evaluating Vaske, J.J. 2008. Survey research and anal- recreation experiences: The Rawah the use of Exploratory Factor Analysis ysis: Applications in parks, recreation, case. Journal of Leisure Research in psychological research. Psychological and human dimensions. State College, 12(3): 229ñ241. Methods 4(3): 272-299. PA: Venture. Cole, D. 2012. Wilderness visitor experi- Fesenmaier, D. 1988. Integrating activity Williams, D., L. Haggard, and R. Schreyer. ences. Park Science 28(3): 66-70. patterns into destination choice 1989. The Role of Wilderness in Human Cole, D., and T. Hall. 2007. The adaptable models. Journal of Leisure Research Development. General Technical Report human phenomenon: Implications for 20(3): 175–191. SE-51, ed. S. Weber and D. Harmon recreation management in high-use wil- Fredrickson, L., and D. Anderson. 1999. A (pp. 169–180). Asheville, NC: U.S. derness. In Rethinking Protected Areas qualitative exploration of the wilder- Department of Agriculture, Forest in a Changing World: Proceedings of ness experience as a source of spiritual Service, Southeastern Forest the 2005 George Wright Society inspiration. Journal of Environmental Experiment Station. Conference on Parks, Protected Areas, Psychology 19: 21–39. and Cultural Sites, ed. S. Weber and D. Hall, T., E. Seekamp, and D. Cole. 2010. Do Harmon (pp. 33–38). Hancock, Michigan: recreation motivations and wilderness MATTHEW T. J. BROWNLEE is an assistant The George Wright Society. involvement relate to support for wil- professor in the Department of Parks, Cole, D., and V. Wright. 2004. Information derness management? A segmentation Recreation, and Tourism at the University of about wilderness visitors and recre- analysis. Journal of Leisure Research ation impacts. International Journal of 32: 109–124. Utah, 1901 E. South Campus Drive, Annex C, Wilderness 10(1): 27–31. Hallo, J., and R. Manning. 2010. On the Room 1070, Salt Lake City, Utah 84112, USA; Cumberland Island National Seashore. 2010. edge, peering in: Defining and man- email: [email protected]. Cumberland Island National Seashore aging the near-wilderness experience website. Retrieved from www.nps. on the Denali Road. International JEFFREY C. HALLO is an assistant professor gov/cuis/index.htm. Journal of Wilderness 16(3): 28–34. of Parks, Recreation, and Tourism Dawson, C., P. Newman, and A. Watson. Heintzman, P. 2010. Nature-based recre- 1998. Cognitive dimensions of recreation and spirituality: A complex Management at Clemson University, 280B ational user experiences in wilderness: relationship. Leisure Sciences 32: Lehotsky Hall, Clemson, SC 29634, USA; An exploratory study in Adirondack 72–89. email: [email protected].

40 International Journal of Wilderness APRIL 2013 • Volume 19, Number 1 SCIENCE & RESEARCH Wilderness Managers, Wilderness Scientists, and Universities A Partnership to Protect Wilderness Experiences in the Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness

BY ALAN E. WATSON, ANN SCHWALLER, ROBERT DVORAK, NEAL CHRISTENSEN, and WILLIAM T. BORRIE

Alan Watson Ann Schwaller Bob Dvorak Neal Christensen William T. Borrie

he Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness largest designated wilderness in the two eastern regions of (BWCAW) in northern Minnesota has a rich his- the Forest Service. Located on the Superior National Forest, tory of advocacy for protection as wilderness. In the the BWCAW was officially designated as part of the 1950s,T Sigurd Olsen best described the song of the wilder- Wilderness Act of 1964, and then enlarged in 1978 by the ness in Minnesota’s north country: “I have heard the singing BWCAW Act and many incompatible uses were restricted. in many places, but I seem to hear it best in the wilderness Researchers from the Forest Service and academic partners lake country of the Quetico-Superior, where travel is still by had been collaborating with managers in conducting research pack and canoe over the ancient trails of the Indians and the on use, distribution of use, and impacts of use well before it voyageurs” (Olson 1956, p. 6). was officially designated wilderness (e.g., Lucas 1964). Perception of this place as wilderness extends back to In 1969, Stankey conducted a broad baseline visitor study well before the passage of the Wilderness Act. Of all wilder- at the BWCAW for his dissertation at Michigan State University, nesses in the United States, the BWCAW has probably been which was completed in 1971 (Stankey 1971), and later as part under the eye of the public, Congress, and the Forest Service of a Forest Service Research Publication in 1973 (Stankey more than many others. Not everyone agreed with the 1973), which combined results from several wilderness visitor restrictions on motorboats, snowmobiles, logging, and studies. Based on research by Peterson and Gilbert (1971), a mining that wilderness designation eventually brought with travel simulation model was established and later updated to it, and there have been many contested policy decisions, establish launch point quotas based on maximum campsite ranging from group size limits to permit quota systems and occupancy level predictions within zones of the wilderness. restrictions on glass containers and designated camping sites. In 1991, during an era when adjustments to quotas The BWCAW also has a rich history of policy adjustments, were evaluated, group size limits were proposed to be legislative oversight, and scientific understanding of the reduced, and many proactive regulations and education threats to the wilderness character of this special place. efforts were implemented to protect this unique resource The BWCAW, at 1,086,953 acres (440,062 ha), is the from increasing use, Forest Service scientists – collaborative

APRIL 2013 • Volume 19, Number 1 International Journal of Wilderness 41 with scientists at the University of Although these intergroup encounter Canoe Area, Shining Rock, and Desolation Wildernesses. General Minnesota – again provided an update rates are mostly within the expectations Technical Report INT-RP-483 (p. 38). to trends in use and users and their visitors have for the area (more than half Ogden, UT: USDA Forest Service, perceptions of wilderness conditions in 2007 said these higher encounter Intermountain Research Station. Dvorak, R. G., A. E. Watson, N. Christensen, (Cole et al. 1995) as well as examina- rates were about at the level they W. T. Borrie, A. Schwaller. 2012. The tion of likely impacts of proposed expected), only 38% felt conditions Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness: Examining changes in use, management changes (Watson 1995). were not overcrowded, compared to users, and management challenges. In 2007, a team consisting of 72% in 1969 and 44% in 1991. Research Paper RMRS-RP-91. Fort Superior National Forest managers, The USDA Forest Service Chief’s Collins, CO: USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. Forest Service scientists, and academic 2012 Award for Excellence in Lucas. R. C. 1964. The recreation capacity of partners realized the need and the Wilderness Stewardship Research went the Quetico-Superior area. Research Paper LS-l5. St. Paul, MN: USDA Forest opportunity to update information on to the team of managers (Ann Service, Lake States Experiment Station. trends in use and users and their percep- Schwaller), Forest Service scientists Peterson, G. L., and G. Gilbert. 1971. tions of wilderness conditions as well as (Alan Watson), and academic coopera- Application of Markov renewal theory to travel behavior in the Boundary explore many new challenges facing tors (Bob Dvorak, Neal Christensen, Waters Canoe Area. Paper presented managers at the BWCAW. For instance, and Bill Borrie) that are again trying to at the I.E.E.E. Fall Electronics Conference, October 18–20, Chicago. the overnight recreation user fees that make the best science available to Olson, S. F. 1956. The Singing Wilderness. had been implemented, changes in the managers making decisions at the New York: Alfred A. Knopf. permit distribution process, and the BWCAW. This award recognizes the Stankey, G. H. 1971. The perception of wilderness recreation carrying capacity: A impact of large-scale disturbances (fire continued efforts of these managers, geographic study in natural resources and blowdowns) were explored to pro- Forest Service scientists. and academic management. PhD diss., Michigan State University. vide baseline information on these partners to “help the Forest Service be ———. 1973. Visitor perception of wilder- newer issues managers faced. more effective in addressing wilderness ness recreation carrying capacity. In Dvorak et al. (2012), a detailed stewardship and meeting the intent of Research Paper INT-142 (p. 61). Ogden, UT: USDA Forest Service, Rocky analysis of these changes since studies in the Wilderness Act, the 10-Year Mountain Research Station. 1969 and 1991 was provided to help Wilderness Stewardship Challenge, Watson, A. E. 1995. Opportunities for solitude in the Boundary Waters Canoe managers, the public, academia, and and forest plan standards.” Area Wilderness. Northern Journal of other interested parties understand Collaboration continues at the Applied Forestry 12(1): 12–18. some of the major changes in use and BWCAW to further examine the effects ———. 2011. The role of wilderness protection and societal engagement as users and their perceptions of wilder- of changes in users, their travel pat- indicators of well-being: An examination ness conditions at the BWCAW. terns, and management strategies. of change at the Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness. Social BWCAW overnight visitors remain pre- There are many other wildernesses Indicators Research, DOI 10.1007/ dominantly white, male, and well that have benefited from the rich s11205-011-9947-x. educated, but the proportion of full- or exchange of ideas and knowledge part-time students has decreased dra- among our managers, our federal sci- ALAN E. WATSON is a research scientist at matically. The average age of adult entists, and our academic partners. In the Aldo Leopold Wilderness Research visitors increased throughout the years times of reduced budgets, shifting Institute, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Missoula, MT and IJW editorial board of these investigations (25 years in demographics, increasing presence of member; email: [email protected]. 1969, 35 years in 1991, and 45 years in new technologies, and increasingly 2007). Visitors have a great deal of wil- important benefits from protection of ANN SCHWALLER is a natural resources wilderness specialist on the Superior derness trip experience in the BWCAW wilderness resources (Watson 2011), National Forest, MN. now and in other wilderness areas as renewed emphasis on building rela- well, with relatively few being first-time tionships between managers, federal ROBERT DVORAK is an assistant professor visitors to the area. Visitors report seeing agency scientists, and academic part- at Central Michigan University. significantly more groups while on their ners has never been more important. NEAL CHRISTENSEN is a research spe- trips now compared to previous years cialist at the University of Montana, and visits (an average daily encounter References Missoula, MT. Cole, D. N., A. E. Watson, and J. W. rate of almost nine groups per day is Roggenbuck. 1995. Trends in Wilderness WILLIAM T. BORRIE is a professor at the double even that reported in 1991). Visitors and Visits: Boundary Waters University of Montana, Missoula, MT.

42 International Journal of Wilderness APRIL 2013 • Volume 19, Number 1 WILDERNESS DIGEST

Announcements

COMPILED BY GREG KROLL

Bolivian Oscar Loayza Receives Kenton the first ever national nonprofit organization to create and Miller Award support wilderness volunteer groups across America. Oscar Loayza of the Wildlife Conservation Society’s Madidi • Bob Marshall Award, Internal Champion of Wilderness program in Bolivia was presented with the Kenton Miller Stewardship was conferred upon Adam Barnett, wilder- Award for Innovation in Protected Areas Management (IJW ness manager on the Stanislaus National Forest, California, Digest, April 2012) at the International Union for the who as chair of the USFS Wilderness Advisory Group Conservation of Nature’s (IUCN) World Conservation secured US$1.5 million in additional funds to support the Congress in South Korea in September 2012. A US$5,000 Wilderness Stewardship Challenge. stipend accompanies the award. • Bob Marshall Award for Group Champion of Wilderness Loayza, who works with the Greater Madidi-Tambopata Stewardship went to the Santa Fe/Carson Wilderness Landscape Conservation Program, was chosen by an inter- Stewardship Task Force, New Mexico, for working across national jury for his development of initiatives that both forests to manage the combined seven wildernesses, strengthened indigenous participation in the management focusing on campsite inventory, invasive plants, and of protected areas, leading to improved governance in a encounter monitoring. region challenged by large infrastructure projects, roads, • Bob Marshall Award for Partnership Champion in dams, oil exploration, and small-scale mining. Wilderness Stewardship recognized Rob Mason and the Loayza’s efforts in Madidi National Park, one of the Selway-Bitterroot and Frank Church Foundation for com- world’s most biodiverse protected areas, promoted alliances pleting critical trail work, providing more than 28,000 between the Bolivian Park Service, conservationists, and volunteer hours. indigenous peoples, building on Bolivian government poli- • Traditional Skills and Minimum Tool Leadership cies to consolidate indigenous territorial and representation Award honored Wayne Chevalier, Willamette National rights. IUCN’s World Commission on Protected Areas chair Forest, Oregon, for demonstrating an unparalleled com- Nik Lopoukhine said, “[Loayza’s] innovative approach to mitment to using traditional tools in wilderness for more governance of protected areas has ensured that not only do than 22 years. Under his leadership, his trail crew has indigenous people participate in the process, but they are never used a motorized tool in his district’s wilderness. empowered and become an integral part of it.” (Source: • Wilderness Education Leadership Award was presented International News Service, September 13, 2012) to Harry Tullis, Don MacDougal, Dori Brogliano, Deven Hafey, John Neary, Chad Rice, Carl Koch, and Jane U.S. Forest Service Announces 2012 Pascoeare of Admiralty National Monument, Tongass National Wilderness Award Recipients National Forest, Alaska, for educating visitors about Nine awards honoring individuals and groups for excellence Admiralty’s brown bears and the unique wilderness set- in wilderness stewardship, and recognizing outstanding tings in which they are found. endeavors toward meeting the 10-Year Wilderness • Excellence in Wilderness Stewardship Research Award Stewardship Challenge, were recently bestowed by the U.S. went to Ann Schwaller, Robert G. Dvorak, Alan Watson, Forest Service (USFS): Neal Christensen, and William T. Borrie for their collab- • Bob Marshall Award, External Champion of Wilderness orative research paper identifying trends in use and user Stewardship was presented to Dave Cantrell for being the characteristics in the Boundary Waters Canoe Area key architect of the National Wilderness Stewardship Alliance, Wilderness.

Submit announcements and short news articles to GREG KROLL, IJW Wildernss Digest editor. E-mail: [email protected]

APRIL 2013 • Volume 19, Number 1 International Journal of Wilderness 43 • Excellence in Research Application trail to the summit of Green Mountain. (Source: www.panparks.org/news- Award recognized the team of Trent It is an important piece of Washington room, August 13, 2012) Procter, Mike McCorison, Suraj state’s heritage and one of the few sur- Ahuja, Ricardo Cisneros, Don viving lookouts in Washington state. Oyster Farm Saga Schweizer, Andrea Nick, and Glen “We believe the Green Mountain Continues Shaw of the Pacific Southwest Lookout provides outstanding benefits In what has become a nearly intermi- Region Air Quality Program for to the preservation of Glacier Peak nable issue, Interior Secretary Ken their hard work regarding air quality Wilderness and the education of wil- Salazar, citing the value of wilderness monitoring in 61 wildernesses. derness visitors and does not detract and congressional intent, ruled on • Excellence in Line Officer from the qualities we seek in wilder- November 29, 2012, that an oyster Wilderness Leadership honored Lee ness. The lookout was erected for fire farm at Drakes Estero, in Point Reyes Benson, Tongass National Forest, spotting in 1933 by the Civilian National Seashore, California, must Alaska, for leadership he exhibited in Conservation Corps, prior to the des- terminate its operations. The following working with his district and forest ignation of Glacier Peak Wilderness. day, National Park Service (NPS) wilderness managers to advance the The Forest Service still uses the lookout director Jon Jarvis declared the estero Wilderness Stewardship Challenge. during the fire season today. part of the Philip Burton Wilderness (Source: U.S. Forest Service, “We applaud the efforts of the at the Seashore, effective December 4. Washington Office) senators and Congressman Larsen to That decision, said oyster company save this unique structure so that future owner Kevin Lunny, was a “devas- The Wilderness Society generations my enjoy its vistas and his- tating” one. Defends Green Mountain torical relevance like so many have Congress had directed that when Lookout before them.” (Source: www.wilderness. the Drakes Bay Oyster Company’s When U.S. District judge John org, December 19, 2012 press release) lease ran out, the estero should become Coughenour ordered the U.S. Forest fully designated wilderness once all Service to remove its reconstructed European Transboundary nonconforming uses were terminated. lookout from Green Mountain in the Wilderness Is Established The 1976 legislation that set aside Glacier Peak Wilderness of Washington’s “Nature knows no borders,” according 25,370 acres (10,300 ha) of the Mount Baker-Snoqualmie National to a recent announcement by Europe’s national seashore as wilderness required Forest, he ruled that the presence of PAN Parks organization. In what is that another 8,003 acres (3,200 ha) the structure “detrimentally impacts the first successful creation of a trans- encompassing the estero be “essentially on the wilderness character” of the boundary wilderness area between managed as wilderness, to the extent locale (IJW Digest, August 2012). The Oulanka National Park, Finland, and possible, with efforts to steadily con- judge’s decision resulted from Paanajärvi National Park, Russia, the tinue to remove all obstacles to the Wilderness Watch’s 2010 lawsuit. largest protected area entity within eventual conversion of these lands and In December 2012, a bill to pro- the European Wilderness Preservation waters to wilderness status.” tect the lookout was introduced by System was established. Both parks The oyster company, which U.S. senators Patty Murray and Maria were previously certified as PAN employs 31 workers who produce Cantwell, and Congressman Rick Parks, but they were artificially between 450,000–500,000 pounds Larsen. In response, The Wilderness divided by international boundaries. (200,000–230,000 kg) of Pacific oyster Society issued the following statement The two parks cover more than meat a year for Bay Area outlets, has from Doug Walker, governing council 325,000 acres (132,000 ha), of which been embroiled in controversy for chair, and Peter Dykstra, Pacific 255,000 acres (103,000 ha) are man- years, with powerful U.S. senator Northwest regional director: aged as wilderness, where there is no Dianne Feinstein defending the com- “The Wilderness Society thanks extractive use, including hunting, pany and its workforce, while Senators Maria Caldwell and Patty logging, or grazing with domestic environmentalists pressed to see the Murray for taking important steps to animals. It is hoped that this trans- estero granted full wilderness designa- protect the Green Mountain Lookout. boundary cooperation will preclude tion, as Congress intended. … The lookout is a historic icon vis- the opening of a newly planned gold Although Mr. Lunny admitted he ited by many who hike up a popular mine close to Oulanka National Park. always knew there was a possibility

44 International Journal of Wilderness APRIL 2013 • Volume 19, Number 1 that the farm’s permit wouldn’t be layoff of one-third of its employees over space altitude over New Mexico’s Blue renewed, he held out hope that it the Holiday season, and it will cause the Lake Wilderness from 2,000 feet (600 would be. Secretary Salazar gave the utter destruction of Plaintiffs’ business, m) to 3,000 feet (900 m). At the same oyster company 90 days to remove its harm to the public, and irreparable time, it raised the minimum altitude personal property, including shellfish environmental damage to Drakes Estero over the nearby Taos Pueblo, a World and racks, and said no commercial in the next 90 days. Furthermore, it is Heritage Site, from 2,000 feet to 5,000 activities at the farm would be allowed impossible for Plaintiffs to comply with feet (1,500 m). For more than 20 following his decision. He also directed the Secretary’s decision because it would years, Taos Pueblo officials have been NPS Director Jarvis to “use all existing take much longer than 90 days for fighting to protect the sites from legal authorizations at your disposal to Plaintiffs to comply.” potential flyovers that could compro- help … workers who might be affected Mr. Lunny claims it could take mise ancient buildings and the sacred by this decision, including assistance nearly two years to fully remove the wilderness area. The FAA’s decision with relocation, employment opportu- oyster growing operations from the accompanied its plans to award $1.05 nities, and training.” estero’s waters. million to the Taos Regional Airport’s Following the secretary’s decision, On February 4, 2013, U.S. crosswind runway project. At the the oyster company went to court, District Court judge Yvonne Gonzalez meeting in which the FAA’s decision arguing that the interior secretary acted Rogers declined to issue a TRO, stating was announced, pueblo governor rashly and without cause to deny an that she had no jurisdiction to rule on Laureano Romero said, “I’m very extension of the lease. The lawsuit, filed the secretary’s decision, and that Mr. happy to sit here now. And I certainly on Lunny’s behalf by Cause of Action, a Lunny did not prove that Secretary appreciate the FAA and all those con- law firm that works to hold government Salazar abused his discretion. Three cerned who have been very cooperative. accountable, largely is built on the con- days later, the California Coastal This year, I found out we are very tention that the secretary’s decision Commission issued a cease-and-desist good neighbors.” violated the National Environmental order based on Lunny’s now-unper- Blue Lake is central to the pueblo’s Policy Act, in part because the NPS mitted operations in Drakes Bay, land religion, which requires privacy. Blue failed to prepare a thorough environ- alterations, debris from the farming Lake had been taken from the pueblo mental impact study on the oyster operations, violations of previous by order of President Theodore farm’s operations at Drakes Estero. cease-and-desist orders, and company Roosevelt in 1906, and pueblo mem- Salazar, however, contends that he was boats operating in waters that were bers and sympathizers spent the next acting on a directive from Congress supposed to be closed to traffic due to six decades fighting for its return. In issued in 2009 that he personally con- harbor seal pupping. 1970 President Richard Nixon signed sider renewing the farm’s lease for Finally, on Feburary 25, the 9th HR 471 into law, returning the 48,000 another decade, and when he announced U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals blocked acres (19,500 ha) surrounding the lake his decision, he specifically referred to the NPS from forcing the oyster farm to Taos Pueblo. At the time, Congress that directive, noting that it “does not to close down, stating that there are specified that the land must be man- require me (or the NPS) to prepare a serious legal questions and the balance aged according to the Wilderness Act DEIS or an FEIS or otherwise comply of hardships tips heavily in the appel- of 1964. Blue Lake, closed to non- with the National Environmental Policy lants’ favor. The court has scheduled a members of Taos Pueblo, is now Act of 1969 or any other law.” hearing on the dispute for May. (Source: managed as wilderness by pueblo Next, attorneys for the Drakes Bay National Parks Traveler, November 29 rangers and the war chief’s staff. War Oyster Company sought a temporary and December 5, 12, and 18, 2012 and Chief Secretary Scott Fields said it is restraining order (TRO) to prevent the February 12 and 25, 2013) an arduous climb to the area, and Interior Department from closing down tribal members continue to go to Blue the oyster farm. The lawyers argued FAA Raises Minimum Lake with a sense of reverence, recog- that implementing the secretary’s order Ceiling over Blue Lake nizing that it is a special place. (Source: “will cause the immediate and irrepa- Wilderness The Taos News, September 18–19, rable loss of 2.5 million oyster spat In an unusual move, the Federal 2010, and October 7, 2012) (approximately 20–25% of its 2014 Aviation Administration (FAA) has crop) and the corresponding immediate expanded the minimum allowable air-

APRIL 2013 • Volume 19, Number 1 International Journal of Wilderness 45 Blue Ribbon Coalition the law but the reality of modern-day organization holds twice-yearly Challenges Wilderness wilderness.” “Any wilderness designa- campouts in various locales, called Study Area Restrictions tion today will necessarily be a creative Broadwalks, which feature educational The Blue Ribbon Coalition and the balance that allows a variety of uses hikes and speakers who discuss environ- Idaho Snowmobile Association have that would be prohibited under a pure mental issues and advocacy campaigns sued the Clearwater National Forest, reading of the 1964 Wilderness Act,” in the area. During the last weekend of Idaho, over its travel plan banning he said. Recent wilderness bills have September 2012, about 50 members motorcycles, ATVs, snowmobiles, and not been as “pure” as earlier ones, gathered in southeast Utah’s canyon mountain bikes in a Wilderness Study according to Hawthorne. (Source: country near the Needles District of Area (WSA). Although motorized and Idaho Statesman, September 3, 2012) Canyonlands National Park. mechanized use is prohibited in wilder- The Broads were camping on pri- ness areas designated by Congress under Peru Creates Three New vate property, The Nature Conservancy’s the Wilderness Act of 1964, the U.S. Amazon Protected Areas Dugout Ranch, which is surrounded by Forest Service (USFS) has traditionally Peru has created three new protected Bureau of Land Management (BLM) allowed motorized use in WSAs, which areas in the northern Amazon territory lands. The first evening, the group’s are not yet designated by Congress but of Loreto, covering an area of nearly banner, attached to the Conservancy’s qualify for designation according to 1,485,000 acres (600,958 ha). The gate, was slashed and spray painted. agency managers. Wilderness advocates new areas of protected Amazon rain The Broads took it in stride, joking have long criticized the agency’s unwill- forest harbor one of the highest bio- about San Juan County residents ingness to restrict motorized users in logical and cultural diversities picking on a bunch of grandmothers WSAs as a failure to protect their wil- worldwide and are made up of the and “little old ladies.” Next morning, derness character. Huimeki Communal Reserve, the Airo however, they found the gate padlocked After 40 years of motorized use in Pai Communal Reserve, and the shut and an old hag Halloween mask, many WSAs, plans to restrict use in Güeppi-Sekime National Park along doused in fake blood, hung in effigy on the Great Burn has motorized recre- the border of Ecuador and Colombia. a fencepost nearby. The words “Stay out ationists questioning the agency’s This recent development consoli- of San Juan County. No last chance” authority. “Only Congress can desig- dates the Putumayo Trinational were scrawled below the mask. nate wilderness,” said Sandra Mitchell, Conservation Corridor, a joint effort by This was not the first time resi- public lands director of the Idaho State the governments of Peru, Ecuador, and dents of San Juan County threatened Snowmobile Association. “We cannot Colombia. It is an example of trans- the Broads. In 2006, Great Old Broads stand idly by and watch them change boundary cooperation and a joint effort for Wilderness monitored the impacts the long-established system for man- with indigenous communities (Kichwa, of an illegally constructed trail in aging these treasured lands.” Huitoto, Secoya) in natural protected Recapture Wash. The trail, which However, Brad Brooks, The areas management. According to the included a bridge, culverts, and rock Wilderness Society’s deputy regional World Wildlife Fund, its potential for cribbing, allowed motorized access director in Boise, Idaho, said the law- replication throughout the region would into archaeological sites. The following suit questions the ability of the USFS significantly accelerate the conservation year, the BLM closed the route because to protect wilderness character at all. “I of the Amazon. (Source: wwf.panda. of vandalism to the sites. Such van- see this as a full frontal assault on wil- org/wwf_news/?206543/Peru-creates- dalism triggers automatic closures to derness,” he stated. “They are making three-new-Amazon-protected-areas) motorized vehicles under the essentially the argument that the Forest Archaeological Protection Act, but Service doesn’t have the power to pro- Great Old Broads for locals blamed the Broads. tect wilderness character as a multiple Wilderness Threatened in Although the Broads subsequently use of public lands.” Utah worked with a group of stakeholders, Brian Hawthorne, public lands Great Old Broads for Wilderness is an including motorized users, to address policy director of the Blue Ribbon organization primarily composed of the future of the trail, numerous signs Coalition, claims that the “[USFS’s] “old and gray” people, mostly women, appeared in the area that read: “Wanted Northern Region guidance to its whose mission is to advocate and edu- national forests contradicts not only cate on behalf of the environment. The Continued on page 48

46 International Journal of Wilderness APRIL 2013 • Volume 19, Number 1 WILDERNESS DIGEST

Book Reviews

The Spirit of the Appalachian Trail: Community, Environment, and Belief Wild: From Lost to on a Long-Distance Found on the Hiking Path Pacific Crest Trail By Susan P. Bratton. 2012. By Cheryl Strayed. 2012. University of Tennessee Alfred A. Knopf, New York. Press, Knoxville. 304 pp. 336 pp. $25.95 (hc). $49.95 (hc).

A great deal of wilderness literature by writers such as John tance trip, compared to 21% for self-exploration or reflection, Muir, Bob Marshall, and Sigurd Olsen discuss the emotional 23% a life transition, 25% for “taking a break,” 27% noting and psychological impacts of long distance wilderness travels. it was their life’s dream, and 37% by a sense of adventure These writers were changed from these experiences, and their and challenge. Hikers seemed to be most impacted in terms writings often examined how and why the wilderness changed of personal experiences by the trail environment and the them. Through their writing, they encouraged other people to social network of other users and volunteers found along the attempt similar wilderness trips. Both books reviewed in this trail; for the latter impact, Bratton notes, “The trail provided issue of the IJW provide a more contemporary exploration of a shared focus, making it easy to start a conversation and to the impact of long distance hiking on the lives of these par- find a common platform for relating to others” (p. 148). ticularly committed participants. These experiences, together with the time spent on the trail, Susan Bratton’s The Spirit of the Appalachian Trail (AT) allowed them time to think about their personal problems or provides an interesting mélange of writing styles, mainly concerns and provided relief from daily stresses. academic but also attempting to be more accessible to a About 62% of long distance hikers stated they had a wider audience, including AT users and volunteers. It is also spiritual or religious experience while on the trip, with about somewhat unusual for a book as it provides the results of a 25% specifically identifying the AT trip as a spiritual or reli- mixed-methods study primarily assessing the spiritual/religious experience. Bratton suggests that personal growth or gious benefits of long distance hiking on the AT. Five data change was generated from “physical exercise, simple lifestyle, sources were used: interviews with volunteers, a survey of peer feedback and support offered by other hikers,” with “the long distance hikers, hikers’ logs and postings, published most widely shared outcomes of the AT hike … the physical diaries and memoirs, and personal observation and informal and social environment of the AT itself, including making new discussions with hikers and volunteers. However, little infor- friends, experiencing natural beauty, and acclimating to phys- mation on the research design or sampling approach is ical stresses of the trail” (p. 195). She suggests a seven-phase provided. Other academic sources are used, but they are not experience (entry, accommodation, community formation, incorporated throughout the work as they would be in a functional network, commitment, celebration, and reintegra- typical empirical study. tion) in the long distance AT hiker experience, although it is The survey results, which seem to be based on 205 unclear what data was used to generate this list. Bratton also respondents in 2007–2008, suggest that 11% explicitly suggests a “Canterbury Tales effect” exists: “People sharing noted a spiritual or religious motivation for their long dis- long distance journeys with strangers form beneficial new

APRIL 2013 • Volume 19, Number 1 International Journal of Wilderness 47 relationships and contemplate the having backpacked before, she decided that included me” (p. 143). quality of their interactions with others. to hike as much of the Pacific Crest Wild provides a powerful and per- The ‘secular’ long distance journey on Trail as she could in 100 days. She had haps extreme example of how an foot can provide some of the benefits “set out to hike the trail so that I could extended wilderness experience can traditionally associated with religious reflect upon my life, to think about profoundly change and heal a troubled pilgrimage, particularly assistance with everything that had broken me and person. For Cheryl Strayed, it wasn’t so life transitions, time for reflection, make myself whole again”; but she much that she had more time to think improved self-control, and the ability to found that on the trail, as she was so about her life; more important, the live in a simple or austere environmental inexperienced, she was mainly “con- daily deprivations, decisions, and sim- conditions” (p. 197). sumed only with my most immediate plicity of wilderness life provided a Cheryl Strayed’s Wild echoes many and physical suffering” (p. 84). respite from focusing on her “old” life. of these themes of self-discovery but She also notes, like Bratton, that the The sense of profound achievement provides a much more personal and social environment of the trail, the deep from her trek also helped her regain powerful story. In this memoir – an camaraderie between the long distance her true self. Oprah’s Book Club choice and best hikers and the support they provided, Together, these two books provide a seller – she describes how the death of supplied a powerful solace and sense of reminder of the emotional and psycho- her mother and the disintegration of community. This social component of the logical benefits of extended wilderness her family made her spiral into an experience seems to at least have equaled trips, examine the complexity of the empty, broken existence: “I had to the environmental aspect of the trip, spiritual nature of wilderness recreation, change was the thought that drove me in although she does note that “perhaps and highlight the key nature of the those months of planning [the hiking being amidst the undesecrated beauty of social component of wilderness use in trip]. Not into a different person, but the wilderness meant that I too could be long distance hiking trails. back to the person I used to be – strong undesecrated. … Of all the things I had and responsible, clear-eyed and driven, been skeptical about, I didn’t feel skeptical Reviewed by John Shultis, IJW book editor, ethical and good” (p. 57). Despite never about this: the wilderness had a clarity email: [email protected].

Continued from announcements, page 46

dead or alive: Members of Great Old National Wildlife Refuge (NWR), picture that big refuge without endless Broads for Wilderness are not allowed Nevada. Since 2009, volunteers and cross-fencing is a dream come true! in San Juan County Utah.” Even the staff with Friends of Nevada You guys are the best.” Reiswig was Blue Mountain Panorama, the county’s Wilderness have hauled out 150 miles instrumental in removing grazing main newspaper, ran a two-page article (240 km) of fencing. The old range from the Hart-Sheldon Refuge Com letting readers know exactly where the fence was deemed unnecessary by the plex in 1994. Broads were planning to camp, con- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and The Sheldon NWR was founded cluding with the suggestion that interfered with pronghorn migratory in 1931 to protect the pronghorn, the “maybe we should keep an eye on paths and water access as pronghorns fastest land animal in North America, them while they’re here.” (Source: High shimmy under rather than leap over which can reach speeds of 60 miles per Country News, October 8, 2012) fencing. The refuge is also home to hour (100 km/hr). The Sheldon Refuge sage grouse whose low-flying habits encompasses more than 900 square Volunteers Remove entangle them in barbed wire. miles (233,000 ha) of sagebrush-steppe Remaining Fencing at At a celebration honoring the ecosystem that provides habitat for Sheldon National Wildlife volunteers, former refuge manager bighorn sheep, mule deer, pygmy rab- Refuge Barry Reiswig said he was amazed by bits, hawks and falcons, and 75 species Volunteers have clipped, rolled, and the progress. “I can hardly believe you of butterflies. (Source: www.nevada packed out the last four miles (6.5 folks removed so much fence in such wilderness.org) km) of barbed wire fencing at Sheldon a short period of time,” he said. “To

48 International Journal of Wilderness APRIL 2013 • Volume 19, Number 1 The Majic of AFRICA For the young conservationists in your family The Journey of Wildlife and Art John Muir • Rachael Carson • Henry David Thoreau Images of Conservationists series Illustrated by award-winning children’s book artist Hudson Rachel Carson John Muir Walking with Henry Thomas Locker The Story of a River Preserving a Sense of Wonder America’s Naturalist Based on the Life and Works of 1 Each book is 11 x 8 /2 • 32 pages Thomas Locker and Thomas Locker and Thomas Locker Henry David Thoreau Robert C. Baron Joseph Bruchac Thomas Locker full-color illustrations • HC $17.95

Also in Spanish ! Felipe the Flamingo The Girl Who Married the Moon Conservation Adventures series Jill Ker Conway,Illustrated by Lokken Millis Tales from Native North America Gayle Ross and Joseph Bruchac Felipe, a young flamingo, is left Things Natural, Wild, and behind when his flock migrates to find This collection of traditional stories Free more food. As he awaits his parents explores the significance of a young The Life of Aldo Leopold he learns many life lessons. girl’s rite of passage into womanhood. Marybeth Lorbiecki 1 1 10 /2 x 7 /2 • 32 pages • full-color illustra- Each of these stories originated in the Adventure—as a child Aldo tions • HC $12.95 oral tradition and have been carefully Leopold was always loking for PB version in Spanish $9.95 researched. Joseph Bruchac, author Hardcover, 9 x 10.5, 144 pages color photos, $35u s it as he wandered over the of the best-selling Keeper’s of the Earth series, and noted Sand to Stone bluffs along the Mississippi storyteller, has been entrusted with stories from elders of with his dog, Spud. This led and Back Again other native nations which ensures that the stories collected Experience the beauty of Boyd Norton’s Nancy Bo Flood Leopold to become a forester, in this book are authentic. Wildlife art of the Photos by Tony Kuyper wildlife scientist, author, and one of the most important con- 6 x 9 • 128 pages • PB $9.95 photos, so magical you can almost hear the A beautiful combination of photo- servationists in history. Award-winning author Marybeth vast region between Flying with the Eagle, Racing Loribiecki brings Leopold to life in this vivid new biography. zebra braying or the rhino grunting. Read graphs, drawings, and text illus- Yellowstone National Park trates the life cycle of sandstone the Great Bear Featuring resource and activity sections, a time line, a bibli- in the landscape of the desert Southwest. Written for ages 4 Tales from Native North America ography, and historic black-and-white photographs. about the history of the region where man Joseph Bruchac 7 x 9 • 112 pages • PB $12.95 1 1 and the Arctic Circle and up. 8 /2 x 8 /2 • 32 pages • full-color photos • PB $9.95 began and of its challenges today. This book In this collection of Native American Alphabet Kingdom coming-of-age tales, young men face Parks for the People is a treasure you will visit again and again. 150 years of artistic genius Lauren A. Parent great enemies, find the strength and Illustrated by mo mcgee The Life of Frederick Law Olmsted endurance within themselves to suc- Julie Dunlap This animal-centered alphabet ceed, and take their place by the side This lavishly illustrated book celebrates 150 years book, offers an abundance of of their elders. Joseph Bruchac is the award-winning author Growing up on a Connecticut “Boyd Norton has captured the magic of this ancient images and subtle surprises on of books for children and adults. farm in the 1800s, Frederick Olmsted loved roaming the of artistic genius and describes how art has every page. 10 x 10 • 40 pages • 6 x 9 • 128 pages • PB $10.95 and majestic ecosystem. Through superb and deeply full-color illustrations • PB $8.95 outdoors. A contest to design sensitive photographs and compelling accounts of played a central role in providing the inspiration Tales of the Full Moon the nation’s first city park Gas Trees and Car Turds Sue Hart opened new doors for Olmsted Illustrated by Chris Harvey his experiences there, he introduces its animals and to protect and conserve nature in one of the A Kids’ Guide to the Roots of Global Warming when his winning design Kirk Johnson and Mary Ann Bonnell Children of all ages love these became New York’s Central Park, just one of Olmsted’s people. Serengeti is profoundly moving—you will world’s best loved mountain regions, the understand why it is so important to preserve this This colorfully illustrated book makes wonderful tales of the African ideas that changed our nation’s cities. Award-winning author Northern Rocky Mountains. carbon dioxide, an invisible odorless bush. A timeless collection of Julie Dunlap brings Olmsted to life in this memorable biog- place for generations to come.” gas responsible for global warming and memorable stories centered on raphy, featuring resource and activity sections, a time line, Jane Goodall The book is based on an exhibit that is the plant growth, into something that can lovable characters. and a bibliography, as well as black-and-white historical 1 1 be imagined and understood by chil- 7 /2 x 10 /2 • 96 pages • full-color photographs. founder, the Jane Goodall Institute result of a multi-year collaboration between dren. 7 x 10 • 40 pages • full-color illustrations • PB $9.95 illustrations • PB $16.95 7 x 9 • 112 pages • PB $12.95 and UN messenger of peace the National Museum of Wildlife Art in Each book is 9 x 9 • 48 pages • full-color illustrations Jackson Hole, Wyoming; the Whyte Museum America’s maps and glossary • PB $11.95 Hardcover, 10 x 9, 260 pages, color photos, $35u s of the Canadian Rockies in Banff, Canada; Ecosystem Also available: Limited Edition of only 200 artist Dwayne Harty; and the Yellowstone to series Autographed, numbered, hand bound faux leather, Yukon Conservation Initiative. Drink in the A series of six books, with placeholder ribbon, 10 x 9, 260 pages, color photos, beauty of these wildlife art masterpieces. each exploring a $200u s * different biome, its *A portion of Limited Edition proceeds will go to Serengeti Watch plants, and its animals

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