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Links Between Solid Earth, Climate Changes, and Biodiversity Through Time: Insights from the Cenozoic David Ambrosetti, Jean-Renaud Boisserie, Deresse Ayenachew and Thomas Guindeuil (dir.) Climatic and Environmental Challenges: Learning from the Horn of Africa Centre français des études éthiopiennes Links between Solid Earth, Climate Changes, and Biodiversity through Time: Insights from the Cenozoic Pierre Sepulchre DOI: 10.4000/books.cfee.359 Publisher: Centre français des études éthiopiennes Place of publication: Addis-Abeba Year of publication: 2016 Published on OpenEdition Books: 28 July 2016 Serie: Corne de l’Afrique contemporaine / Contemporary Horn of Africa Electronic ISBN: 9782821873001 http://books.openedition.org Electronic reference SEPULCHRE, Pierre. Links between Solid Earth, Climate Changes, and Biodiversity through Time: Insights from the Cenozoic In: Climatic and Environmental Challenges: Learning from the Horn of Africa [online]. Addis-Abeba: Centre français des études éthiopiennes, 2016 (generated 02 octobre 2020). Available on the Internet: <http://books.openedition.org/cfee/359>. ISBN: 9782821873001. DOI: https://doi.org/ 10.4000/books.cfee.359. This text was automatically generated on 2 October 2020. It is the result of an OCR (optical character recognition) scanning. Links between Solid Earth, Climate Changes, and Biodiversity through Time: In... 1 Links between Solid Earth, Climate Changes, and Biodiversity through Time: Insights from the Cenozoic Pierre Sepulchre 1 The Cenozoic is the most clearly defined geological era in terms of climate and life history. Since the late 60’s, oxygen isotopic values have been measured on benthic foraminifera shells coming from deep-sea records. These values give insights about the evolution of deep-sea temperatures and continental ice volume during the last 65 million years. More than ten years ago, Zachos et al. (Zachos et al., 2001) compiled over 40 published isotopic records to depict carbon and oxygen isotopic trend through the Cenozoic. This seminal study has been recently updated and is classically used as the paleoclimatic reference in most climate and paleoecological studies. From this record one can divide the Cenozoic into warm periods (Paleocene and Eocene), also called “Greenhouse climates”, and cooler periods (Oligocene, Miocene and Pliocene) during which permanent icesheets developed at the poles. The Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum 2 Temperatures were warm during the Paleocene; polar regions were ice-free and characterized by subtropical flora and fauna. As an example, the late Paleocene flora that grew on the former land bridge connecting Antarctica to South America (Seymour Island fossil records), at latitude 63°S, is described as a “paratropical forest growing in a warm and rainy climate” (Reguero et al., 2002). Atmospheric CO2 reconstructions are 1 uncertain for this period but suggest pCO2 higher than 1000 ppmv . 3 At ~55.5 Ma, a large isotopic excursion is observed in the δ18O and δ13C records from benthic microfossils. This excursion is associated with a 4-6°C deep-sea warming, a 5°C increase in tropical Sea Surface Temperatures (hereafter SST) and an up to 8-10°C increase in high-latitude SST (Zachos et al., 2003). This event has been called the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM) and is now used to define the Paleocene- Climatic and Environmental Challenges: Learning from the Horn of Africa Links between Solid Earth, Climate Changes, and Biodiversity through Time: In... 2 Eocene boundary, as it is contemporaneous with the Paleocene-Eocene transition observed in the North American Land Mammal Series. The event lasted no more than 20,000 years, and a return to normal values occurred after 170,000 years, making the PETM the most abrupt climate change recorded in Earth history. Hypotheses to explain the mechanisms and the source of the massive input of depleted carbon in the global system, ultimately leading to this carbon isotope excursion and global warming, are still debated. The usual mechanisms driving isotopic excursions (volcanism, weathering) are too slow (with too low values for carbon originating from volcanic activity) to be responsible for the PETM. The consensual hypothesis invokes a massive F0 13 release of isotopically light carbon (relatively little 64 C) in the ocean system, through methane injection. Where does the methane come from? Some authors invoke volcanic activity in the northeastern Atlantic triggering a massive methane release (Svensen et al., 2004); others suggest that huge amounts of methane hydrates (clathrates) stored at the bottom of the oceans were destabilized 55.5 Ma ago (for a still unknown reason) (Dickens et al., 1997). 4 The PETM is contemporaneous with a major extinction event in the deep ocean. Between 30 and 50% of the benthic foraminifera community were wiped out within less than 10,000 years. The massive input of methane in the water at all depths could have triggered low oxygenation and increased water corrosity, both through methane oxidation. Marine productivity may have been altered as well. However, none of these changes was global; otherwise extinct cosmopolitan species may have survived in refugia and repopulated afterwards. The remaining factor is the global warming that occurred in the ocean; but the mechanism linking it to foraminifera extinction is not yet understood. Recent modeling studies suggest that the extinction was due to multiple environmental changes, all related to perturbation of the carbon cycle (Winguth et al., 2012). 5 On the continents, temperatures increased by ~5°C during the PETM. This warming impacted continental flora which responded with inter- and intra-continental dispersals (Wing et al., 2005) and major compositional turnovers (20 % of US Gulf Coast palynoflora became extinct after the PETM (Harrington & Jaramillo, 2007)). The Paleocene-Eocene transition is also crucial for the fauna, as three major modern orders of mammals, namely Primates, Artiodactyla (e.g. deer, cows, camels) and Perissodactyla (e.g. horses), appear coincidently in the fossil record at that time in Europe, Asia and North America, while some Paleocene taxa (Champsosaurus, Plesiadapis) became extinct. The warming led to a reduction in size of several taxa (herbivorous ungulates, Primates, Artiodactyla), conforming to the famous ecological Bergman’s rule, that specifies that species have smaller body size at greater ambient temperatures2 (Secord et al., 2012). Apparent dwarfing of some mammal taxa was even evidenced at the PETM, and might be linked to the increased pCO2 which would have affected plant growth, digestibility and ultimately herbivore growth (Gingerich, 2006). From the Eocene to the Oligocene: Descent into the Icehouse3 6 The δ18O record indicates that shortly after the PETM, a climatic optimum was reached, making the early Eocene the warmest period of the Cenozoic. Recent records suggest that climate variability existed during this period, causing climate shifts from warm to Climatic and Environmental Challenges: Learning from the Horn of Africa Links between Solid Earth, Climate Changes, and Biodiversity through Time: In... 3 very warm (hyperthermal) states. At the end of the early Eocene a global cooling began that culminated at the Eocene-Oligocene transition, at 32 Ma. At that time continental drift had made Earth look closer to its present-day appearance: the Drake Passage, separating Antarctica and South America, had opened following an earlier opening of the Tasmanian gateway (separating Antarctica from Australia). India had drifted northward to collide with Asia, thereby starting the uplift of the Tibetan Plateau. 7 The isotope shift observed at 34 Ma in the δ18O record has been explained both by the inception of the Antarctic ice sheet (at least on the western edge of the continent) and by global cooling (Hansen et al., 2008). Initiation of the Antarctic ice sheet could have been linked to two factors which likely interacted. First, the opening of the Drake Passage would have profoundly changed global ocean circulation and allowed the Circum-Antarctic Current to be activated, ultimately isolating the Antarctic continent. The second factor is the lowering of pCO2 throughout the Eocene, from more than 1,000 ppmv to less than 750 ppmv (Pearson et al., 2009), a threshold that climate model studies have shown to be crucial to initiate a glaciation over Antarctica (DeConto & Pollard, 2003). No conclusive explanation for the CO2 reduction during the Eocene exists but many consider that the uplift of the Himalayas played a major role. With the Himalayan orogeny, a lot of organic carbon from the continent was buried through sedimentation in the deltaic regions such as the Bengal fan, thereby activating the marine biological pump and enhancing atmospheric CO2 consumption. This mechanism was active during the whole Himalayan orogeny and consumed 2 to 3 times more CO2 than silicate weathering (Galy et al., 2007). 8 In the oceans, Eocene cooling has been associated with a major extinction in tropical nannoplankton, foraminifera, bivalves and gastropods (Prothero, 2004). On the continents, Antarctic vegetation shifted from an evergreen forest dominated by Nothofagus sp. to a tundra vegetation (Thorn & DeConto, 2006). Neotropical fossil palynoflora show a continuous decrease in diversity, likely linked to global warming or to available area for species (Jaramillo et al., 2006). In North America, broad-leaved deciduous forests replaced paratropical forests within 500 thousand years, while several indicators show widespread increase in aridity. The consequences of climate change for
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