Notes

1 African Transnational Diasporas: Theoretical Perspectives

1. In 1965 George Shepperson (1993), drawing parallels with the Jewish dias- pora, coined the term ‘African diaspora’. The term was also closely associ- ated with social and political struggles for independence in Africa and the Caribbean. For detailed examination on the origins of the term African dias- pora, see Manning (2003) and Zeleza (2010). 2. The Lebanese in West Africa, Indian Muslims in South Africa and the Hausa in West Africa and Sudan are some of the examples of African diasporas within the continent (Bakewell, 2008). 3. See, for example, Koser’s (2003) edited volume, New African Diasporas and Okpewho and Nzegwu’s (2009) edited volume, The New African Diaspora. Both books provide a wide range of case studies of contemporary African diasporas. 4. This taxonomy has been adapted and developed from my examination of Zimbabwean transnational diaspora politics (see Pasura, 2010b).

2 Vintages and Patterns of Migration

1. Ethnic differences between ZANU and ZAPU caused the war of liberation to be fought on two fronts until the formation of the Patriotic Front, a unified alliance. ZAPU continued to advocate for multi-ethnic mobilization; historians have sought to explain the growing regional/ethnic allegiance partly in terms of the role of the two liberation armies, as old ZAPU committees existed in the Midlands and Manicaland but the areas became ZANU after having received Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army (ZANLA) freedom fighters. 2. The subtitle comes from the BBC’s (2005) article entitled: ‘So where are Zimbabweans going?’ 3. See the case of Mutumwa Mawere, who recently won his case against the state with regard to dual citizenship (Gonda, 2013). 4. Statistics New Zealand, Census of Population and Dwellings 1996, 2001 and 2006. 5. US Census statistics as captured by the United Nations Global Migration Database, http://esa.un.org/unmigration/migrantstockbyorigin.aspx (accessed on 15 February 2013). 6. IRIN (2008), ‘Zimbabwe: Returning will take more than politics’. http:// www.irinnews.org/Report/77599/ZIMBABWE-Returning-will-take-more- than-politics. 7. Statistics Canada, 2001 and 2006 Census of Population, Statistics. 8. Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada, Facts and Figures 2011 – Immigration overview: Permanent and temporary residents, http://www.cic. gc.ca/english/resources/statistics/facts2011/permanent/10.asp

149 150 Notes

9. Gukurahundi is a word that originates from the Shona peasant population and refers to the early rains that wash away the chaff before the spring rains. 10. In Zimbabwean public discourse Malawian, Zambian and Mozambican people are imagined and construed as inferior, unthinking, ‘the other’ (Rutherford, 2001).

3 The Construction and Negotiation of Diasporic Identities

1. Chinyawo is a person who performs a nyao dance, a dance carried out by secretive men dressed head to toe in sisal sacking, covered in mud, holding knives. The real identity of a chinyawo always remains a mystery. The nyao dance originated in Malawi and is regularly performed on commercial farms in Zimbabwe. 2. Qualified Lawyers Transfer Test (QLTT) is the conversion test that enables certain lawyers to qualify as solicitors in England and Wales. 3. After my fieldwork, I wrote a letter to the mayor of the city explaining some of the disturbing research findings. The council’s Community Safety Team invited me to make a presentation, on 2 October 2006, to a panel of eight members, which included a police officer from the Greater Manchester Police, a church minister from the Methodist church, a representative from a refugee organization, an anthropological researcher from the University of Manchester and city council officials. The uninterrupted 30-minute presen- tation was followed by two hours of discussion. Every member of the panel was shocked by my findings about the nature of racial violence experienced by Zimbabwean asylum seekers and refugees. From this productive meeting, a working group was formed to address the issue. A recent draft report to the Wigan Council cabinet by the Refugee and Migrants Forum, a range of differ- ent agencies that work with asylum seekers, refugees and migrants within the Wigan borough, concludes that ‘there is a lack of cultural awareness and there is evidence of racism and far right activity in the Borough’ (WARM, 2009, p. 15). Unsurprisingly, as McCarthy (2007, p. 3) observes, ‘those granted refugee status often left the borough as they had little connection, instead choosing to live where there more settled communities and more culturally orientated services’.

4 ‘Do You Have a Visa?’

The portrayal of married women as the equivalent of the Home Office is so popu- lar that it has been turned into a short story titled ‘Nyambo 5: Types of Drinking Visas’; see Dandarotelevision, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VgrdpYOfdQk (accessed on 5 April 2013). 1. Although migrants contribute significantly to the British economy, the Home Office is known for enforcing restrictive and defensive border control meas- ures against migrants. It is no wonder that among migrant communities, the Home Office is perceived with mistrust and dislike. 2. Oliver Mtukudzi is one of the original and finest musicians Zimbabwe has ever produced. Notes 151

5 The Diaspora and the Politics of Development

1. The Global Political Agreement, signed by Zimbabwe’s three main parties on 15 September 2008, created the necessary conditions for the formation of the inclusive government (Government of National Unity) in 2009. The signing of the GPA had important implications for how diasporan politics was conducted. 2. ‘Old man’ was an indirect reference to Zimbabwean president Robert Mugabe. 3. According to Ong’s (1999) understanding of ‘flexible citizenship’, some individuals view passports instrumentally in terms of status and security rather than as symbols of national loyalty and belonging. At the same time as Zimbabweans abroad have pressed for recognition of citizenship rights at home, they have also taken out citizenship in the UK in large numbers. Figures from the Home Office show that between 1997 and 2012, over 46,000 Zimbabweans were granted British citizenship. 4. By 2013, since the signing of the GPA, Zimbabwe had received transitional development support amounting to around US$2.6 billion (Friends of Zimbabwe, 2013). 5. Homelink is a concept developed and initiated by the Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe to cater for the interests of Zimbabweans abroad. 6. See http://www.zimbabwehumancapital.org/about-zimbabwe-human-capi- tal (accessed on 4 June 2013). 7. See also the education initiative launched by the Council for Assisting Refugee Academics (CARA). In 2011, CARA in partnership with the mobile network Econet Wireless set up the Virtual Lecture Hall, an e-learning scheme that facilitate academics working in the diaspora to provide ‘Virtual Lectures’ to students at the University of Zimbabwe’s College of Health Science and the Faculties of Science and Veterinary Science. See http://www. academic-refugees.org/zimbabwe-virtual.asp. 8. D. Brown (2008), More Destitution in Leeds, Joseph Rowntree Charitable Trust report (York: Joseph Rowntree Charitable Trust). 9. The radio station is called SW Radio Africa. See http://www.swradioafrica. com/. 10. A significant number, approximately 600 Zimbabweans, joined the Britain’s Armed Forces when their visitors’ visa expired. As citizens of a common- wealth country, Zimbabweans were entitled to apply irrespective of their immigration status. Perhaps this may need to be put into the context of Britain and its allies’ ‘war on terror’ in Iraq and Afghanistan and the need to recruit more soldiers (Kirkup and Prince, 2008). 11. A Zimbabwean currency that can only be used within a specific period.

6 Religion in the Diaspora

1. See http://www.fifmi.org/ (accessed on 15 March 2010). 2. See http://agapeforallnations.com/uk_satellites.html (accessed on 20 May 2010). 3. See http://www.fifsutton.org/. 152 Notes

4. This is a department that deals with accommodation and housing in the city. 5. In October 2009, I attended one of the Apostle Walter Masocha’s church ser- vices in Yorkshire.

7 Transnational Religious Ties and Integration

1. Mbuya Anna and Mai Maria uniforms are Catholic dresses for Zimbabwean married women. Mbuya is a Shona word for grandmother and mai means mother. These are women’s associations that support the church teachings. 2. A site for pilgrimage where priests used to hide in caves during the war. References

Adogame, A. (2004) ‘Engaging the Rhetoric of Spiritual Warfare: The Public Face of Aladura in Diaspora’, Journal of Religion in Africa, 34(4), 493–522. Adogame, A. (2013) The African Christian Diaspora: New Currents and Emerging Trends in World Christianity (London: Bloomsbury Publishing). Afshar, H. (2008) ‘Can I See Your Hair? Choice, Agency and Attitudes: The Dilemma of Faith and Feminism for Muslim Women Who Cover’, Ethnic and Racial Studies, 31(2), 411–27. Akyeampong, E. (2000) ‘Africans in the Diaspora: The Diaspora and Africa’, African Affairs, 99(395), 183–215. Al-Ali, N. (2010) ‘Diasporas and Gender’ in K. Knott & S. McLoughlin (Eds), Diasporas: Concepts, Intersections, Identities (London: Zed Books). Al-Ali, N., Black, R., & Koser, K. (2001) ‘Refugees and Transnationalism: The Experience of Bosnians and Eritreans in Europe’, Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 27(4), 615–34. Alba, R. D., & Nee, V. G. (2005) Remaking the American Mainstream: Assimilation and Contemporary Immigration (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press). Alcalde, M. C. (2010) ‘Violence across Borders: Familism, Hegemonic Masculinity, and Self-Sacrificing Femininity in the Lives of Mexican and Peruvian Migrants’, Latino Studies, 8(1), 48–68. Alexander, C. (2004) ‘Imagining the Asian Gang: Ethnicity, Masculinity and Youth after “the Riots”’, Critical Social Policy, 24(4), 526–49. Alpers, E. A. (2001) ‘Defining the African Diaspora’, Paper presented at the Center for Comparative Social Analysis Workshop, University of California, Los Angeles. Alpers, E. A. (2003) ‘The African Diaspora in the Indian Ocean: A Comparative Perspective’ in S. d. S. Jayasuriya & R. Pankhurst (Eds), The African Diaspora in the Indian Ocean (Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press). Amnesty International. (2003) Zimbabwe: Rights under Siege, date accessed 21 March 2005, from http://web.amnesty.org/library/pdf/AFR 460122003ENGLISH/$File/AFR4601203.pdf Anand, R., Armstrong, A., Galabuzi, G.-E., Neve, A., & Whitehead, R. (2004) Zimbabwe under Siege: A Canadian Civil Society Perspective, date accessed 21 December 2004, from http://www.sarpn.org.za/documents/d0000928/P1044- Zimbabwe_Under_Siege-Sept2004.pdf Anderson, B. (1991) Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (London: Verso). Anonymous. (2006) Zimbabweans in the Diaspora Unhappy with Mugabe’s Mockery, date accessed 13 May 2007, from http://www.zimbabwejournalists. com/story.php?art_id=302&cat=1 Anthias, F. (1998) ‘Evaluating “Diaspora”: Beyond Ethnicity’, Sociology, 32(3), 557–80. Astrow, A. (1983) Zimbabwe: A Revolution That Lost Its Way? (London: Zed).

153 154 References

Australian Government. (n.d.) Zimbabwe-Born: Community Information Summary, date accessed 4 June 2013, from www.immi.gov.au/media/ publications/statistics/.../zimbabwe.pdf Bakewell, O. (2008) ‘In Search of the Diasporas within Africa’, African Diaspora, 1(1), 5–27. Barnes, T. A. (1992) ‘The Fight for Control of African Women’s Mobility in Colonial Zimbabwe, 1900–1939’, Signs, 17(3), 586–608. Basch, L., Schiller, N. G., & Blanc, C. S. (1994) Nations Unbounded: Transnational Projects, Postcolonial Predicaments, and Deterritorialized Nation-States (Basel: Gordon and Breach). Batnitzky, A., McDowell, L., & Dyer, S. (2009) ‘Flexible and Strategic Masculinities: The Working Lives and Gendered Identities of Male Migrants in London’, Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 35(8), 1275–93. Bauman, Z. (2011) ‘Education in the World of Diasporas’ in I. Gur-Ze’ev (Ed.), Diasporic Philosophy and Counter-Education (Rotterdam: Sense Publishers). BBC. (2005) So Where Are Zimbabweans Going?, BBC Online, date accessed 12 May 2013, from http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/4416820.stm BBC. (2011) State Multiculturalism Has Failed, Says David Cameron, BBC, date accessed 12 February 2012, from http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk- politics-12371994 Beach, D. N. (1980) The Shona and Zimbabwe: 900–1850 (Gweru: Mambo Press). Beckford, J. A., Gale, R., Owen, D., Peach, C., & Weller, P. (2006) Review of the Evidence Base on Faith Communities, date accessed 2 August 2008, from http://www.communities.gov.uk/publications/communities/review Bedford, R., Callister, P., & Didham, R. (2010) ‘Arrivals, Departures and Net Migration, 2001/02–2008/09’, New Zealand and International Migration, 22, 50–103. Bernal, V. (2006) ‘Diaspora, Cyberspace and Political Imagination: The Eritrean Diaspora Online’, Global Networks, 6(2), 161–79. Betts, A., & Kaytaz, E. (2009) National and International Responses to the Zimbabwean Exodus: Implications for the Refugee Protection Regime, Research Paper No. 175, UNHCR. Bhandar, B. (2009) ‘The Ties That Bind: Multiculturalism and Secularism Reconsidered’, Journal of Law and Society, 36(3), 301–26. Bhatia, S., & Ram, A. (2001) ‘Locating the Dialogical Self in the Age of Transnational Migrations, Border Crossings and Diasporas’, Culture & Psychology, 7(3), 297–309. Bhebhe, N. (2011) Government to Issue Diaspora Bond, The Independent, date accessed 13 October 2013, from http://allafrica.com/stories/201110141079.html Bilsborrow, R. E., Graeme, H., Oberai, A. S., & Zlotnik, H. (1997) International Migration Statistics: Guidelines for Improving Data Collection Systems (Geneva: International Labour Organization). Bloch, A. (2006) ‘Emigration from Zimbabwe: Migrant Perspectives’, Social Policy and Administration, 40(1), 67–87. Bloch, A. (2008) ‘Zimbabweans in Britain: Transnational Activities and Capabilities’, Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 34(2), 287–305. Bloch, A., & Schuster, L. (2005) ‘At the Extremes of Exclusion: Deportation, Detention and Dispersal’, Ethnic and Racial Studies, 28(3), 491–512. Bock, G., & James, S. (1992) Beyond Equality and Difference: Citizenship, Feminist Politics and Female Subjectivity (London: Routledge). References 155

Boehm, D. A. (2008) ‘“Now I Am a Man and a Woman!”: Gendered Moves and Migrations in a Transnational Mexican Community’, Latin American Perspectives, 35(1), 16–30. Bolt, M. (2010) ‘Camaraderie and Its Discontents: Class Consciousness, Ethnicity and Divergent Masculinities among Zimbabwean Migrant Farmworkers in South Africa’, Journal of Southern African Studies, 36(2), 377–93. Bowman, L. W. (1973) Politics in Rhodesia: White Power in an African State (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press). Brah, A. (1996) Cartographies of Diaspora: Contested Identities (London: Routledge). Braziel, J. E., & Mannur, A. (2003) ‘Nation, Migration, Globalization: Points of Contention in Diaspora Studies’ in J. E. Braziel & A. Mannur (Eds), Theorizing Diaspora: A Reader (Oxford: Blackwell). Brownell, J. (2008) ‘The Hole in Rhodesia’s Bucket: White Emigration and the End of Settler Rule’, Journal of Southern African Studies, 34, 591–610. Brubaker, R. (2005) ‘The “Diaspora” Diaspora’, Ethnic and Racial Studies, 28(1), 1–19. Brubaker, R., & Cooper, F. (2000) ‘Beyond “Identity”’, Theory and Society, 29(1), 1–47. Bruce, S. (1995) Religion in Modern Britain (Oxford: Oxford University Press). Butler, J. (1990) Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity (London: Routledge). Butler, K. D. (2000) ‘From Black History to Diasporan History: Brazilian Abolition in Afro-Atlantic Context’, African Studies Review, 43(1): 125–39. Campbell, G. (2006) ‘The African–Asian Diaspora: Myth or Reality?’, African and Asian Studies, 5(3–4), 3–4. Cao, N. (2005) ‘The Church as a Surrogate Family for Working Class Immigrant Chinese Youth: An Ethnography of Segmented Assimilation’, Sociology of Religion, 66(2), 183–200. Capps, R., McCabe, K., & Fix, M. (2012) Diverse Streams: African Migration to the United States (Washington, DC: Migration Policy Institute). Castells, M. (1997) The Information Age: Economy, Society, and Culture, Volume II: The Power of Identity (Malden, MA: Blackwell). Castles, S., & Miller, M. (2003) The Age of Migration: International Population Movements in the Modern World, 3rd edn (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan). CCJPZ, & LRF. (1997) Breaking the Silence – Building True Peace: A Report on the Disturbances in Matabeleland and the Midlands, 1980–1988 (Bulawayo: The Legal Resources Foundation). Charsley, K. (2005) ‘Unhappy Husbands: Masculinity and Migration in Transnational Pakistani Marriages’, Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, 11(1), 85–105. Chetsanga, C. J., & Muchenje, T. B. (2003) An Analysis of the Cause and Effect of the Brain Drain in Zimbabwe, date accessed 10 November 2004, from http:// www.sarpn.org.za/documents/d0000422/Zimbabwe_Brain_Drain.pdf Chikanda, A. (2005) ‘Medical Leave: Exodus of Health Professionals from Zimbabwe’ in J. Crush (Ed.), Southern African Migration Project, pp. 1–34 (Queen’s University, Toronto: Idasa and Southern African Research Centre). Chikanda, A. (2010) ‘Nursing the Health System: The Migration of Health Professionals from Zimbabwe’ in J. Crush & D. Tevera (Eds), Zimbabwe’s Exodus, Crisis, Migration, Survival (Kingston and Cape Town: SAMP). 156 References

Clark, K., & Drinkwater, S. (1998) ‘Ethnicity and Self-Employment in Britain’, Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, 60(3), 383–404. Clarke, K. (2010) ‘New Spheres of Transnational Formations: Mobilizations of Humanitarian Diasporas’, Transforming Anthropology, 18(1), 48–65. Clifford, J. (1994) ‘Diasporas’, Cultural Anthropology, 9(3), 302–38. Cohen, R. (1996) ‘Diasporas and the Nation-State: From Victims to Challengers’, International Affairs, 72(3), 507–20. Cohen, R. (1997) Global Diasporas: An Introduction (London: UCL Press). Cohen, R. (2007) Solid, Ductile and Liquid: Changing Notions of Homeland and Home in Diaspora Studies, QEH Working Paper Series 156, date accessed 25 October 2007, from http://www.qeh.ox.ac.uk/RePEc/qeh/qehwps/qehwps156.pdf Cohen, R. (2008) Global Diasporas: An Introduction, 2nd edn (London: Routledge). Connell, R. W. (1995) Masculinities (Cambridge: Polity). Connell, R. W., & Messerschmidt, J. W. (2005) ‘Hegemonic Masculinity: Rethinking the Concept’, Gender & Society, 19(6), 829–59. Coward, H. G., Hinnells, J. R., & Williams, R. B. (Eds) (2000) The South Asian Religious Diaspora in Britain, Canada, and the United States (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press). Crang, P., Jackson, P., & Dwyer, C. (Eds) (2004) Transnational Spaces (London: Routledge). Crush, J., & Tevera, D. (2010) ‘Exiting Zimbabwe’ in J. Crush & D. Tevera (Eds), Zimbabwe’s Exodus, Crisis, Migration, Survival (Kingston and Cape Town: SAMP). Dannecker, P. (2005) ‘Transnational Migration and the Transformation of Gender Relations: The Case of Bangladeshi Labour Migrants’, Current Sociology, 53(4), 655–74. Davies, R. (2007) ‘Reconceptualising the Migration–Development Nexus: Diasporas, Globalisation and the Politics of Exclusion’, Third World Quarterly, 28(1), 59–76. Davies, R. (2010) ‘Development Challenges for a Resurgent African Diaspora’, Progress in Development Studies, 10(2), 131–44. Davies, R. (2011) ‘African Diasporas, Development and the Politics of Context’, Third World Quarterly, 33(1), 91–108. Davis, F., Stankeviciute, J., Ebbutt, D., & Kaggwa, R. (2007) The Ground of Justice: The Report of a Pastoral Research Enquiry into the Needs of Migrants in London’s Catholic Community, from http://www.caritas-europa.org/module/FileLib/ Ground_of_Justice.pdf De Haas, H. (2005) ‘International Migration, Remittances and Development: Myths and Facts’, Third World Quarterly, 26(8), 1269–84. Delanty, G. (2008) ‘Dilemmas of Secularism: Europe, Religion and the Problem of Pluralism’ in G. Delanty, R. Wodak, & P. Jones (Eds), Identity, Belonging and Migration (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press). Department of Labour. (2010). Migration Trends and Outlook 2009/10. Wellington: New Zealand Government. Doyle, L. (2009) ‘I Hate Being Idle’: Wasted Skills and Enforced Dependence among Zimbabwean Asylum Seekers in the UK (London: Refugee Council/Zimbabwe Association). Dube, J. (2012) Unfreeze Nurses’ Posts, Government Urged, The Standard, date accessed 5 January 2013, from http://www.thestandard.co.zw/2012/11/25/ unfreeze-nurses-posts-government-urged/ References 157

Dwyer, C., Shah, B., & Sanghera, G. (2008) ‘“From Cricket Lover to Terror Suspect” – Challenging Representations of Young British Muslim Men’, Gender, Place and Culture, 15(2), 117–36. Ebaugh, H. R. (2010) ‘Transnationality and Religion in Immigrant Congregations: The Global Impact’, Nordic Journal of Religion & Society, 23(2), 105–19. Erman, T. (1997) ‘The Meaning of City Living for Rural Migrant Women and Their Role in Migration: The Case of Turkey’, Women’s Studies International Forum, 20(2), 263–73. Esman, M. J. (2009) Diasporas in the Contemporary World (Cambridge: Polity). Essed, P. (1991) Understanding Everyday Racism: An Interdisciplinary Theory (Newbury Park, CA: Sage). Faist, T. (1999) ‘Developing Transnational Social Spaces: The Turkish–German Example’ in L. Pries (Ed.), Migration and Transnational Social Spaces (Aldershot: Ashgate). Faist, T. (2000) ‘Transnationalization in International Migration: Implications for the Study of Citizenship and Culture’, Ethnic and Racial Studies, 23(2), 189–222. Faist, T. (2008) ‘Migrants as Transnational Development Agents: An Inquiry into the Newest Round of the Migration–Development Nexus’, Population, Space and Place, 14(1), 21–42. Faist, T. (2010) ‘Diaspora and Transnationalism: What Kind of Dance Partners?’ in R. Bauböck & T. Faist (Eds), Diaspora and Transnationalism: Concepts, Theories and Methods (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press). Featherstone, L. (2013) Lynne Featherstone Welcomes Friends of Zimbabwe, date accessed 10 June 2013, from https://www.gov.uk/government/speeches/ lynne-featherstone-welcomes-friends-of-zimbabwe Finney, N., & Robinson, V. (2008) ‘Local Press, Dispersal and Community in the Construction of Asylum Debates’, Social & Cultural Geography, 9(4), 397–413. Fitzgerald, D. (2004) Ethnographies of Migration, Theory and Research in Comparative Social Analysis, date accessed 23 March 2005, from http:// repositories.cdlib.org/uclasoc/trcsa/19 Fitzgerald, D. (2006) ‘Towards a Theoretical Ethnography of Migration’, Qualitative Sociology, 29(1), 1–29. Foner, N., & Alba, R. (2008) ‘Immigrant Religion in the US and Western Europe: Bridge or Barrier to Inclusion?’, International Migration Review, 42(2), 360–92. Friends of Zimbabwe. (2013) Communiqué, date accessed 14 June 2013, from http://eeas.europa.eu/delegations/zimbabwe/documents/20130327_01_en.pdf Gaidzanwa, R. (1992) ‘Bourgeois Theories of Gender and Feminism’ in R. Meena (Ed.), Gender in Southern Africa: Conceptual and Theoretical Issues (Harare: SAPES Books). Gaidzwana, R. (1999) ‘Voting with Their Feet: Migrant Zimbabwean Nurses and Doctors in the Era of Structural Adjustment’ in A. O. Olukoshi (Ed.), The Political and Social Context of Social Adjustment in Sub-Saharan Africa, pp. 5–83 (Uppsala: Nordiska Afrikainstutet). Giddens, A. (1990) The Consequences of Modernity (Cambridge: Polity Press). Gille, Z. (2001) ‘Critical Ethnography in the Time of Globalization: Toward a New Concept of Site’, Cultural Studies, 1(3), 319–34. Gilroy, P. (1993) The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double Consciousness (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press). 158 References

Godwin, P. (1993) ‘Rhodesians Never Die’: The Impact of War and Political Change on White Rhodesia (Oxford: Oxford University Press). Goldring, L. (1998) ‘The Power of Status in Transnational Social Fields’ in M. P. Smith & L. E. Guarnizo (Eds), Transnationalism from Below (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers). Gonda, V. (2010) Has Zuma Finally Managed to Persuade Mugabe to Implement GPA?, SW Radio Africa, date accessed 21 October 2011, from http://www. swradioafrica.com/news190310/zuma190310.htm Gonda, V. (2013) Mawere Wins Landmark Dual Citizenship Case, Newzimbabwe. com, date accessed 18 September 2013, from http://www.newzimbabwe.com/ news-11536-Mawere+wins+landmark+dual+citizenship+case/news.aspx Gowan, T., & Riain, S. O. (2000) ‘At Home with the Global Ethnographer’ in M. Burawoy (Ed.), Global Ethnography: Forces, Connections, and Imaginations in a Postmodern World (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press). Graham, C. (2008) Man Labels Wigan Most Racist Place in Britain, Wigan Evening Post, date accessed 2 June 2010, from http://www.wigantoday.net/wigannews/ Is-Wigan-a-racist-town.3672696.jp Griffin, B. (2005) 50 Held in Immigration Swoop on Factory, The Evening Telegraph, date accessed 13 September 2005, from http://iccoventry.icnetwork. co.uk/0100news/0100localnews/tm_objectid=16125773&method=full&siteid= 50003&headline=50-held-in-immigration-swoop-on-factory--name_page.html Griffiths, D., Sigona, N., & Zetter, R. (2006) ‘Integrative Paradigms, Marginal Reality: Refugee Community Organisations and Dispersal in Britain’, Journal of Ethnic & Migration Studies, 32(5), 881–98. Guarnizo, L. E., Portes, A., & Haller, W. (2003) ‘Assimilation and Transnationalism: Determinants of Transnational Political Action among Contemporary Migrants’, American Journal of Sociology, 108(6), 1211–48. Gyekye, K. (1997) Tradition and Modernity: Philosophical Reflections on the African Experience (New York: Oxford University Press). Habermas, J. (2006) ‘Religion in the Public Sphere’, European Journal of Philosophy, 14(1), 1–25. Halvorson, B. (2010) ‘Translating the Fifohazana (Awakening): The Politics of Healing and the Colonial Mission Legacy in African Christian Missionization’, Journal of Religion in Africa, 40(4), 413–41. Hammar, A., McGregor, J., & Landau, L. (2010) ‘Introduction. Displacing Zimbabwe: Crisis and Construction in Southern Africa’, Journal of Southern African Studies, 36(2), 263–83. Hanciles, J. J. (2003) ‘Migration and Mission: Some Implications for the Twenty- First-Century Church’, International Bulletin of Missionary Research, 27(4), 146–53. Hanciles, J. J. (2004) ‘Beyond Christendom: African Migration and Transformations in Global Christianity’, Studies in World Christianity, 10(1), 93–113. Hannerz, U. (2003) ‘Being There … And There … And There! Reflections on Multi-Site Ethnography’, Ethnography, 4(2), 201–16. Harte, E. W. (2010) ‘Settlement Geography of African Refugee Communities in Southeast Queensland: An Analysis of Residential Distribution and Secondary Migration’, DPhil thesis, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane. Hawthorne, L. (2010) Health Workforce Migration to Australia: Policy Trends and Outcomes 2004–2010 (Health Workforce Australia). References 159

Heath, T., Jeffries, R., & Purcell, J. (2004) Asylum Statistics United Kingdom 2003, 2nd, date accessed 3 April 2005, from http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/ rds/pdfs04/hosb1104.pdf Henry, L., & Mohan, G. (2003) ‘Making Homes: The Ghanaian Diaspora, Institutions and Development’, Journal of International Development, 15(5), 611–22. Herald. (2012) Illegal Car Sales Face Closure, The Herald, date accessed 24 November 2012, from http://int.herald.co.zw/index.php?option=com_con tent&view=article&id=58159:illegal-car-sales-face-closure&catid=37:top- stories&Itemid=130#.UazRpEC1Ez4 Hindin, M. J. (2002) ‘For Better or for Worse? Women’s Autonomy and Marital Status in Zimbabwe’, Social Science Research, 31, 151–72. Hinfelaar, M. (2003) Respectable and Responsible Women: Methodist and Roman Catholic Women’s Organisations in Harare, Zimbabwe, 1919–1985 (Utrecht: Bookcentrum). Hoang, L. A., & Yeoh, B. S. A. (2011) ‘Breadwinning Wives and “Left-Behind” Husbands: Men and Masculinities in the Vietnamese Transnational Family’, Gender & Society, 25(6), 717–39. Hobsbawm, E. (1983) ‘Introduction: Invention of Traditions’ in E. J. Hobsbawm & T. O. Ranger (Eds), The Invention of Tradition, Canto edn (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press). Home Office. (2002) Control of Immigration: Statistics United Kingdom 2001, date accessed 23 December 2005, from http://www.archive2.official- documents.co.uk/document/cm56/5684/5684.pdf Home Office. (2003) Control of Immigration: Statistics United Kingdom 2002, date accessed 3 April 2005, from http://www.official-documents.co.uk/ document/cm60/6053/6053.pdf Home Office. (2004) Control of Immigration: Statistics United Kingdom 2003, date accessed 12 November 2005, from http://www.archive2.official- documents.co.uk/document/cm63/6363/6363.pdf Home Office. (2005) Control of Immigration: Statistics United Kingdom 2004, date accessed 11 December 2006, from http://www.official-documents.gov.uk/ document/cm66/6690/6690.pdf Home Office. (2006) Control of Immigration: Statistics United Kingdom 2006, date accessed 12 November 2006, from http://www.official-documents.gov.uk/ document/cm69/6904/6904.pdf Hugo, G. (2009) ‘Migration between Africa and Australia: A Demographic Perspective’, Paper presented at the Paper for Australian Human Rights Commission, December. HumanRightsWatch. (2002) Fast Track Land Reform in Zimbabwe, date accessed 12 March 2005, from http://www.hrw.org/reports/2002/zimbabwe/ ZimLand0302.pdf Hungwe, C. (2006) ‘Putting Them in Their Place: “Respectable” and “Unrespectable” Women in Zimbabwean Gender Struggles’, Feminist Africa 6: Subaltern Sexualities (6), 33–47. Hunt, S. (2002) ‘“Neither Here nor There”: The Construction of Identities and Boundary Maintenance of West African Pentecostals’, Sociology, 36(1), 147–69. Huysmans, J. (2000) ‘The European Union and the Securitization of Migration’, Journal of Common Market Studies, 38(5), 751–77. 160 References

InternationalCrisisGroup. (2002) Zimbabwe: The Politics of National Liberation and International Division, date accessed 14 March 2005, from http://www.icg. org//library/documents/report_archive/A400800_17102002.pdf IOM. (2013) Zimbabwe, date accessed 3 June 2013, from http://www.iom.int/ cms/en/sites/iom/home/where-we-work/africa-and-the-middle-east/southern- africa/zimbabwe.html Ionescu, D. (2006) Engaging Diasporas as Development Partners for Home and Destination Countries: Challenges for Policymakers (Geneva: International Organization for Migration). Itzigsohn, J. (2000) ‘Immigration and the Boundaries of Citizenship: The Institutions of Immigrants’ Political Transnationalism’, International Migration Review, 34(4), 1126–54. Itzigsohn, J., & Saucedo, S. G. (2002) ‘Immigrant Incorporation and Sociocultural Transnationalism’, International Migration Review, 36(3), 766–98. Jackson, J. (1994) ‘Repatriation and Reconstruction in Zimbabwe during the 1980s’ in T. Allen & H. Morsink (Eds), When Refugees Go Home (London: UNRISD). Jacobs, S. M., & Howard, T. (1987) ‘Women in Zimbabwe: Stated Policy and State Action’ in H. Afshar (Ed.), Women, State, and Ideology: Studies from Africa and Asia (Basingstoke: Macmillan Press). Jakubowicz, A. (2010) ‘Australia’s Migration Policies: African Dimensions’, African Australians: A Review of Human Rights and Social Inclusion Issues, 1–27. Jayasuriya, S. S., & Pankhurst, R. (2003) The African Diaspora in the Indian Ocean (Trenton, NJ: African World Press). Jensen, T. G. (2008) ‘To Be “Danish”, Becoming “Muslim”: Contestations of National Identity?’, Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 34(3), 389–409. Joppke, C. (2007) ‘Beyond National Models: Civic Integration Policies for Immigrants in Western Europe’, West European Politics, 30(1), 1–22. Kagoro, B. (2003) The Opposition and Civil Society, Zimbabwe’s Turmoil: Problems and Prospects, date accessed 13 March 2005, from http://www.iss.co.za/pubs/ Monographs/No87/Chap1.pdf Kalra, V. S. (2009) ‘Between Emasculation and Hypermasculinity: Theorizing British South Asian Masculinities’, South Asian Popular Culture, 7(2), 113–25. Kalra, V. S., Kaur, R., & Hutnyk, J. (2005) Diaspora & Hybridity (London: Sage Publications). Karagiannis, E., & Schiller, N. G. (2008) ‘“… The Land Which the Lord Your God Giveth You”: Two Churches Founded by African Migrants in Oststadt, Germany’ in A. Adogame, R. Gerloff & K. Hock (Eds), Christianity in Africa and the African Diaspora: The Appropriation of a Scattered Heritage (London: Continuum). Kaulemu, D. (2012) ‘Introduction: Imagining Citizenship in Zimbabwe’ in D. Kaulemu (Ed.), Imagining Citizenship in Zimbabwe (Harare: Konrad Adenauer Stiftung). Kayode-Anglade, S., & Spio-Garbrah, N. (2012) ‘Diaspora Bonds: Some Lessons for African Countries’, Africa Economic Brief, 3(13), 1–13. Kesby, M. (1999) ‘Locating and Dislocating Gender in Rural Zimbabwe: The Making of Space and the Texturing of Bodies’, Gender, Place and Culture, 6(1), 27–47. Ketkar, S. L., & Ratha, D. (2010) ‘Diaspora Bonds: Tapping the Diaspora During Difficult Times’, Journal of International Commerce, Economics and Policy, 1(2), 251–63. References 161

Kibble, S. (2003) Southern Africa: Destruction, (Re)Construction and Deconstruction – the Case of Zimbabwe (London: Catholic Institute for International Relations). Kirkup, J., & Prince, R. (2008) Armed Forces Employ 7,000 Foreigners, Telegraph. co.uk, date accessed 13 August 2009, from http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/ main.jhtml?xml=/news/2008/02/18/narmy218.xml Kivisto, P. (2001) ‘Theorizing Transnational Immigration: A Critical Review of Current Efforts’, Ethnic and Racial Studies, 24, 549–77. Kiwanuka, M. (2009) Zimbabwean Migration into Southern Africa: New Trends and Responses, date accessed 14 June 2012, from http://www.cormsa.org.za/ wp-content/uploads/2009/05/zim_migration_into_southern_africa_nov_09. pdf Kiwanuka, M., & Monson, T. (2009) Zimbabwean Migration into Southern Africa: New Trends and Responses, Forced Migration Studies Programme, Wits University, Johannesburg. Kleist, N. (2010) ‘Negotiating Respectable Masculinity: Gender and Recognition in the Somali Diaspora’, African Diaspora, 3(2), 185–206. Kofman, E., & Raghuram, P. (2005) ‘Gender and Skilled Migrants: Into and Beyond the Work Place’, Geoforum, 36(2), 149–54. Kopinski, D., & Polus, A. (2012) Is Botswana Creating a New Gaza Strip? An Analysis of the ‘Fence Discourse’, Crossing African Borders: Migration and Mobility, date accessed 15 February 2013, from https://repositorio.iscte.pt/ bitstream/10071/4523/1/KOPINSKI_%20Is%20Botswana.pdf Koser, K. (2003) ‘New African Diasporas: An Introduction’ in K. Koser (Ed.), New African Diasporas (London: Routledge). Kubatana.net. (2012) Parliamentary Roundup Bulletin No. 37, Southern African Parliamentary Support Trust, date accessed 29 November 2012, from http:// www.kubatana.net/html/archive/legisl/121129sapst.asp?sector=LEGISL& year=0&range_start=1 Labonte, R., Packer, C., Klassen, N., Kazanjian, A., Apland, L., Adalikwu, J., Crush, J., McIntosh, T., Schrecker, T., Walker, J. & Zakus, D. (2006) The Brain Drain of Health Professionals from Sub-Saharan Africa to Canada (Cape Town: SAMP). Landolt, P., & Wei Da, W. (2005) ‘The Spatially Ruptured Practices of Migrant Families: A Comparison of Immigrants from El Salvador and the People’s Republic of China’, Current Sociology, 53(4), 625–53. Larson, P. M. (2007) ‘African Diasporas and the Atlantic’, Diaspora, 3, 129–47. Levitt, P. (2001) ‘Transnational Migration: Taking Stock and Future Directions’, Global Networks, 1(3), 195–216. Levitt, P. (2003) ‘“You Know, Abraham Was Really the First Immigrant”: Religion and Transnational Migration’, International Migration Review, 37(3), 847–73. Levitt, P. (2004) ‘Redefining the Boundaries of Belonging: The Institutional Character of Transnational Religious Life’, Sociology of Religion, 65(1), 1–18. Levitt, P. (2008) ‘Religion as a Path to Civic Engagement’, Ethnic and Racial Studies, 31(4), 766–91. Levitt, P., & Jaworsky, N. (2007) ‘Transnational Migration Studies: Past Developments and Future Trends’, Annual Review of Sociology, 33(1), 129–56. Levitt, P., & Schiller, N. G. (2004) ‘Conceptualizing Simultaneity: A Transnational Social Field Perspective on Society’, International Migration Review, 38(3), 1002–39. 162 References

Lindley, A. (2010) The Early Morning Phone Call: Somali Refugees’ Remittances, Studies in Forced Migration, Vol. 28 (New York: Berghahn Books). Loukili, A. (2007) ‘Moroccan Diaspora, Internet and National Imagination: Building a Community Online through the Internet Portal Yabiladi’, Paper presented at the Nordic Africa Institute, Nordic Africa Days Workshop on Restrictions and Possibilities: The Media in Discourses of Migration, Citizenship and Belonging in Africa, Uppsala. Lucas, D., Jamali, M., & Edgar, B. (2011) ‘Zimbabwe’s Exodus to Australia’, Paper presented at the 34th AFSAAP Conference, Flinders University. Lynch, P. (2008) Mission of the Church to Migrants in England and Wales, date accessed 18 August 2009, from www.catholic-ew.org.uk/.../Pastoral%20 Statement%20on%20Migrants%20v3_Mar08.pdf - Magaisa, A. T. (2010) Key Points Emerging from the Diaspora Conference Held at Victoria Falls, Zimbabwe, date accessed 25 May 2013, from http://www.dfzim. com/wp-content/downloads/Outcomes_Victoria_Falls_Conference.pdf Magunha, F., Bailey, A., & Cliffe, L. (2009) ‘Remittance Strategies of Zimbabweans in Northern England’, School of Geography, University of Leeds. Mahler, S. J., & Hansing, K. (2005) ‘Toward a Transnationalism of the Middle: How Transnational Religious Practices Help Bridge the Divides between Cuba and Miami’, Latin American Perspectives, 32(1), 121–46. Mahler, S. J., & Pessar, P. R. (2001) ‘Gendered Geographies of Power: Analyzing Gender across Transnational Spaces’, Identities – Global Studies in Culture and Power, 7(4), 441–59. Makanya, S. T. (1994) ‘The Desire to Return: Effects of Experiences in Exile on Refugees Repatriating to Zimbabwe in the Early 1980s’ in T. Allen & H. Morsink (Eds), When Refugees Go Home (London: UNRISD). Makina, D. (2007) Survey of Profile of Migrant Zimbabweans in South Africa: A Pilot Study, date accessed 10 May 2010, from http://www.zimcsoforum.org/ index.php?module=Pagesetter&func=viewpub&tid=1&pid=40 Makina, D. (2010) ‘Zimbabwe in Johannesburg’ in J. Crush & D. Tevera (Eds), Zimbabwe’s Exodus, Crisis, Migration, Survival (Kingston and Cape Town: SAMP). Makumbe, J. (2003) Zanu-PF: A Party in Transition?, Zimbabwe’s Turmoil: Problems and Prospects, date accessed 13 March 2005, from http://www.iss. co.za/pubs/Monographs/No87/Chap2.pdf Malkki, L. (1992) ‘National Geographic: The Rooting of Peoples and the Territorialization of National Identity among Scholars and Refugees’, Cultural Anthropology, 7(1), 24–44. Mambondiani, L. (2011) The Case for a Zimbabwe Diaspora Bond, New Zimbabwe, date accessed 4 November 2013, from http://www.newzimbabwe.com/blog/ index.php/2011/11/lmambondiani/the-case-for-a-zimbabwe-diaspora-bond/ Manning, P. (2003) ‘Africa and the African Diaspora: New Directions of Study’, The Journal of African History, 44(3), 487–506. Manning, P. (2009) The African Diaspora: A History through Culture (New York: Columbia University Press). Maodza, T. (2013) Diaspora Interest Sends Jitters in MDC-T, The Herald, date accessed 25 February 2013, from http://www.herald.co.zw/index. php?option=com_content&view=article&id=68325:diaspora-interest-sends- jitters-in-mdc-t&catid=37:top-stories&Itemid=130#.Ua4pDkC1Ez4 References 163

Marcus, G. (1995) ‘Ethnography in/of the World System: The Emergence of Multi-Sited Ethnography’, Annual Review of Anthropology, 24, 95–117. Marr, S. (2012) ‘“They Treat Us Like Dogs”: Demographic Claustrophobia and the Zimbabwean Struggle for Space on the Streets of Gaborone, Botswana’, African Historical Review, 44(1), 80–108. Marrow, H. B. (2007) ‘African: South Africa and Zimbabwe’ in M. C. Waters, R. Ueda & H. B. Marrow (Eds), The New Americans: A Guide to Immigration since 1965 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press). Martin, P. M. (2009) Catholic Women of Congo-Brazzaville: Mothers and Sisters in Troubled Times (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press). Matshazi, N. (2013) Electoral Law Bars Hopefuls in Diaspora, The Standard, date accessed 27 January 2013, from http://www.thestandard.co.zw/2013/01/27/ electoral-law-bars-hopefuls-in-diaspora/ Mawadza, A. (2009) Strategies to Encourage the Diaspora to Return to Zimbabwe, date accessed 10 February 2013, from www.chapter2.org.za/index. asp?page=outputs Mawema, M., & Chitauro, B. (2003) ‘Mvana and Their Children: The Language of the Shona People as it Relates to Women and Womens’ Space’, Zambezia, 30(2), 135–53. Maxwell, D. (2006) African Gifts of the Spirit: Pentecostalism & the Rise of a Zimbabwean Transnational Religious Movement (Harare: Weaver Press). Mazur, R. E. (1986) ‘Reversal of Migration in the Labour Reserves of Zimbabwe? Prospects for Change’, Studies in Comparative International Development, 21(4), 55–87. Mazzucato, V. (2008) ‘The Double Engagement: Transnationalism and Integration. Ghanaian Migrants’ Lives between Ghana and the Netherlands’, Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 34(2), 199–216. Mbiba, B. (2010) ‘Burial at Home? Dealing with Death in the Diaspora and Harare’ in J. McGregor & R. Primorac (Eds), Zimbabwe’s New Diaspora: Displacement and the Cultural Politics of Survival (New York: Berghahn Books). Mbiba, B. (2011) ‘Beyond Abject Spaces: Enterprising Zimbabwean Diaspora in Britain’, African Diaspora, 4(1), 50–75. Mbiba, B. (2012) ‘Zimbabwean Diaspora Politics in Britain: Insights from the Cathedral Moment 2009’, Commonwealth & Comparative Politics, 50(2), 226–52. McCarthy, S. (2007) Housing and Support Needs Analysis Asylum Seekers, Refugees and Migrants, date accessed 24 August 2009, from http://www. wigan.gov.uk/NR/rdonlyres/0967ABC5-3FBE-4E8A-A74D-F32B1D5132FA/0/ HSNARefugees83KB.pdf McDowell, L. (2002) ‘The Trouble with Men? Young People, Gender Transformations and the Crisis of Masculinity’, International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 24(1), 201–9. McDowell, L. (2003) ‘Masculine Identities and Low-Paid Work: Young Men in Urban Labour Markets’, International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 27(4), 828–48. McGregor, J. (2002) ‘The Politics of Disruption: War Veterans and the Local State in Zimbabwe’, African Affairs, 101, 9–37. McGregor, J. (2006) Professionals Relocating: Zimbabwean Nurses and Teachers Negotiating Work and Family in Britain in A. M. Mannion (Ed.), Geographical Paper No. 178, Reading: University of Reading. 164 References

McGregor, J. (2007) ‘“Joining the BBC (British Bottom Cleaners)”: Zimbabwean Migrants and the UK Care Industry’, Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 33(5), 801–24. McGregor, J. (2008a) ‘Abject Spaces, Transnational Calculations: Zimbabweans in Britain Navigating Work, Class and the Law’, Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, 33(4), 466–82. McGregor, J. (2008b) ‘Children and “African Values”: Zimbabwean Professionals in Britain Reconfiguring Family Life’, Environment & Planning A, 40(3), 596–614. McGregor, J. (2008c) ‘Children and “African Values”: Zimbabwean Professionals in Britain Reconfiguring Family Life’, Environment and Planning A, 40(3), 596–614. McGregor, J. (2009) ‘Associational Links with Home among Zimbabweans in the UK: Reflections on Long-Distance Nationalisms’, Global Networks, 9(2), 185–208. McGregor, J. (2010) ‘The Making of Zimbabwe’s New Diaspora’ in J. McGregor & R. Primorac (Eds), Zimbabwe’s New Diaspora: Displacement and the Cultural Politics of Survival (New York: Berghahn Books). McGregor, J. (2011) ‘Rethinking the Boundaries of the Nation: Histories of Cross Border Mobility and Zimbabwe’s New “Diaspora”’, Critical African Studies, 4(6), 47–68. McGregor, J. (forthcoming) ‘Sentimentality or Speculation: Dream Homes, Crisis Economies and Diasporic Transformations of Urban Space’, African Diaspora. McGregor, J., & Pasura, D. (2010) ‘Diasporic Repositioning and the Politics of Re-Engagement: Developmentalising Zimbabwe’s Diaspora?’, The Round Table, 99(411), 687–703. McGregor, J., & Primorac, R. (Eds). (2010) Zimbabwe’s New Diaspora: Displacement and the Cultural Politics of Survival (New York: Berghahn Books). Meertens, D., & Segura-Escobar, N. (1996) ‘Uprooted Lives: Gender, Violence and Displacement in Colombia’, Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography, 17(2), 165–78. Menjivar, C. (1999) ‘Religious Institutions and Transnationalism: A Case Study of Catholic and Evangelical Salvadoran Immigrants’, International Journal of Politics, Culture & Society, 12(4), 589–612. Mercer, C., Page, B., & Evans, M. (2008) Development and the African Diaspora: Place and the Politics of Home (London: Zed Books). Mlambo, A. S. (2010) ‘A History of Zimbabwean Migration to 1990’ in J. Crush & D. Tevera (Eds), Zimbabwe’s Exodus, Crisis, Migration, Survival (Kingston and Cape Town: SAMP). Modood, T. (2010) ‘The Struggle for Ethno-Religious Equality in Britain: The Place of the Muslim Community’ in M. Higgins, C. Smith, & J. Storey (Eds), The Cambridge Companion to Modern British Culture (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press). Mohan, G., & Zack-Williams, A. B. (2002) ‘Globalisation from Below: Conceptualising the Role of the African Diasporas in Africa’s Development’, Review of African Political Economy, 29(92), 211–36. Molokele, D. (2013) COPAC: Minimalism Remains the Viable Option for the Zimbabwean Diaspora, Zimbabwe Briefing, date accessed 3 June 2013, from http://www.zimbabwebriefing.org/EN/Content/ViewArticle/A/COPAC_ Minimalism_Remains_the_Viable_Option_for_the_Zimbabwean_Diaspora_ References 165

Morrell, R., & Ouzgane, L. (2005) ‘African Masculinities: An Introduction’ in L. Ouzgane & R. Morrell (Eds), African Masculinities: Men in Africa from the Late Nineteenth Century to the Present (New York: Palgrave Macmillan). Mortensen, E. B. (2013) Why Are Zimbabwean Migrants Ambivalent About Return?, date accessed 25 May 2013, from http://www.prio.no/Publications/ Publication/?x=5700 Moyo, J. (2013) Zim Battles to Cope with Flood of Used Cars Streaming In, Mail & Guardian, date accessed 17 April 2013, from http://mg.co.za/ article/2013-02-08-zim-battles-to-cope-with-flood-of-used-cars-streaming-in Mudimbe, V. Y. (1988) The Invention of Africa: Gnosis, Philosophy, and the Order of Knowledge (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press). Munyukwe, C. (2013) MPs Demand Tax Probe, Financial Gazette, date accessed 9 February 2013, from http://www.financialgazette.co.zw/top-stories/15523- mps-demand-tax-probe.html Mupakati, L. (2012) ‘“Reparation and Inequality through Different Diasporas”: The Case of the Zimbabwean Diaspora in Leeds, United Kingdom and Limpopo, South Africa’, PhD Thesis, University of Sheffield. Muzondidya, J. (2010) ‘Makwerekwere: Migration, Citizenship and Identity among Zimbabweans in South Africa’ in J. McGregor & R. Primorac (Eds), Zimbabwe’s New Diaspora: Displacement and the Cultural Politics of Survival (New York: Berghahn). Muzondidya, J. (2011) ‘The Zimbabwean Diaspora: Opportunities and Challenges for Engagement in Zimbabwe’s Political Development and Economic Transformation’ in T. Murithi & A. Mawadza (Eds), Zimbabwe in Transition: A View from Within (Johannesburg: Jacana Media (Pty) Ltd). Mwaniki, D. (2004) Zimbabwe: Land, Identity, and Power, Global Crisis Solutions, date accessed 12 March 2005, from http://www.sarpn.org.za/documents/ d0001027/P1138-Zimbabwe_Policy_RBC_May2004.pdf Nagel, C. R. (2009) ‘Rethinking Geographies of Assimilation’, Professional Geographer, 61(3), 400–07. Nagel, J. (1998) ‘Masculinity and Nationalism: Gender and Sexuality in the Making of Nations’, Ethnic and Racial Studies, 21(2), 242–69. Ncube, W. (1998) Law, Culture, Tradition, and Children’s Rights in Eastern and Southern Africa (Aldershot: Ashgate). NewZimbabwe.com. (2013) We ‘Rigged’ Our Own Defeat: MDC-T Mayor, date accessed 25 August 2013, from http://www.newzimbabwe.com/news-12140- We+rigged+our+own+defeat+MDC-T+mayor/news.aspx Nkau, D. J. (2003) Cross-Border Migration to South Africa in the 1990s: the Case of Zimbabwean Women, date accessed 13 April 2004, from http://upetd.up.ac. za/thesis/available/etd-03022004-111426/ Nyberg-Sorensen, N., Hear, N. V., & Engberg-Pedersen, P. (2002) ‘The Migration– Development Nexus: Evidence and Policy Options’, International Migration, 40(5), 49–73. Observer. (2003) The Exile Files, The Observer, date accessed 10 August 2004, from http://www.theguardian.com/theobserver/2003/aug/10/features.magazine27 Okpewho, I., & Nzegwu, N. (Eds) (2009) The New African Diaspora (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press). Olesen, H. (2002) ‘Migration, Return, and Development: An Institutional Perspective’, International Migration, 40(5), 125–50. 166 References

Ong, A. (1999) Flexible Citizenship: The Cultural Logics of Transnationality (Durham, NC: Duke University Press). Onyinah, O. (2004) ‘Pentecostalism and the African Diaspora: An Examination of the Missions Activities of the Church of Penecost’, Pneuma: The Journal of the Society for Pentecostal Studies, 26(2), 216–41. Orozco, M. (2003) Hometown Associations and Their Present and Future Partnerships: New Development Opportunities?, Vol. 1211 (Inter-American Dialogue: USAID Report). Page, B., Mercer, C., & Evans, M. (2009) ‘Introduction: African Transnationalisms and Diaspora Networks’, Global Networks, 9(2), 137–40. Palmer, C. A. (2000) ‘Defining and Studying the Modern African Diaspora’, Journal of Negro History, 85(1–2), 27–32. Pankhurst, D., & Jacobs, S. (1988) ‘Land Tenure, Gender Relations, and Agricultural Production: The Case of Zimbabwe’s Peasantry’ in J. Davidson (Ed.), Agriculture, Women and Land: The African Experience (Boulder, CO: Westview Press). Pasura, D. (2003) ‘A Gendered Analysis of Land Reforms in Zimbabwe’, Master’s Dissertation, University of Warwick. Pasura, D. (2006) Mapping Exercise: Zimbabwe, date accessed 15 December 2006, from http://www.iomlondon.org/doc/mapping/Zimbabwe%20Mapping%20 Exercise%20Final%20Report.pdf Pasura, D. (2008a) ‘A Fractured Diaspora: Strategies and Identities among Zimbabweans in Britain’, PhD Thesis, University of Warwick. Pasura, D. (2008b) ‘Gendering the Diaspora: Zimbabwean Migrants in Britain’, African Diaspora, 1(1–2), 86–109. Pasura, D. (2010a) ‘Competing Meanings of the Diaspora: The Case of Zimbabweans in Britain’, Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 36(9), 1445–61. Pasura, D. (2010b) ‘Zimbabwean Transnational Diaspora Politics in Britain’ in J. Mcgregor & R. Primorac (Eds), Zimbabwe’s New Diaspora: Displacement and the Cultural Politics of Survival (New York: Berghahn Books). Pasura, D. (2012a) ‘A Fractured Transnational Diaspora: The Case of Zimbabweans in Britain’, International Migration, 50(1), 143–61. Pasura, D. (2012b) ‘Religious Transnationalism: The Case of Zimbabwean Catholics in Britain’, Journal of Religion in Africa, 42(1), 26–53. Pasura, D. (2013) ‘Modes of Incorporation and Transnational Zimbabwean Migration to Britain’, Ethnic and Racial Studies, 36(1), 199–218. Patterson, T., & Kelley, R. (2000) ‘Unfinished Migrations: Reflections on the African Diaspora and the Making of the Modern World’, African Studies Review, 43(1), 11–45. Pellerin, H., & Mullings, B. (2013) ‘The “Diaspora Option”, Migration and the Changing Political Economy of Development’, Review of International Political Economy, 20(1), 89–120. Penninx, R., Kraal, K., Martiniello, M., & Vertovec, S. (2004) ‘Introduction’ in R. Penninx, K. Kraal, M. Martiniello & S. Vertovec (Eds), Citizenship in European Cities (Aldershot: Ashgate). Pessar, P. R. (1999) ‘Engendering Migration Studies: The Case of New Immigrants in the United States’, The American Behavioral Scientist, 42(4), 577–600. Portes, A., & Rumbaut, R. G. (2001) Legacies: The Story of the Immigrant Second Generation (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press). References 167

Potts, D. (2006) ‘“All My Hopes and Dreams Are Shattered”: Urbanization and Migrancy in an Imploding African Economy – the Case of Zimbabwe’, Geoforum, 37(4), 536 –51. Ranga, D. (2003) ‘Sub-Region Differentials in Migration and Remittances in Zimbabwe between 1988–90 and 1996–98’, Eastern Africa Social Science Research Review, 19(2), 55–73. Ranger, T. (1983) ‘The Invention of Tradition in Colonial Africa’ in E. J. Hobsbawm & T. O. Ranger (Eds), The Invention of Tradition, Canto edn (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press). Ranger, T. (1993) ‘The Invention of Tradition Revisited: The Case of Colonial Africa’ in T. Ranger & O. Vaughan (Eds), Legitimacy and the State in Twentieth- Century Africa (London: Palgrave Macmillan). Ranney, S. I. (1985) ‘The Labour Market in a Dual Economy: Another Look at Colonial Rhodesia’, Journal of Development Studies, 21(4), 505–24. Reis, M. (2004) ‘Theorizing Diaspora: Perspectives on “Classical” and “Contemporary” Diaspora’, International Migration, 42(2), 41–60. Reynolds, T. (2006) ‘Caribbean Families, Social Capital and Young People’s Diasporic Identities’, Ethnic and Racial Studies, 29(6), 1087–1103. Robinson, V., Andersson, R., & Musterd, S. (2003) Spreading The ‘Burden’?: A Review of Policies to Disperse Asylum Seekers and Refugees (Bristol: The Policy Press). Rosenfeld, M. (2012) ‘Mobility and Social Capital among Lebanese and Beninese Entrepreneurs Engaged in Transnational Trade’, International Review of Sociology, 22(2), 211–28. Rutherford, B. (2001) ‘Commercial Farm Workers and the Politics of Displacement in Zimbabwe: Colonialism, Liberation and Democracy’, Journal of Agrarian Change, 1(4), 626–51. Rutherford, B., & Addison, L. (2007) ‘Zimbabwean Farm Workers in Northern South Africa’, Review of African Political Economy, 34(114), 619–35. Safran, W. (1991) ‘Diasporas in Modern Societies: Myths of Homeland and Return’, Diaspora, 1(1), 83–99. Safran, W. (2005) ‘The Jewish Diaspora in a Comparative and Theoretical Perspective’, Israel Studies, 10(1), 36–60. Salih, R. (2009) ‘Muslim Women, Fragmented Secularism and the Construction of Interconnected “Publics” in Italy’, Social Anthropology, 17(4), 409–23. Salvatore, A. (2009) ‘Secular Formations and Public Spheres in a Transcultural Perspective’, Journal of Intercultural Studies, 30(3), 285–301. Samkange, S. (1968) Origins of Rhodesia (London: Heinemann). Scarnecchia, T. (1999) ‘The Mapping of Respectability and the Transformation of African Residential Space’ in B. Raftopoulos & T. Yoshikuni (Eds), Sites of Struggle: Essays in Zimbabwe’s Urban History (Harare: Weaver Press). Schmidt, E. (1990) ‘Negotiated Spaces and Contested Terrain: Men, Women, and the Law in Colonial Zimbabwe, 1890–1939’, Journal of Southern African Studies, 16(4), 622–48. Schneider, J., & Crul, M. (2010) ‘New Insights into Assimilation and Integration Theory: Introduction to the Special Issue’, Ethnic and Racial Studies, 33(7), 1143–8. Segal, L. (2008) ‘After Judith Butler: Identities, Who Needs Them?’, Subjectivity: International Journal of Critical Psychology, 25(1), 381–94. Selby, A. E. (2006) ‘Commercial Farmers and the State: Interest Group Politics and Land Reform in Zimbabwe’, DPhil Thesis, University of Oxford. 168 References

Shahidian, H. (2000) ‘Sociology and Exile: Banishment and Tensional Loyalties’, Current Sociology, 48(2), 71–99. Shain, Y., & Barth, A. (2003) ‘Diasporas and International Relations Theory’, International Organization, 57(3), 449–79. Shaw, W. H. (2003) ‘They Stole Our Land: Debating the Expropriation of White Farms in Zimbabwe’, Journal of Modern African Studies, 41(1), 75–89. Sheffer, G. (1986) ‘A New Field of Study: Modern Diasporas in International Politics’ in G. Sheffer (Ed.), Modern Diasporas in International Politics (London: Croom Helm). Sheffer, G. (2003) Diaspora Politics: At Home Abroad (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press). Shepperson, G. (1993) ‘African Diaspora: Concept and Context’ in J. Harris (Ed.), Global Dimensions of the African Diaspora, pp. 41–9 (Washington, D.C: Howard University Press). Shuval, J. T. (2000) ‘Diaspora Migration: Definitional Ambiguities and Theoretical Paradigms’, International Migration, 38(5), 41–57. Sinclair, M. (1979) ‘The Brain Drain from Zimbabwe to Canada: The Issue of Compensation Payments’, Issue: A Journal of Opinion, 9(4), 41–3. Smith, M. P., & Guarnizo, L. E. (1998) ‘The Locations of Transnationalism’ in M. P. Smith & L. E. Guarnizo (Eds), Transnationalism from Below (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers). Snel, E., Engbersen, G., & Leerkes, A. (2006) ‘Transnational Involvement and Social Integration’, Global Networks, 6(3), 285–308. Sokefeld, M. (2006) ‘Mobilizing in Transnational Space: A Social Movement Approach to the Formation of Diaspora’, Global Networks, 6(3), 265–84. Solomos, J. (1998) ‘Beyond Racism and Multiculturalism’, Patterns of Prejudice, 32(4), 45–62. Soysal, Y. N. (2000) ‘Citizenship and Identity: Living in Diasporas in Post-War Europe?’, Ethnic and Racial Studies, 23(1), 1–15. Stoneman, C., & Cliffe, L. (1989) Zimbabwe: Politics, Economics and Society (London: Pinter Publishers). Tabori, P. (1972) The Anatomy of the Exile (London: George Harrap). Ter Haar, G. (1998) Halfway to Paradise: African Christians in Europe (Cardiff: Cardiff Academic Press). Ter Haar, G. (2008) ‘African Christians in Europe: A Mission in Reverse’ in K. Kunter & J. H. Schjorring (Eds), Changing Relations between Churches in Europe and Africa: The Internationalization of Christianity and Politics in the 20th Century (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag). Tevera, D., & Zinyama, L. (2002) Introduction: Zimbabweans Who Move, Zimbabweans Who Move: Perspectives on International Migration in Zimbabwe, date accessed 20 December 2005, from http://www.queensu.ca/samp/ sampresources/samppublications/policyseries/Acrobat25.pdf Tinarwo, M. (2011) ‘Making Britain “Home”: Zimbabwean Social Workers’ Experiences of Migrating to and Working in a British City’, PhD Thesis, University of Durham. Tinarwo, M., & Pasura, D. (forthcoming) ‘Negotiating and Contesting Gendered and Sexual Identities in the Zimbabwean Diaspora’, Journal of Southern African Studies. Tölölyan, K. (1991) ‘The Nation-State and Its Others: In Lieu of a Preface’, Diaspora, 1(1), 3–7. References 169

Tölölyan, K. (1996) ‘Rethinking Diaspora(s): Stateless Power in the Transnational Moment’, Diaspora, 5(1), 3–36. Tölölyan, K. (2007) ‘The Contemporary Discourse of Diaspora Studies’, Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East, 27(3), 647–55. UN. (2012) Trends in International Migrant Stock: Migrants by Destination and Origin (United Nations Database, Pop/Db/Mig/Stock/Rev.2012), date accessed 15 February 2013, from http://esa.un.org/MigOrigin/ UNDP. (2010) The Potential Contribution of the Zimbabwe Diaspora to Economic Recovery, date accessed 25 May 2013, from http://www.zimbabwesituation. com/WP11.pdf UNHCR. (2000) Flight from Rhodesia, Return to Zimbabwe, The State of The World’s Refugees 2000, date accessed 12 March 2007, from http://www.unhcr. org/home/RSDCOI/3ae6a5fb4.pdf van Dijk, R. (1997) ‘From Camp to Encompassment: Discourses of Transsubjectivity in the Ghanaian Pentecostal Diaspora’, Journal of Religion in Africa, 27(2), 135–59. Van Hear, N. (1998) New Diasporas: The Mass Exodus, Dispersal and Regrouping of Migrant Communities (London: UCL Press). Vasta, E. (2007) ‘From Ethnic Minorities to Ethnic Majority Policy: Multiculturalism and the Shift to Assimilationism in the Netherlands’, Ethnic and Racial Studies, 30(5), 713–40. Vertovec, S. (1999) ‘Conceiving and Researching Transnationalism’, Ethnic and Racial Studies, 22(2), 447–62. Vertovec, S. (2002) ‘Transnational Networks and Skilled Labour Migration’, Paper presented at the Ladenburger Diskurs ‘Migration’, Ladenburg. Vertovec, S. (2007) ‘Super-Diversity and Its Implications’, Ethnic and Racial Studies, 30(6), 1024–54. Vertovec, S., & Cohen, R. (Eds) (1999) Migration, Diasporas and Transnationalism (Cheltenham: Edward Elgar). Waldinger, R., & Fitzgerald, D. (2004) ‘Transnationalism in Question’, American Journal of Sociology, 109(5), 1177–95. WARM. (2009) Welcomes Asylum-Seekers, Refugees & Migrants: A Strategy for Supporting Asylum Seekers, Refugees and Migrant Workers in Wigan, date accessed 7 July 2010, from http://www.wigan.gov.uk/NR/rdonlyres/E5CD8F6F- 7E94-45F6-A804-54D868217758/0/09WARM.pdf West, M. O. (2002) The Rise of an African Middle Class: Colonial Zimbabwe, 1898–1965 (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press). Wright, C., & Jagger, G. (1999) ‘End of Century, End of Family? Shifting Discourses of Family in “Crisis”’ in C. Wright & G. Jagger (Eds), Changing Family Values (London: Routledge). Wuthnow, R., & Offutt, S. (2008) ‘Transnational Religious Connections’, Sociology of Religion, 69(2), 209–32. Yeoh, B. S. A., & Willis, K. (1999) ‘“Heart” and “Wing”, Nation and Diaspora: Gendered Discourses in Singapore’s Regionalisation Process’, Gender, Place & Culture, 6(4), 355–72. Yeoh, B. S., Willis, K. D., & Fakhri, A. K. (2003) ‘Introduction: Transnationalism and Its Edges’, Ethnic and Racial Studies, 26(2), 207–17. Zeleza, P. T. (2005) ‘Rewriting the African Diaspora: Beyond the Black Atlantic’, African Affairs, 104(414), 35–68. 170 References

Zeleza, P. T. (2010) ‘African Diasporas: Toward a Global History’, African Studies Review, 53(1), 1–19. Zeleza, T. (2004) ‘The African Academic Diaspora in the United States and Africa: The Challenges of Productive Engagement’, Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East, 24(1), 261–75. Zimbabwe Catholic Bishops’ Conference. (2012) Pastoral Letter: Zimbabweans in the Diaspora (Harare: Zimbabwe Catholic Bishops’ Conference). Zimbabwe Human Rights NGO Forum. (2012) Taking Transitional Justice to the Diaspora: Outreach Report (London: Zimbabwe Human Rights NGO Forum). Zimdiaspora. (2013) MDC-T Endorses Ezra Sibanda & Eric Knight, Zimdiaspora.com date accessed 4 April 2013, from http://www.zimdiaspora. com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=11360:mdc-t- endorses-ezra-sibanda-a-eric-knight&catid=38:travel-tips&Itemid=18 Zimeye.com. (2011) 2nd UK Shipping-Crook Still Feasting on Zimbabweans, Zimeye, date accessed 3 July 2013, from http://www.zimeye.org/?p=31593 Zinyama, L. M. (1990) ‘International Migrations to and from Zimbabwe and the Influence of Political Changes on Population Movements, 1965–1987’, International Migration Review, 24(4), 748–67. Zinyama, L. M. (2002) International Migration and Zimbabwe: An Overview, Zimbabweans Who Move: Perspectives on International Migration in Zimbabwe date accessed 29 December 2005, from http://www.queensu.ca/samp/ sampresources/samppublications/policyseries/Acrobat25.pdf Zlotnik, H. (1999) ‘Trends of International Migration since 1965: What Existing Data Reveal’, International Migration, 37(1), 21–61. Index

Adogame, A. 106–7, 113, 153, 160 Atlantic model of African Africa 1–2, 7–9, 20–2, 69–70, diaspora 20 112–13, 159–60 attachments to original or imagined African Christians in Europe and homeland. 6, 19, 136, 140, 144, reverse mission 106–7, 113, 146 137–8, 160 Australia 31, 33, 35, 39–40, 47–8, African Development Bank 95 159 African diasporas 1–4, 7–10, 149 African immigrants and refugees in conceptual debates 7 Australia 35 a fourfold typology 18–23 Zimbabweans emigrating to location of dispersal 8 Australia 35 in France 20 African masculinities 69, 165 Bakewell, O. 8–9, 18, 149, 154 Africanization of Spanish culture 21 barbecue (gochi-gochi) 3, 42, 54 Afro-Americans 66 Basch, et al. 15, 18, 122, 154 the Afro-Brazilian diaspora 19 Beitbridge 93 Afro Caribbean 115 Belgium 94 Akyeampong, E. 8, 20, 27, 153 Betts and Kaytaz 30, 154 Alexander, J. 76, 153 birmingham 3, 54–7, 61–2, 64–5, Algerian diaspora 19 123–4, 136 Al-Ali, N. 15, 70, 79, 125, 153 Archbishop of Birmingham 137 Alpers, E. 1, 8, 22, 153 Black Atlantic 12, 157, 169 Anderson, B. 25, 153 black Zimbabweans 30, 36, 39–40, Angola 29 47, 81, 147–8 Anthias, F. 10, 12, 50, 147, 153 appropriating alternative anti-apartheid activism 3, 58 identities 66 Apostle Walter Masocha, Archibishop men and crisis of masculinity 81 of Agape for All Nations as migrant labourers in South Ministries International 110, Africa 39 118, 152 in the US 36 Apostolic Faith Mission International Bloch, A. 2, 53, 91–2, 154 Ministries UK 110 Boehm, D. 79, 155 assimilation 22, 122, 158 Bolt, M. 34, 71, 155 segmented 120, 155 Botswana 25, 31–4, 38, 40–1, 72, 93 asylum dispersal policy in the Braziel and Mannur 10, 102, 155 UK 61–2 Britain 2–6, 40–8, 74–8, 80–3, asylum seekers 26, 54, 58–9, 61–4, 106–12, 166 67, 109–11 journeys and patterns of migration dispersal of 62, 109 to Britain 43–8 failed 53, 88, 100–1 Zimbabweans in 29 refused 100 Brownell, J. 39–40, 155 Zimbabweans in Wigan 62 Brubaker, R. 10, 12–13, 142, 155

171 172 Index building blocks of potential constitution-making process and the diasporas 10–11, 104 diaspora 32, 97–8 Bulawayo 126–7, 155 mistrust 105 burial at home 103–4, 125, 130, 163 politics of exclusion 97 Butler, J. 19, 80, 155 Constitution Parliamentary Committee (COPAC) 97, 164 Campbell, G. 22, 155 contested spaces 126 Canada 31, 33, 36–7, 40, 149, 156 control of women’s bodies 79, 124 Canada coping with bereavement in the migrating as health professionals, diaspora 118 students and refugees 36 Coventry 3, 51, 53–4, 64, 109 Zimbabwean population in 33 Coventry pub 50–3, 55, 64, 66, Candomble 19 77–9, 146 Cape Verdean 19 creolization and African care-work 56, 67 diasporas 14, 16, 21–2, 50 Catholic guilds (Zimbabwean) 80, cross-border activities 16, 18 115, 124–30, 147 crossborder migrant elite 130 entrepreneurs 93 embracing 125 Crush, J. 30, 33, 155–6, 161–2, 164 parent 130 cultural differences 5, 107–8, 123, predominant 126 135 Catholic women fraternities in maintaining 109 Africa 125 culture Chikanda, A. 41, 101, 155 the global youth 13 children 44, 82–3, 117–20, 131, homeland’s 125 139–40, 163–4 racialized minority 141 anti-school culture 131 teenage/youth 119 upbringing of 119, 131 cyberspace activists 20 citizens 30, 47, 60, 96, 100, 151 citizenship 31, 157, 160, 162, 165, David Cameron, UK Prime 168 Minister 108, 154 dual 32, 87, 90, 149 de-Atlanticizing the African flexible 151, 165 diaspora 8 citizenship tests and integration de-diasporization 22, 25 140 de Haas, H. 7, 87, 92, 156 Clifford, J. 6, 10, 12, 14, 102, 143 decolonization, the diasporas of 40 Cohen, R. 9–13, 19, 25–6, 143, 148, Delanty, G. 107, 156 156 Democratic Republic of Congo 33–5, colonial 7, 30, 34, 70–1, 125, 138 63 communities 10, 12–13, 115, 123–4, deportation as a tool of migration 136–9, 146–7 control 53, 66, 100, 114, 116, ephemeral 25 154 ethnic 10, 62, 108 descendants of Africans in the Indian imagined 1, 25, 153 Ocean world 22; see also silent queer 26 African diasporas settled 150 deskilling 55 transient 37 impact on gendered identities 74 Congolese refugees 63 destination countries 20–1, 24, 95, Connell, R. W. 69, 72, 75, 156 143, 145, 147 Index 173 detention 38, 53, 154; see also its limits 89 deportation as a tool of migration as spaces of resistance 88 control street protest in London 58 deterritorialized identities 13 diaspora politics and its Development Foundation of limitations 98 Zimbabwe (DFZ) 90 diaspora studies 5, 142, 155–6, 168 diaspora 1–16, 18–27, 85–93, 95–9, applied 9, 12, 19 101–7, 142–8 diaspora theory 14, 26 the African academic 20 diasporans 1–2, 21, 23, 95–7, 104, boundary-maintenance 12–13 146–7 unpacking of 10–14 the diasporas as a remittance cash defining 12–13, 27, 102 cow 96 deterritorialized 13 diasporic associations 109 ethnic 13–14, 24 diasporic consciousness 21–2, 25 fractured 68, 148, 166 diasporic conversations 86, 90 incipient 14, 24, 42 diasporic identities 4, 50–1, 53, 55, transnationality of 2, 9, 18 67–8, 146 the unmaking of 22, 25 construction of 64, 111 victim 26 definition 50 the diaspora and political enacting 6 reforms 97–8, 105, 157 hyphenated 148 diaspora as Babylon 103, 111, 125, negotiation of 51, 53, 55, 57, 59, 61 144 shaping 109 diaspora as exile 102–3 diasporic imagination 25, 103–4, diaspora bonds 95–6, 104, 160 145, 158 floated 95 discrimination 19, 21, 115–16, 121, diaspora capital 105 144, 146 diaspora communities, significant dispersing asylum seekers actors in global politics 87, experiences of 3, 51 144–5 UK government policy 62 diaspora congregations 79, 110–11, displacement 24, 32–3, 97, 142, 114–21, 123–4, 136–7, 146–7 163–7 cosmopolitan 132–3 agony of 60 creation of 116, 121 history of 12, 21 spiritual well-being 114 narratives of displacements 142 diaspora engagement 90 vintages and patterns of 37–48 diaspora formation 37 domesticity and respectability 71 diaspora formation: where are dual nationality 26, 31, 43–4, 47, Zimbabweans going?’ 30–7 61, 109 Diaspora Funeral Cash Plan Dwyer, C. 76, 156–7 (DFCP) 104, 118 Diaspora Housing Scheme 96 Ebaugh, H. R. 122–3, 157 diaspora organizations 87, 89–90, Eritrean diaspora 27 100 Esman M. 8–9, 19–20, 157 development-oriented agenda 89 estimated Zimbabwean diaspora diaspora politics 5, 51–2, 88–9, 145, population, 2000–2013 32 155–6, 168 ethnic groups 2, 31, 41, 64, 124, 147 after the signing of the GPA 86 ethnographic research 4 of diaspora engagement 90 ethnographic sites 50–1 174 Index ethnography 4, 155, 158 Germany 33, 35, 118, 160 multi-sited 50, 163 Ghanaian Diaspora 19, 27, 159 Europe 106–8, 110, 113, 121, 153, Gilroy, P. 8, 12, 20, 157 156 Global Political Agreement (GPA) 86, European Union 62, 159 89, 93, 97–8, 105, 151 everyday racism 57, 115 globalization 11, 14, 26, 106, 155, exclusion 19, 21, 96–7, 116, 154, 157 156 gochi-gochis and masculinity 79 social 64, 84, 110–11, 114–15, 121 Government of National Unity exile 38–9, 41, 83–4, 101–4, 143, (GNU) 86, 91, 99, 151 167–8 Greek diaspora 10 export of second-hand vehicles 93–4 group identification 77 group identity 62, 67, 148 Faist, T. 15, 18, 26, 87, 102, 157 groupist tendencies 142 families 44, 72–5, 77, 81, 89, 169 Guarnizo et al. 16, 158, 168 immigrant 120 Gyekye, K. 70–1, 158 surrogate 120 traditional 6, 120 Hammar et al. 31–3, 158 traditional nuclear 128–9 Hanciles, J. 106, 113, 158 upper-class 34 Hannerz, U. 50, 158 family forms, diverse 129 Harare 93–4, 157, 160, 163, 167, 169 Father Cownley 134–5, 137–8, 140 health professionals 36–7, 41, 46, Father Dzadagu 123, 127, 129, 131 155, 161 Father Munyongani 112, 123, 128, emigrating to 35 136 work-permit route to UK 46 Fitzgerald, D. 16, 111, 157, 169 hegemonic masculinity 69, 75, food and diasporic identities 3, 6, 76–80, 153, 156 55, 92, 133 definition 69 foreign currency inflows 92, 96 disrupted 75 Forward in Faith Mission International how men respond to loss of 76–80 (FIFMI) 3, 106, 109–10 loss of 5 Francophone 13, 21 negotiating and enacting flexible Friends of Zimbabwe 98, 151, 157 notions of masculinity 85 hijab 126 gender 80, 82, 143, 156–7, 160–1, Hinfelaar, M. 125, 159 164–5 Hobsbawm, E. 70, 159, 167 gender and sexuality, diasporas 79, home 61–3, 74–7, 81–3, 102–4, 124–5, 165 132–4, 162–4 gender norms, pre-migration 80 cultural 104 gender relations 71, 76–7, 80, 129, dual 142 145, 166 reinventing 51 changing 129 virtual 12 reproducing 70 the Home Office 34, 55, 66, 100, gender roles 52 150–1, 159 gender status 75, 83 homeland 4–6, 9–15, 22–5, 81–93, gendered division of labour 72 98–105, 143–7 gendered identities 53, 68, 70, 72–3, ductile 12 77, 80 historic 102, 147 changing 79 imagined 10, 19, 144 Index 175

liquid 12–13, 156 Independence Day celebrations in the see also deterritorialized identities diaspora 55 solid idea 6, 12, 19, 143 integration 6, 108, 110–11, 122–3, symbolic 18–19, 22 125, 135–41 homeland connections 14, 18, 120, Catholic church’s strategy 135 138 integration perspectives in active 22 Europe 141 primordial 146 international migration 37, 121, homeland government and 123, 156–7, 165–8, 170 the diaspora, fractious International Organization for relationship 5, 87–8, 95–6, 105, Migration (IOM) 19, 87, 92, 145 99–101, 160 Homelink 96, 151 international organizations and the hometown associations (HTAs) 87, politics of development 86–7, 122, 166 89, 91, 93, 95, 97 hostility towards migrants 111–12, IOM and the politics of 115–16, 121 return 99–101 host societies, gochi-gochis and Islam in Europe 107–8, 126 diaspora congregations as spaces Islamic religion 20 of resistance 84 Islamic women’s headscarves 108 hostile Britain 114, 121 Israel 12, 95 hostile conditions 6, 19, 138, 144, Itzigsohn, J. 109, 138, 144, 160 147 enhances diasporic Jamaican identities 67 consciousness 25 Jamaicans 66–7, 115 transnational religious ties 147 Jayasuriya and Pankhurst 1, 8, 22, House of Commons and Trafalgar 153, 160 Square 3, 58 Jewish diaspora 10, 14, 26, 111, 149, hybrid identities 66–7 167 Zimbabwean as Jamaicans 65 Jews 10, 102 Zimbabwean as South Africans 65 Johannesburg 33, 161, 165 hybridity 12, 14, 16, 50, 128 Joshua Nkomo 29, 40–1, 89 identiies, national frame of Kalra et al. 12, 50, 75, 77, 160 reference 5, 50, 65–6, 160, 162 Kenyan diaspora 19 identities 50, 65–8, 79–80, 146–8, Kesby, M. 70–1, 160 155–6, 165–8 Kidderminister 136 ascribed refugee 4, 146 Koser, K. 1, 3, 27, 149, 153, 161 cultural 3, 68, 107, 125, 139 deterritorialized 12–14 labour migrants 25–6, 32, 38, 54 fragmented 67 Lebanese 93–4 historical 114 Lebanese in West Africa 149 hyphenated 146 Levitt, P. 7, 15–16, 132, 137, 140, 161 political 67, 146, 148 liberation, war of 24–6, 29, 37–9, religious 3, 13, 140 48, 149 supranational 20–1, 57–8 linkages 1–2, 9, 18–19, 21–2, 138, immigration status 24, 60–1, 110, 142–3 116, 118, 121 London bombings 108, 123 insecure 91 London double-decker bus 59 176 Index mainstream churches and survival 30 integration 6, 109 voluntary 1, 10–11 Makina, D. 33–4, 72, 162 Zimbabwean five phases of 4, 25, Malawi 25, 32–4, 39, 47, 150 30, 37–42, 48 Malawian diaspora 21 migration movements 23, 43 Mambondiani, L. 95–6, 162 migration of political exiles 38 marriages 70–1, 74, 76, 129–30 migration stories 57, 64–5, 77–8, 95, flexible 129 98, 134–5 gay 112 narratives of displacement 47, 142 move in 130 nostalgic 79 traditional 63 of racist attacks 63–4 marriages breakdown in the of return 38 diaspora 129 minorities Martin, P. 125, 163 ethnic 6, 54–5, 123, 140 masculine identities 73, 75, 85 immigrant 108 masculinities mixed congregations, tensions and Asian men in Britain 76 opportunities 6, 63, 131, 133–5, gender roles 75 137, 139–40 hypermasculinity 75 modes of incorporation and negotiating 44, 77–8 integration 109 masculinity 5, 69–70, 72–3, 75–9, Morgan Tsvangirai, leader of the 153, 155–6 Movement for Democratic dominant 78–9 Change 86 flexible 78 come home speech 86 strategic 73, 154 Moroccan 8–9, 20 Matebeleland 37, 41, 48, 88 Movement for Democratic Matebeleland massacre 24, 26, 48 Change 42, 44, 52, 55, 60, 88–9 Mazzucato, V. 122, 163 Mozambique 25, 29, 32–4, 38–9 Mbiba, B. 86, 91–2, 103–4, 163 multiculturalism, abandoning of 108 McGregor, J. 42–4, 46, 86–7, 89–91, multiculturalism and secularism in 109, 163–6 Britain 61, 107–8, 111, 154, Mediterranean and Atlantic 168–9 diasporas 8 Muslim and Catholic diasporas 13 Mercer, C. 8–9, 87, 164, 166 Muslim identity in Britain, the the Midlands 40–1, 53, 149, 155 ‘other’ 108 the migrant as the ‘other’ 112–18 Muslim women 107–8, 126, 167 migrant communities 91, 117, 121, Muzondidya, J. 33, 93, 165 141, 144, 150 myths about the homeland 11–12, migrant entrepreneurs 55 38, 79, 84, 155–6 migrant labour system 71 migrants 24–5, 91–2, 110–12, Nagel, J. 69, 125–6, 141, 165 114–23, 133–5, 138–44 Namibia 33–4, 93 migration 4–5, 7–10, 29–31, 37–9, narratives of displacement and 47–8, 155–67 settlement 47, 67, 102, 104, age of 4 145, 148 contemporary 7–8 nation-states and diasporas 15–16, cross-border 32 18, 21, 23, 27, 145–6 involuntary 24 Ndebele 29, 41, 52, 54, 115, 124 outward 4 emigration 40 Index 177

Netherlands 107–8, 113, 122, 163, postmodernism critique of diaspora 169 classical concept 14, 16, 50 New African diasporas 149, 165 power relations 70, 82 New Zealand 35, 48 re-configuring 73 Special Zimbabwe Residence Primorac, R. 2, 163–6 Policy 36 projects Zimbabweans in 33 historic Pan African Movement 20 NewZimbabwe.com 99, 165 religious 108 proudly Zimbabwean 51 organizations public spheres 5–6, 81, 83–4, 107, 167 development-focused 89 religion in the 158 migrant 119 religious 87, 114 race 3, 12, 35, 39, 134, 141 women’s 126, 129 racial abuse and violence in women’s church 125 Wigan 63–4 original homeland 1, 11, 18, 22–4, racism 56, 63–4, 67, 115–16, 144, 27 146 original homeland (real or explicit 64, 111 imagined) 1 institutional 57 institutionalized 57 Pankhurst and Jacobs 1, 8, 70–1, overt forms of 67, 111 153, 160, 166 racist attacks 63–4 Pasura, D. 33–4, 72, 86–91, 109, racist chanting 64 129–30, 166 Ranger, T. 7, 70–1, 159, 167 patterns of migration 8, 40, 48, 55, referendum on the new 62, 107 constitution 32, 97–8, 105 diverse routes and destinations 47 refugee organizations 87, 150 dual nationality or ancestral refugees 25–6, 38, 54–5, 61–4, route 47 110–11, 162–3 refugee route 47 Reis, M. 14, 26, 167 visitor route 47 relations, changing gendered 78 white migration 39 relationships between diasporas work-permit route 47 and their original or symbolic performative acts and gendered homelands 9, 12, 14, 35, 38, 50 identities 80 ambiguous 100 performativity 80 antagonistic 97 performing identities in transnational bifocal 14 spaces 146 complex 5, 87 the piano and African drums 131, contradictory 5 133, 137, 139 fractious 90, 95 political exiles 25, 38, 102–3 triadic 2 migration of 25, 38 trusting 105 political instability and religion in the diaspora 106–7, 109, emigration 29, 38–40, 43 117, 119–23, 155–8, 161 post-independence conflicts 40, 48 role in the public sphere 5 post-Washington Consensus shapes diasporic identities 109 policy 91, 144 spaces of belonging 121 the postcolonial state, marriage and viewed as a problem 108 traditions 70–1, 76, 81 religious diasporas 13 178 Index religious ties 6, 122, 140, 147 shebeen 54 trans-national 138 Sheffer, G. 11, 13–14, 19, 21–2, 24, religious transnationalism 5, 122, 166 168 remittance euphoria 92 shifting gender roles 73, 84 remittance strategies 92 slave trade 3, 27 remittances 6, 82, 87–8, 92, 95–6, 104 slave trade and dispersal of collective 87 Africans 27 sending 6, 144 slavery 8, 14 Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe 151 Slough 109, 123 return 10–12, 25–6, 38, 79–85, social capital 34, 54–5, 74, 120, 132, 99–104, 143–5 167 gendered analysis 81–4 social constructionists, critique of myths of 14, 83, 50, 104 classical diaspora concept permanent 95 12–13 sequenced 101 social fields 15, 23, 122 sustainable 100 social networks 47, 54, 62, 110, 114, temporary 101 119–20 return package, IOM and the politics social relations 6, 105, 120–1, 131, of return 100 133 returnees 99 society Rev. Vincent Nichols, Archbishop of multicultural 131 Westminster 137 parallel 108 reverse evangelization super-diverse western 141 defined by Zimbabwean urban 125 Catholics 128 Somali diaspora 19, 27, 161 definition 106 South Africa 31–5, 37, 39–40, 47, proliferation of African Christian 66, 165 congregations in Europe 113 Zimbabweans in South Africa 33 reverse mission 113–14, 168 South African Embassy 58 Rhodesia 29, 31, 155, 167, 169 South Africans 24–5, 32, 36, 38–9, ‘Rhodesians never Die’ 60, 158 65–6, 103 Robert Mugabe, Zimbabwean Southern Africa 29, 32, 39, 41, President 40, 42–3, 47, 60, 63, 65 157–8, 161 routes into the diaspora 4, 32, 34, Southern African Development 43, 143, 147 Community (SADC) 33, 59 Rutherford, B. 34, 47, 150, 167 spaces abject 91–2, 163–4 Safran, W. 10–12, 14, 38, 144, 148, entrepreneurial 92 167 gendered 53 second-hand cars, export of 55, 93–4 political 97 secular norms 112 private 3, 68 secular society 112 public 3, 51, 58, 79, 108, 126 western 126 Spanish-speaking Caribbean 21 secularism 107–8, 156 spiritual dryness 132 condemned 112 St Catherine in Birmingham 136 secularization 112 Stoneman and Cliffe 38, 40, 168 semi-diasporas 10, 13 street protest in London 58–61 Senegalese migrants in Italy 19, 87 Sudanese refugees in Australia 35 Shain and Barth 19, 168 SW Radio Africa 151, 158 Index 179

Temporary Return of Health transnational spaces 1–3, 51, 53–4, Professionals to Zimbabwe 78–80, 114–17, 119–21 (TRHPZ) 100 transnational ties 2, 6, 105, 122, tensions and opportunities within a 133, 140 mixed congregation 131, 137–9 transnationalism Ter Haar, G. 106–7, 113, 168 conceptualize 16 Tevera, D. 30, 32–3, 155–6, 162, 164, core 23 168 defining 2, 15–16 theorists, classical diaspora 11, expanded 16 13–14, 50, 144, 148 transnationalism and integration: a Tinarwo, M. 46, 72, 80, 125, 168 false dichotomy 138–41 Tölölyan, K. 10, 26, 168 transnationality 3, 15, 157, 165 traditions typology of African diasporas cultural 5 core African diasporas 19–20 homeland’s 125 dormant African diasporas 2, 19, invented 71 21, 23 invention of 71 epistemic African diasporas 2, patriarchal 81 19–21, 23 religious 19 silent African diasporas 2, 19, 21–3 renegotiate 130 Trafalgar Square 58 understanding African trailing spouses 75 diasporas 1–4, 7–10, 18–23, 149, transactions 94, 104, 164 160–4, 168–9 transatlantic slave trade 1, 8, 18, 22 undocumented migrants 53–4, 56, transnational 8–10, 15–18, 140–1, 65, 67, 112, 116–18 157–8, 162–4, 168–9 UNDP 89, 92, 97, 105, 169 activities 15, 91, 139, 154 UNHCR 38, 154, 169 communities 8, 10, 12, 15–16, Unilateral Declaration of 104, 125 Independence 31, 38 diaspora politics 6, 86, 88, 90, United States 32, 137, 139, 155–6, | 144–5 166 diasporic projects 5 unrespectable women 159 engagements 2, 91, 104, 142 use of South African and Malawian exchanges 19, 21, 23, 109, 143 passports 47 identities 121, 124 transnational diasporas 1–2, 7, 9, 19, van Dijk, R. 106, 113, 169 23–4, 142 Van Hear, N. 22, 24–5, 169 defining 18 Vasta, E. 108, 169 as real and imagined social Vertovec, S. 16, 95, 104, 141, 166, formations 1 169 transnational extended family 114, victim diasporas 9, 11, 97, 143, 118, 120, 133 156 transnational networks 95, 169 violence 41, 51, 59, 76, 94, 153 transnational networks and experiences of Zimbabweans in linkages 2, 15, 18, 43–4, 73, 87 Wigan 63 transnational obligations 73, 75, 114 host society’s gang 131 transnational projects 91–2, 154 Ndebele emigration 40 transnational religious organization, xenophobic 33 women’s 140 ZANU PF’s use of 42 180 Index

Voluntary Assisted Return and Zambian 21, 150 Reintegration Programme Zeleza, P. 1, 3, 7–9, 18–20, 40–1, (VARRP) 100 169 voting rights 87, 90 Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU PF) 29, 40, 149 Waldinger and Fitzgerald 16, 111, Zimbabwe African People’s Union 169 (ZAPU) 29, 40–1, 149 Walvis Bay 93 Zimbabwe Association 88, 100–1 war veterans and ZANU PF 30, 163 Zimbabwe Catholic Bishops’ encouraged 42 Conference 96, 98, 169 unleashed 44 Zimbabwe Diaspora Development Washington Consensus 91, 144 Interface 90 Welshman Ncube, leader of Zimbabwe Diaspora Focus Group 90 Movement for Democratic Zimbabwe Human Rights NGO Change-Ncube 86 Forum 97, 170 Western Europe 34, 106, 108 Zimbabwe Vigil 3, 58, 87, 89, 101, white emigration 39, 155 103 white person’s bum 74 Zimbabwean Catholic congregation in white Zimbabweans 29, 35–7, 39–40, Birmingham 3, 6, 123, 131 47, 58–60, 81 Zimbabwean Catholics 123–6, dual nationality or ancestral route 129–30, 134, 136–7, 139–40, 147 to UK 47 non-migrants 133 flight of 37, 39–40 Zimbabwean churches 53, 117 in the US 36 Zimbabwean citizenship 32 at the Zimbabwe Vigil in Zimbabwean diaspora 2, 30–1, 67–8, London 58 143, 147, 164–5 Wigan 3, 61–5, 67, 111, 144, 146 case for 23–7 Wigan borough 62, 150 diasporic projects 91 women as breadwinners 72 emigrants in Europe 34 challenging cultural ideals of ‘being estimates of population a man’ 72–3, 75, 85, 89 abroad 31–2 women as cultural bearers 125 fractured 2, 142 women’s bodies 79, 124 Zimbabwean independence and women’s guilds in the diaspora emigration 29, 38, 40–1, 46–7, 127–8, 131 55, 103 women and respectability 71, 167 Zimbabwean parents 119–20 work-permit holders 109 the Zimbabwean pre-migration the World Bank 91–2, 95 cultural context 70, 72, 80 Worsley Hall 62 Zimbabwean transnational diaspora Wuthnow and Offutt 133, 169 politics 61, 88–9, 143–4 Zimbabweans in Britain 26, 32, 83, Yeoh et al. 15, 50–1, 75, 84, 159, 169 143–4, 147, 154 Zinyama, L. 32, 39–40, 46–7, 168, Zambezi 51 170 Zambia 29, 32–4, 38–9, 47 Zlotnik, E. 37, 110, 154, 170