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European Grey Wolf (Canis Lupus)

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European Grey Wolf (Canis Lupus) Rev. 22 July 2021 European Grey Wolf (Canis lupus) Photo © MrT HK IMPACTS OF TROPHY HUNTING QUICK FACTS: • Unsustainable offtake Population Europe: 17,000; EU: 13,000-14,000 • Social disruption Size: (2018) • Increases human-wolf conflict Population Europe: Increasing; EU: Unknown • Ineffective at preventing livestock loss Trend: (2018) Range: Unknown IUCN Red Least Concern in Europe and EU POPULATION List: (2018) CITES: Appendix II (since 2010) The grey wolf (Canis lupus) is found in Europe, Asia, and North America. The broader European popu- International 73 trophies exported from the EU lation is estimated to exceed 17,000 wolves and in- Trade: from 2009-2018 (69 originated in EU) creasing as of 2018.1 The European Union (EU) pop- ulation is estimated at fewer than 13,000-14,000 Threats: Human intolerance, poorly regulat- wolves across all EU Member States as of 2018.1 ed hunting, poaching, poor species management The grey wolf is considered Least Concern at glob- al, European, and EU levels.1 Within Europe, there are nine populations, each with its own IUCN status (see Table 1 below). There was a tenth population, insula is a distinct subspecies (Canis lupus italicus). Sierra Morena in Spain, which has been extirpated. The Iberian wolf (Canis lupus signatus) may also be In addition, the wolf population on the Italian pen- a distinct subspecies.1 Table 1. European population summary (IUCN).1,2 Population Countries Population size (mature Population IUCN status individuals) trend (2018) Baltic Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland 1,713–2,240 Stable Least Concern Carpathian Romania, Serbia, Poland, Slovakia, Czech Republic, Hungary 3,460-3,840 Stable Least Concern Central European Germany, Poland 780-1,030 (480-620) Increasing Vulnerable Dinaric-Balkan Croatia, Bosnia & Herzegovina, Slovenia, Montenegro, Mace- 3,750-4,000 Unknown Least Concern donia, Albania, Serbia, Greece, Bulgaria Iberian Portugal, Spain 2,160-2,880 Unknown Near Threatened Italian Peninsula Italy 1,070-2,400 Slightly increas- Near Threatened ing Karelian Finland 204-234 (200) Stable to Near Threatened increasing Scandinavian Norway, Sweden 430 (260) Increasing Vulnerable Western-Central France, Switzerland, Italy, Austria, Slovenia 550-700 (330-415) Increasing Vulnerable Alps © 2021 Humane Society International 1 Historically wolves were present throughout most of Europe, but by the mid-20th century their range was greatly reduced.1 Its only been in the last 50 years that their range has expanded to include near- ly all continental European countries.1 RANGE The historical range of the grey wolf included most of the northern hemisphere, however they have since been eradicated from large portions of this range.1 Grey wolves became extinct in much of Western Europe.3 Human persecution was the main driver in range loss for grey wolves.3 Habitat dete- rioration is an important predictor of range loss, however, even when suitable habitat is available, wolves are constricted by human threats such as high hunting intensity.4 In addition, roads through dense forest allowed hunters to easily detect and access wolves.4 Range-wide persecution and population declines resulted in fragmented populations and local ex- tinctions across Europe. Despite recovery in many parts of Europe, the loss of genetic diversity result- ing from these population crashes still threatens long-term survival. Following functional extinction in the 1960s, Scandinavian wolves exhibited severe European Grey Wolf Geographic Range inbreeding depression which continues to threaten (Large Carnivore Initiative for Europe) population viability.5 This severe inbreeding effect had reduced population growth in Scandinavian wolves.5 Despite severe inbreeding, the Swedish hunting pressure and increased abundance of stray government continued to allow hunting, risking dogs.11 In Bulgaria, scientists suggest that unregu- further loss of genetic diversity.6 Populations in the lated hunting caused high levels of inbreeding and southwest part of Europe have lower genetic diver- wolf-dog hybridization which threatens long-term sity than those in the northeast.7 The largest popu- viability of the popultion.12 A study in Canada found lations have the highest genetic diversity.7 that intense harvest of eastern wolves (Canis lyca- on) transformed genetic composition and facilitat- Following heavy persecution and recent recov- ed hybridization with coyotes; while a ban on hunt- ery, wolf-dog hybridization has become a problem ing and trapping promoted genetic recovery.13 Wolf across Europe and can have negative effects on the populations in Europe are genetically different from wolf gene pool.8,9 European wolf populations exhib- dogs, but greater hybridization frequency could be it widespread evidence of wolf-dog hybridization detrimental.9 Hybridization between wolves and across their range,10,9 more so than North American dogs in Europe is a problem that conservation sci- wolf populations.9 For example, some wolves in Italy, entists say needs to be addressed in management especially those on the periphery of the population plans. Scientists highlight the importance of grey range, show genetic evidence of mixed ancestry wolves as a keystone species in their ecosystems, with dogs along with morphological features such and the importance of understanding the impacts as black coats or dewclaws.8 There is evidence that of wolf-dog hybridization on their conservation.9 strong hunting pressure may facilitate hybridization The most effective way to minimize wolf-dog hy- in wolves as it can lead to population declines, de- brids is to maintain wolf populations at stable densi- creased population density, fragmentation, social ties.11 In addition, wolf hunting should be prohibited disruption, and dispersal.11,12,13,14 Wolf-dog hybrid- in areas with low wolf population density (including ization in Estonia and Latvia can be explained by the edges of healthy populations) and where stray © 2021 Humane Society International 2 dogs are present.11 wolves disperse from their natal pack to find a mate and establish a territory with sufficient resources.21 LIFE HISTORY AND REPRODUCTION Wolves communally hunt and care for young.15 Fol- lowing loss of a member of the breeding pair, pup Wolves are seasonal breeders and give birth once survival was higher in larger packs (>6 wolves).20 per year.15 The median age at first reproduction is Non-breeding adult-sized wolves (also called ‘auxil- 3 years old for females and 2 years old for males.16 iaries’ or ‘helpers’) were the most important for pup Pregnancy lasts approximately 2 months.15 Litter survival following breeder loss.20 Auxiliaries provide size is approximately 5-6 pups. Females have limit- food and care for pups and will also help raise the ed mobility before and after birth and typically stay pups after the mother has died.18,17 Following the near the den.15 Young females in a pack may assist loss of a breeder, larger packs are more likely than in attending to young in the den.15 Approximately 2 smaller ones to reproduce in the following season.20 months after giving birth, females resume their nor- Wolf packs in small recolonizing wolf populations (≤ mal movement patterns.15 At around 4 months old, 75 wolves) took longer to replace the lost breeder juveniles are able to join packs on hunts.17 and were slower to reproduce than larger wolf pop- ulations.20 Wolf population growth density-dependent and is limited by internal population dynamics such as in- While wolf packs change naturally over time, lethal teractions or territoriality.18 Therefore, wolf popula- removal, such as hunting or poaching, can alter the tions will not grow exponentially, even where prey timing and frequency of dispersal and pack dissolu- is abundant. Human offtake, from legal hunting or tion. Hunting can negatively affect the socio-spatial culling, and poaching, can also alter reproduction organization of wolves and the killing of breeding in- and population growth. Human-caused morality dividuals often leads to pack dissolution.14,20,22,19,23 Hu- can disrupt social structure and breeding pairs,19 man-caused death is the reason for dissolution of and can increase territorial turn-overs (see Social the majority of breeding pairs (when the cause was Structure) which can contribute to lower age at first known) and pair dissolution occurs earlier when reproduction.16 Hunting can also slow reproduction culling is the cause.23 Legal hunting can have com- and population growth through lowering reproduc- plex effects on genetic compositions. For example, tive rates and pup survival.20 For example, if a breed- hunting can increase relatedness between packs.24 ing wolf is lost, the likelihood of reproduction the Human-caused mortality can also limit wolf recol- following year is cut in half and litter sizes are gen- onization and settlement through territory disrup- erally smaller.20 Hunting can also reduce pack size, tion.25 which is positively correlated with pup survival and breeder replacement.20 Population growth has also Wildlife managers focus too much on the number of been slowed due to inbreeding in some populations. wolves in the population, rather than the wide-rang- The Scandinavian wolf population has experienced ing impacts that hunting will have on social orga- high inbreeding due to near extinction at the end of nization, reproduction, behavior, and genetics.26 the 1960s.5 High inbreeding in this population also Some important effects of hunting that are often correlated with smaller litters,
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