UNIVERSIDADE DE LISBOA INSTITUTO De CIÊNCIAS SOCIAIS

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UNIVERSIDADE DE LISBOA INSTITUTO De CIÊNCIAS SOCIAIS UNIVERSIDADE DE LISBOA INSTITUTO de CIÊNCIAS SOCIAIS A global food polity: ecological-democratic quality of the twenty-first century political economy of food Lanka Elvira Horstink Orientador: Prof. Doutor José Luís de Oliveira Garcia Tese especialmente elaborada para a obtenção do grau de Doutora em Sociologia Especialidade de Sociologia da Ciência e Tecnologia 2017 UNIVERSIDADE DE LISBOA INSTITUTO de CIÊNCIAS SOCIAIS A global food polity: ecological-democratic quality of the twenty-first century political economy of food Lanka Elvira Horstink Orientador: Prof. Doutor José Luís de Oliveira Garcia Tese especialmente elaborada para a obtenção do grau de Doutora em Sociologia, especialidade de Sociologia da Ciência e Tecnologia Júri: Presidente: Doutora Ana Margarida de Seabra Nunes de Almeida, Investigadora Coordenadora e Presidente do Conselho Científico do Instituto de Ciências Sociais da Universidade de Lisboa Vogais: — Doctor José Esteban Castro, Emeritus Professor, School of Geography, Politics and Sociology da Newcastle University, Reino Unido; — Doutora Maria Margarida Monteiro de Carvalho da Silva, Professora Auxiliar, Escola Superior de Biotecnologia da Universidade Católica Portuguesa, Centro Regional do Porto; — Doutora Natividade Helena Mateus Jerónimo, Professora Auxiliar, Instituto Superior de Economia e Gestão da Universidade de Lisboa; — Doutor José Luís de Oliveira Garcia, Investigador Principal, Instituto de Ciências Sociais da Universidade de Lisboa, orientador. Esta tese foi realizada com o apoio da Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia, através da atribuição de uma Bolsa de Doutoramento (referência SFRH/BD/80126/2011 - área Ciências Políticas) financiada por fundos nacionais do Ministério da Educação e Ciência. 2017 This page left intentionally blank. “The Seed Keepers” Burn our land burn our dreams pour acid onto our songs cover with sawdust the blood of our massacred people muffle with your technology the screams of all that is free, wild and indigenous. Destroy Destroy our grass and soil raze to the ground every farm and every village our ancestors had built every tree, every home every book, every law and all the equity and harmony. Flatten with your bombs every valley; erase with your edicts our past, our literature; our metaphor Denude the forests and the earth till no insect, no bird no word can find a place to hide. Do that and more. I do not fear your tyranny I do not despair ever for I guard one seed a little live seed that I shall safeguard and plant again. (adaptation by seed freedom activists of the poem by Fawaz Turki - Palestinian poet, b. 1940) iv Abstract Modern food production may be considered an epitome of the paradoxes that humanity is facing as we edge on into the twenty-first century. It is as much the source of problems that plague modern societies as it can be its solution. While more food than ever is produced, more people than ever suffer from some form of malnutrition. Even though agribusiness is overtaking energy as the biggest money maker, small-scale farmers and rural populations are still the poorest people in the world. Although food appears cheap, calories are largely outweighing nutrients, creating food deserts in otherwise wealthy countries. Finally, agriculture is potentially as damaging to ecosystems and human health, as it is part of the solution for major social and ecological challenges: biodiversity loss, systemic pollution, gross social and economic inequities, and climate change. The politics of food are a mirror of geopolitics, touching on all the big questions: Grow or degrow? Heed the precautionary principle as heralded in international agreements or continue to "manage" risk? Industrialise and scale up further or switch to a holistic farming practice that places people and the Earth at centre, such as agroecology? Continue to allow the commodification and privatisation of natural resources or protect them as a commons? Allow countries in the Global South to defend their food self-sufficiency or pressure them to produce for global markets? Give consumers a real choice or deny them the right to know? Underlying all these questions are issues of power and conflicts of interest, with some people part of the “haves” and many others of the “have-nots”, some scientists embracing ecology whereas others hold on to classical economics, some calling for reform while others prefer a revolution, in other words: with many shades of “green” occupying the wide spectrum of food politics. In my thesis, I contend that a food system that is simultaneously healthy and fair can only be realised in conditions of “substantive” democracy, understood as a polity where social and ecological concerns take precedence over other interests, where common resources are under social control, and all those people affected by decision-making are also the decision-makers. My thesis analyses the democratic and ecological quality of modern food politics to improve understanding of the leveraging factors for achieving such a substantive or food democracy. Keywords: ecological democracy; food democracy; democratic quality; food system; food politics v vi Resumo Uma politeia alimentar global: a qualidade ecologico-democrática da economia política da alimentação no século XXI O sistema alimentar moderno pode ser considerado o epítome dos paradoxos que a humanidade enfrenta no século XXI. Tanto contribui significativamente para a rápida erosão dos recursos naturais, ecossistemas, e biodiversidade de que os humanos e as espécies que coevoluiram com a sua acção dependem, e ainda para o aquecimento global, como foi indicado como um factor de alavancagem para ultrapassar estes mesmos desafios. Por outro lado, a agricultura tanto está no epicentro de uma indústria emergente lucrativa—a chamada “indústria das ciências da vida”, como está na génese de desigualdades socioeconómicas. Enquanto uma minoria de explorações controla a maior parte da terra arável, e um grupo pequeno de corporações transnacionais domina os sectores das entradas e saídas na agricultura—estabelecendo os padrões alimentares e de produção—no mundo rural a vida permanece em níveis preocupantes: 75% dos que vivem em extrema pobreza podem ser encontrados no campo, enquanto metade das pessoas que passam fome crónica no mundo são pequenos agricultores. Ao mesmo tempo, a agricultura está a ser reconhecida por ser o sector por excelência para tirar as pessoas da pobreza e da fome, e, de facto, os meios para realizar o potencial da agricultura como curadora e protectora das pessoas e seus habitats já existem. Mas na realidade, apesar do reconhecimento generalizado dos problemas e potencial da agricultura, tal não se tem traduzido em políticas concretas. A forma como as actividades de produção agrícola e alimentar estão no âmago, não só das necessidades humanas básicas como também dos arranjos sociais no nosso mundo, faz com que constituam um tema sociológico por excelência, tema esse que desde o século XVIII tem sido vivamente debatido (relembre-se os fisiocratas1). A sua pertinência aumenta quando consideramos que, com o derrube de barreiras biológicas na agricultura nas últimas décadas— nomeadamente a capacidade de reproduzir a própria vida—a penetração da agricultura pela economia capitalista está a atingir o seu apogeu. A minha tese propõe esquadrinhar as origens dos paradoxos que afligem o que pode ser considerado uma actividade humana primordial, analisando a organização social, económica, e política do sistema alimentar moderno a fim de revelar os factores geradores de injustiça e insustentabilidade no sistema instalado. O foco 1 A fisiocracia foi desenvolvida em França e gozou alguma popularidade pouco antes da publicação de A Riqueza das Nações por Adam Smith. É por vezes considerada a primeira teoria completa de economia. vii está, em particular, sobre a visão democrática do mundo que inspira as acções dos principais actores nos sectores agrícola e alimentar, entre eles governos, burocracias internacionais, grupos de interesses económicos transnacionais, organizações da sociedade civil, e movimentos sociais. A fim de estudar a “substância democrática” do sistema alimentar moderno, optei por uma abordagem que convoca o âmbito da sociologia clássica, que se articula com as teorias de economia política, cujo grande objecto de análise foi a economia capitalista. Pretendi criar uma ponte entre a análise crítica dos pensadores pioneiros da revolução industrial e as observações contemporâneas de um mundo interligado pelo comércio globalizado. Confrontei ainda com teorias e conceitos recentes, como a sustentabilidade, participação pública, governança, deliberação, ecologia, e soberania alimentar, que procurei imbuir com as lições da economia política clássica, nomeadamente a forma como olha os fenómenos socioeconómicos através da lupa da história moderna e da filosofia moral. O meu primeiro passo foi de pensar o sistema alimentar em termos políticos, identificando as relações de poder e os principais conflitos de interesse, apoiando-me na tradição da análise sociológica crítica, mas também perscrutando novas abordagens às tomadas de decisão. Esta reflexão teórica profunda serviu para apoiar a construção de um modelo de democracia “substantiva” ou “democracia alimentar”, que entendo ser uma democracia fundamentada na actividade humana de produção alimentar e de outras necessidades básicas, que é, ao mesmo tempo, social- e ecologicamente responsiva ao seu demos. Montei este modelo exploratório após ter analisado uma diversidade de teorias
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