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AUTHOR Chesebro, James W., Ed.; Cragan, John F., Ed. TITLE Moments in Contemporary Rhetoric and Communication. No. 3. INSTITUTION Student Press, Minneapolis, Minn. PUB DATE 71 NOTE 84p. JOURNAL CIT Moments in Contemporary Rhetoric and Communication; v1 n3 p1-80 Winter 1971

EDRS PRICE MF-$0.65 HC-$3.29 DESCRIPTORS Commercial Television; *Communication (Thought Transfer); Films; Literary Criticism; *Mass Media; Personal Values; *Political Influences; *Rhetorical Criticism; Social Influences; *Social Values ABSTRACT The purpose of this publication is to present the thinking of graduate and undergraduate students on contemporary issues, particularly those related to modern rhetoric and communication. The first section of this issue consists of articles on such topics as the current status of the Weathermen movement; the sexual revolution in America; a comparison of two approaches to interpersonal communication (the traditional etiquette approach versus modern self-actualization theories); a study of the rhetoric of the English women's suffrage movement; an analysis of the rhetoric of the New South; and implications for communications of the Pentagon papers incident. The second section, initiated in this issue, contains articles pertaining to mass media and the fine arts.. Following an introductory article that outlines the scope of the new section, there is an essay on current standards of commercial television and reviews of current books, films, and television programs. The third section, "Critical and Directive Input," consists of interpretations and evaluations of some of the contributions. In this issue, there are critiques of the Weathermen article and a previously published article on women's liberation. (Author /RN) ;.

US DEPARTMENT Of 14fAt Iff EDUCATION/I.VVED ARE OFFICE 01 EDUCATION I/41'DO( l Nii NI64A, till %III i'114) DU(I I)I..t Tt v'0..ftt( I t,t :)1 gillS1 Itif('I ((2,')OP 10lit.1%).'411)Oh OM" INA TlYty ,1I'(ltYl 01 1..1 A 11..)%b S' A T ( t)(II)rsffi%I. i`t",Mll fl( (.44P.1%1 4114141A4 41111( I(,II III CA THIN POY 'lir, 0{41'1111i 1

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FILMED FROM BESTAVAILABLE COPY cover photo by Doug Nemanic Editorial Policy

Thecentral purpose of MCIeNTS IN CONTEMPORARY RHETORICAND COMMUNICATION is to present the thinking of undergraduate andgraduate students on contemporary issues. As a study in rhetoric and communication,authors focus upon contemporary social and political actionsthat convey a message to others. As critics, authors describe, interprst, and evaluate the messages conveyed, by these social and political eela.

Philosophically,. MOMENTS is committedto the belief that academic journals mustfocusuponthe contemporarysituationthatconfrontsall of us in defining and reacting to our symbolic world. In addition, it is believed that studentsneed a forum to present their thoughts andthat students are capable of critical,.;. reasoned analyses of the world around them before they obtain any specific degree from aninstitutionof higher education.Moreover, it is believed, that rhetorical criticism andcommunication studies can be an inter- gral part of thedecision-making process and interests of the larger :non- academic communitY. Whileretaininga commitment to the insightful tools of . analysis and standards oftheacademic world, thereis a need to begin to change Otis Walter''s descriptive claim that, "Theworld at large takes no note of the work of the professional rhetorical critic."

MOMENTS is tile,Pall, 'Winter, SPring and:Summer., Publication of articles in :14QMENTS is restricted to any:undergradUateor .graduate college student HoweYer reader. mai submit statements /criticalanalyses for the "CritiCal/DirectiVeInput"and:n4ass Media and Fine Arts" sections.Of MCt4ENTS. As- public forums,.'these"sections will stimulate, it is hoped;an ,interest in .,. potential4of rhetorical criticism. . 4 .% Manuscripte are considered'tfor Publicationon the basis 'Of "the abOve editorial , policy and On ' the bests of the significance,, scholarship, and style of the articles.:..- Articles should not exceed. 4,000words. Longer. .articles are considered forpublication. but the Editors do feel theyhaVe'an obligation torepre- sent. the.thinking .of a wide number end. yariety of atuderits.Statements/crit-- .:: reviews for the "Criticallpirective Inplit!",and "Mass' Media and Fine Arts" should not exceed 1,0°o:words:. Authors ..shOuld ConsUlt the MLS Style 'Sheet:..in preparing Mannicripts_arid::submitacademic:-and /or expertise qualifica- lions:iiith the completed...manuscript as well asa .return. address and .telephone umber ;..Manuscripts and -.. correspondence should besent to The.Student Press, 1129 South' Eighth. Street, Minneapolis; Minnesota ,55404.

All:;material-herein copyright -1971',by The StudentPressandEditors .of MOMENTS IN CONTIMPORARY.-RgeroRic,AND COMUNICATION. A.11, rights reserved. Printed in the:-United, States Of America 'No of this publication may be 'reproduced, stored retrieval in', system;', ;or 'transmitted,' inany form or by any means, :4eleCtronix:i c' , mechanieal, ..,photoCopying,__ recording,.orotherwide, without the por-,written Permi s s ionof theyEgtors.

I . ..., "'The Student Press

lit i ()v. I t IIt .t MOMENTS Volumel, Number 3

editor,: jamesW.Chesebro and JohnF. Cragan design editor: James E. Meko design consultant: Gary L. Sherman

3 BARRY IRVING 4 Today's Weather

DAN L. MILLER 11 Votes for Women: The Rhetoric of a Radical Movement

JAMES W. CHESEBRO 18 Sex and Sexuality- -A Revolutionary Ethic VIRGINIA KIDD 30 "If you can't say something nice..." Emily Post vs. Carl Rogers, et al. GERALD R. SANDERS 37 The Rhetoric of the New South: A Study in Contrast JOHN F. CRAGAN 42 The Pentagon Papers: A Statement Against Democratic Elitism

Mass media and the finearts AN EDITOR 48 Mass Media and the Fine Arts: Re-Examining the Parameters of Rhetoric

JON A. COLEMAN 52 Television: To Serve the Public

DAN L. MILLER 58 The Fiction of Non-fiction A Review of "Bury My Heart at Broken Knee"

AL AUSTIN 60 The Wonderful. World of TV A Review of Made-for-TV Movies

SANDRA E. PURNELL 61 Fiction, Fantasy, Reality A Review of "The Exorcist"

2 JUDITH WILLIAMS 64 Fiction, Message, Critic A Review of "The Other" GARY LEWIS SHERMAN 65 Focus on Film A Review of "Carnal Knowledge" R. W. LELAND 69 Poems

Critical &directive input 73 MOMENTS/past tense

DAVID HERRICK 73 "Other established journals have never touched on this subject..." DONALD C. SHIELDS 73 Focus on the Rhetoric of Women's Liberation--A Review 75 MOMENTS/present tense ERNES2 G. BORMANN 75 A Review of Barry Irving's "Today's Weather" "The weatherman with a tomb in one hand and a pointer in the other noting the high pressure ridges seems somehow incongruent. Am I right?" JOSEPH W. WENZEL 77 "Today's Weather"--A Critique ...the Weatherman had themselves achieved a level of readiness for revolutionary action which leaves rhetoric behind..."

79 MOMENTS/future tense

TIM ZELL 79 Paganism is Alive and Well

TABLE OF CONTENTS

3 "To understand guerillawar is not to endorse it; not to understand it is to make it inevitable." Scanlan's Monthly Whenthe Weatherman, the militant faction of SDS,Toda 's walked out of the Chicago SDS National Conventionin June of 1969, they were to become the leading militant, rad5.cal group in the "cultural-politicalrevo- lution" in America. They became the "first organ-Weaer ized whitegroup to publicly stress the importance of armed struggle in America."1 The Weather Peoples' By Barry Irving ideas and actions were appalling to the nation, but prior totheir first communique (issued on May 21, 1970), there had been no "official" statement from theorganizational head (Weather Bureau) of the underground group. Their first communiquewas literal- lya Declarationof a State of War; a declaration notagainstanother nation-state, but against the, United States. It stated that within fourteen days: after its issuancean act of violence would be carried out against "a symbol or institution of Ameri-. kan injustice."2 A few days after the deadline,the. headquarters of the New York City police department was bombed -- the Weatherman took credit for the act in their second communication. In effect, this act. ofviolenceestablishedWeatherman: "The power structure experiencedthe anger and frustration of of being outwittedand out-maneuvered in the very place where people assumed they were strongest."3

Since the group's inception, an increasingnumber of bombingsor acts of terrorism have occurred within: the United States.4 The Weatherman have claimed re-. sponsibility for a good portion of this violence- -a. violence which is designed to promote andsecure the. members' deep convictions and efforts to gain world communism. However, violence -- as an independent: act -- is often an unclear rhetoricalstrategy. The target, purpose and accidental injuriesmay be over-. shadowed by the act itself. As a result, the Weath-. erman have sought to explain and justify theiracts. of violence and to educate the public throughcommu- niqués. These comminiquesare the only "direct" contactwith the rest of society they have,because their terrorism has automaticallyforced them "underground."5 To date,the Weather Bureau has issued nine communiques; this study will focusupon a rhetorical analysis of five of them. Their first communication is basically a statement ofstrategy. Num- ber two, three andfour are reiterations f.of the strategies outlined in the first, relating them to specific incidents. Communique number nine, "New Morning--Changing Weather" (December 6, 1970),is an overview of events since the Weathermanwere organ- 4 ized, a critical analysis of those e- instill in themcorrespondingly vents, recognition of the "military 'higher levels' of revolutionary error" ,and a statement about whatcan consciousness end understanding."( bedone (in terms of strategy) in or- At the time this article was written, der tocorrect the "evils" that arc this criticism WiS valid, but it no befalling the revolution. These five longer is. Indetermining what the communications rhetorically reflect shift has been in the ideology of the the ideological changes of the Weath- Weather People, the central thesis de- ermen. veloped here is that the Weathermen's idea of leadership and education has Thisanalysis of the communiques from changed to oneof a higher level of theWeatherman Underground is asking, "revolutionary consciousnessand un- "How has the ideology of the Weather- derstanding." man developed?" In order to answer thisquestion, the ideological dimen- First Period sionsof the Weatherman's rhetoric is dividedintotwo periods: the first The Weathermen havebeen struggling periodincludes all of the first four hard since "birth."Progressive Labor communi,!.ies; and the second period (PL) and the Weatherman, both factions consists ,f the ninth underground com- of SDS, went into the Chicago SDS Na- munication. This analysis will then tional Convention with differing views beginto determine what factors are on what SDS was and what it should be consideredthe pollutants of our soin the future; polarization resulted. cietyandwhothe Weathermen single TheWeatherman contingency walked out out or apply the guilt to for the pre- of the convention, and Bernardine sentcondition of our country. A Dohrn, nne of the founders and spokes- strategy or plan to redeem the society women for the Weatherman, returned la- is established, and finally, the act ter to explain theiK position to PL-- itself occursin order to purify the only to be heckled. ° In spite of the the nation. It is then possible to heckling, the Weatherman had literally compare the two periods of the Weath- stepped out infront of all the ac- ermen's rhetoric in order to expose tion; they took control of SDS. thechanges in the ideology of the Weather People.6 The name of the organization was taken from a line in Bob Dylan's "Subterran- In the past, a major criticism of the ean Homesick Blues" ("You Don't Need A Weathermen--from both outside of and WeathermanTo Know Which Way The Wind within organizational ranks--bas been Blows"). TheWeather metaphor which that they have failed to reach and ed- canbe used in nearly all phases of ucatethe masses of the people. In the organization, hasbeen used to one article by four ex-Weathermen, the such an extent; its leaders have aptly underground organization is criticized christenedthemselves the Weather Bu- because it: reau, many have made attempts to fore- "believedthat it was necessary to cast the Weather and the Weathermen begin armed struggle immediately... usedthe metaphor appropriately in Insteadof trying to educate and their ninth communique in order to organize the people who did not see project a change in their ideology. this, they wrote them off as enemies of the world revolution. As growing numbersof people in the The Weathermen did not understand United States pushfor an end to the that in order to lead penple into war shouting, "Bring the troops home!" 'higher levels' of effective revo- the Weather People are right in chorus lutionary action it is necessary to with,."Bring the war home!"For them,

7 an end to the war is not necessary; it blackpeople." The blame for these is "Amerika: The Final Front."9The racist ideals--promoted by Nixon--and Weathermen, clearly, havebeenand their continuation is placed primarily will be attemptingtocontinue the on him. He has obviously assumed the struggle; the streets of "honky Ameri- guiltofany government leaders pre- ka" are the battlefields now, though. ceedinghim in the making of this im- perialistic state. Armed struggle at this time in history is one of the key issues that has made 2. Pigs in this country are guilty. the Weatherman so unique. This was a The pigs are the strength ofan empire period of physical shock for the rest that has committed crimes against the of the nation. In order to educate people. Their actions have been cold the "shocked" nation to the value of and heartless--contributingto the their violence, the communiques out- growthof the state. "They have mur- lining their strategiesduring this dered...and tortured. Theyare re- period were issued.10 sponsiblefor... the imprisonment... andthe continual brutality against" Strategy of Pollution the oppressed. As presented through the eyes of the Weathermen in their Amerikan imperialism; war and racism communiques, the police are literally are our enemies. It is the system of pigs. The crimes they have committed Amerikan imperialism which is the pri- make them guilty --along with Nixon-- mary pollutant of our society. It a- of pollution. lone has fostered ideas of reform which doesn't work--prisons, police, 3. Attorney General Mitchell is ROTC and the "Man's Army." War and guilty. TheAttorneyGeneral along racism aretwo other pollutants of with J. Edgar Hoover have cited the this society; not outgrowths of Ameri- Weathermen as outlaws and are the re- can imperialism, but'evils. Although presentatives of the state fighting the Weathermen never do state anyspe- the organization. Mitchell's guilt of cific strategyofpollution, their pollution has been derived merely be- agents are obvious from the very because he is on the wrong side.They ginning of the first communique: "All feel confident that they have a hold over the world, people fighting Ameri- on the Attorney General: "to General can imperialism lookto Amerika's Mitchell we say: Don't look for us, youth touseour strategic position Dog." Guilt-by-association with the behind enemylines to join forces in imperialiststate also places Nixon's the destruction of the empire." Amer- General on the Weathermen's blacklist. ican imperialism is already "In the air;" it is time for the youth of A- Strategies of Purification merica to "come alive." 1. Revolutionary violenceis the Strategies of Guilt only wax. The people of this country havebeen raised and educated to be- 1. Nixon is to blame. One of the lieve that reform is the best method major contributorsto pollution is of changingthe state of things, but President Nixon; the man probably most theWeathermen feel that the only re- directlyassociated with Amerikan im- sult has been a "frustration" and "imperialism. The fact that "Nixon in- potence" of the younger generation. vaded Jcanbodia" is stressed in each of The kidsare the ones who must bring the first three communiques. Guilt thechange; although, not through re- has been placed on the Chief Executive form: "the lines are drawn...protest for "theattempted genocide against and marches don't do it. Revolution- 6

8 ary violence is the only way." if clue tolive and grow in the society, it way hasn't worked for the past genera- willbe the job of the Weathermen to tions, the Weathermen refuse to make destroy these symbols: "They build a the same mistake. Instead, they are Bank of America, kids burn it down. heading out to "attack with rocks, They outlawgrass, we build a culture riots and bombs the greatest killer- of lifeand music." In effect, they pig ever known to man--American imper- are saying that if something is harm- ialism." The idea behind the type: of ful to the empire, then it can find a change the Weathermenare seeking, home in this revolution. As outlaws, means to seek change now; "kick ass" they are to remove the pollutants from anddon't ask questions. "Now we are society. at war," they declare. As the Weath- erman see it, you believe as they do 4. We are outlaws,--___-- we are free. As andfight with them, or you don't and an underground organization the Weath- fight against them. In joining toget- ermen have been declared fugitives but her with other revolutionaries for the by movingfreely in and out of every destruction of imperialism they are e- citythey can accomplish their goal. scaping from the past: "we will never In theirsecond communication, they go back."This way, then, is the only pointed outtheirability to strike wayto change the empire.The strug- "first" because oftheir freedom: gle must be armed, and it must be now. "They guardtheir buildings and we The revolution isupon America, and walk rightpast their guards. They according tothe Weathermen, it will lookfor us--weget to them first." be a bloody, violent struggle; an open It is evident, that it is important to confrontation with the pigs. theWeathermento stay "straight" in order to remain "free and fighting" 2. We are adoptingthe classic revolutionaries in an extremely stra- guerrilla strategyof the Viet Cong tegic position--"invisible" and "be- and theurban guerrilla strategy of hind enemy lines." the Tupamaros to our own situation. Therevolutionhas gone underground Strategy of Redemption and will use the methods of two of the best known, modern guerrilla forces-- Guns and grass are united in the youth theViet Cong and the Tupamaros. One underground. In building a new cul- of the most famous underground manuals ture toreplace the old, polluted A- on revolution, the Minimanual, written merikan imperialiststate, the Weath- by Carlos Marighella in 1969, provides erPeoplehave related LSD and mari- guerrilla strategies and techniques juana to guns and fighting. If you now employed by the Weathermen. The smoke (grass), you should fight. If strategy outlined by the guerrilla is you fight, you should smoke--the two to work fromthe outside to destroy go hand-in-hand: In their first com- the system: "The pigs try to look in- munique, Bernardine Dohrn stated: vulnerable, but we keep finding their "Dope is one of our weapons. The weaknesses." Notonly does sucha lawsagainstmarijuana mean that make it next to impossible for the en- millions of us are outlaws long be- emyto detect them, but it is morally fore we actually split. Guns and and psychologically frustrating to the grassare united in the youth un- power structure. derground. Freaks are revolutionaries and revolutionaries are 3. They outlaw, we build. What freaks. If youwant to find us, the empire creates, it is up to the this is where we are. In every revolutionaryto destroy. As symbols tribe, commune, dormitory, farm- of Amerikanimperialism find a place house, barracks, townhouse where 7 kids are making love, smoking dope communications, they were now takini7 and lortding guns." aninward look at themselves :tnd mak- The redemption effort is a united ef- ing self-criticisms. Nothing had fort of types of people who don't nor- changed in relation to the imperialist mally work together. It is this type state; it was still "rucked up" and of united assault on imperialism that neededto be changed. But, for the is to make the new system of world timebeing, it was more important to communism thrive. "Political power the Weathermen to straighten out them- grows out of a gun, a Molotov, a riot, selvesbefore they could straighten a commune...and from the soul of the out the nation. people." It is these characteristics onwhich a new system can be built; The sins and pollution of hmnlkan im- the new eulturemill be pure. perialism, war and racism have remained as they were earlier in the history Second Period of the Weathermen. A new form of pollution which they had overlooked prior As the Weathermen matured, their i- tothis time was the ignorance of the deology still reflected the harshness pain and hurt they were causing their and sternness contained intheir own people. The Weather People had theory of armed struggle, as outlined separated themselvesfrom everyone in earlier communiques: "The else in the Movement when they had i- fut.4re f our struggle is the future solated themselves by remaining under- of L'41,.. in the streets."11 The lead- ground. They wanted "to reject racism ers of the organization remained firm and U.S. exploitation ofthe third and undaunted by the authorities: "Any worid....But it was clear that more kind of action that fucks up the pigs' had been wrong with our direction thud warandhelps the people to win is a technical inexperience." Affinity good kindof action."12 A wave of groups were having problems together: bombings andbomb threats hit the U- "Many people in the collective didnot nited Statesin 1970 that forced e- want to be involved.... But they strug- vacuation of scores of public build- gled dayandnight and eventually, ings, andthe American public, awe- everyone agreedto dotheir work." struck, sat motionless and waited for Everyone agreed, but some still felt news of the next bombing incident. By certain actions were wrong. The the end of the year, though, the closed-mindedness ofthe Weathermen Weather Bureau pausedto reflect on was pollutingthe organization from the ninemonths of activities since within. the townhouse explosion in New York in whichthree Weathermen had been kill- Inthis period, President Nixon, the ed. TheWeather Bureau noticed mis- pigs, and AttorneyGeneral Mitchell takes in carrying out uf Weathermen's remain guilty of the pollution of the. activities, and with their ninth com- society, but in looking back at past munication from the underground, actions, the Weathermen have discover- stated bluntly: "The future of our edthat they, too, are to blame for revolution has been changed decisive- ly.13 the pollution of the group.Through theirignorance and uncautious move- mentsinto society they were to blame In establishing the organization, they forthe deaths of the three townhouse had overlooked inner-conflicts and victims: "The deaths of three of our organized haphazardly: "we didn't friends ended our military conception know much about each other's person or ofwhatwe are doing."After nine pasts--ourtalents, our differences." months of recklessness, they realized Contrary tothe purpose of earlier that they had killed their friends be- 8

10 cause they"had not dealt with the changein the actions of the Weather- basic technological considerations of men: safety. TheWeathermen had not con- "Itis time for the movement to go sideredthe future." As a result, in out into the air, to organize, to the second period the Weathermen took risk calling rallies and demonstra- the blame: "This tendency to consider tions, to convince that mass action only bombing or picking up the gun as against the war and in support of revolutionary, with the glorification rebellions do make a difference." of the heavier the better, we've cal- Mass actions, which Weathermen in led the military error." earlier years so vehemently opposed, were now to become a major break Prior to this time period in the his- through forthe organization. They tory of the Weathermen, their ideology have reached a new level of attempting lacked a quality of understanding that tobe understood, and understanding, is necessary in working with, and for, in working with the masses in order to people. In theninth communique, have an effective revolution. though, single words reflect this quality which did not show through in any With the correction of organizational of the earliercommuniques. "Tribes procedures, the Weathermenwillbe at council," "guilt," "fear," "under- able to purify themselves before at- stood," "aware," "change," "love," temptingto purify society. They say "trust," "closeness," "support," "in- "grass and organic consciousness-ex- tergration," "leadership," and "re- panding drugs are weapons of the respect;" the new rhetoric of the Weath- volution;" no longer are gunsand men definitely contains tones of hu- grass united as before.1" The Weather manism, compassion and understanding-- People's idea of leadership and educa- not characteristics oftheir "old" tion has shown a definite shift from ideology. earlier communiques; it is now one of ahigher level of "revolutionary con- The ninthcommunique called for a sciousness and understanding."

Barry Irving is a Sophomore and Speech-CommunicationsMajor in the Department of Speech-Communication at the University of Minnesota.

1. Inessa, Victor Camilo, Lilian Jones, and Norman Reed, "It IsOnly People's Games That You Got To Dodge," Weatherman, edited by HaroldJacobs (Berkeley, 1970), p. 432. 2. Bernardine Dohrn, "Communique #3 from the Weatherman Underground,Weather- man, p. 510. 3. Jacobs, p. 374. 4. Scanlan's Monthly reported in its January 1971 issuethat the number of guerrilla acts of sabotage'and terrorism in the United Statesbetween 1965 and 1970 have increased significantly from sixteen in 1965to 236 in 1968. And in 1969 the number jumped to 503. These figures agreed in part with U.S. government information on the same period. But, the figures supplied by the government were considered by Scanlan's to be insufficient. 5. There are two levels of possible rhetorical analysis. One could examine the acts of terrorism themselves for rhetorical implications,or one could examine the rhetoric of justification. Since a more thorough study of ideology can be made with the rhetoric of justification,this is the level of rhetorical analysis used here. 9

11. 6. Kenneth Burke, The Rhetoric of Religion (Berkeley, 1970). 7. Jacobs, pp. 434:755. 8. Jacobs, pp. 25-27. 9. Jacobs, p. 197. 10. All quotations are from The Berkeley Tribe and SanFrancisco Good Times as quoted in Jacobs, pp. 509-316. 11. Ibid., p. 339. 12. Ibid., p. 445. 13. All quotations in the second periodare from Hundred Flowers, Jaauary 1, 1971, Minneapolis, Minnesota. 14. Shortly after the March 1, 1971 bombing of the Capitalbuilding in Washington, D.C., a five-page communiquewas sent to four news services claiming, "We have attacked the Capital," andwas signed, "Weather Underground." It is doubtful that this communiquewas issued by the Weathermen themselves, since it was not signed or thumb-printed bya person associated with Weather- man, as has prviously been done. See: Hundred Flowers, March 27, 1971.

Comments on vioday's Weather'

In MOMENTS/Present Tense, pages 75-79 of this issue,Ernest G. Bormann (Profes- sor of Speech-Communication at the University of Mirnesota) and Joseph W. *nzel (Assistant Professor of Speech atthe University of Illinois, Urbana) critically review Mr. Irving's alialysis of the Weatherman movement. At one point, Pro- fessor Bormann notes: "The weatherman with a bomb inone hand and a pointer in the other noting the high pressure ridgesseems somehow incongruent." Professor Wenzel observes: "It seems reasonable tosuppose that the Weatherman had selves achieved a level of readiness for revolutionaryaction which leaves rhetoric behind, which eschews explanation or justificationas redundantbehavior which merely impedes 'armed struggle.," 10

19 "Onceupon a time--say, ten or even The suffragettemovement of the early five years ago--a Liberated Woman was 1900's in England generally brings to somebody who had sex before marriage mind a picture of a gentle, Edwardian and ajob afterward." Or so claims skirtedladies placidly paraded in GloriaSteinem, one of the leaders of long-suffering lines to petition for National Women's Political Caucus in rights.3 However, this image is not thefeature article of the August 16 universally correct, for the activi- issueof Newsweek.1 The advowed pur- ties ofEhmeline Pankhurstwere to pose ofthe caucus is to make women mark the beginning of a revolution in full partners in every facet of the A- England thatwas to prove to be as merican political process. significant a forcefor political change as the American Women's Lib. The growingawareness of the role of movement may yet achieve. the politicalwomaninAmerica has been documented by noneother than Anything but demure, the ladies fight- time honored predictor, George Gallup. ingunder the calico Pankhurst banner In 1969, 54 percent of those question- developed processually from carrying ed said that they would put a quali- petitions toconfrontation, to out- fied vonan in the White right guerrilla warfare a- House. By August of this gainstmen and property."' year, the level of con- Although the dangers in sciousness hasrisen to attemptingtodescribe a 66 percent.2 dynamic process are obvious, this authorhas Perhaps with the 12 per- selected a classification cent shift ofopinion, system with "stages" as thetime has come for a best suitedto indicate closerinvestigation of the typesand the powers theWomen's Liberation, of thechanging rhetoric its rhetoric, and its ef- utilized bythe British fectiveness in radical- suffragettes. izing "Adam's daughters." However, such an in depth Thesuffrage movement in investigation isbeyond England appears tohave the scope of this article. hadits origins in much Rather, this author pro- thesame fashion as vari- poses toexamine a his- ousother movements al- torically similar move- readystudied by rhetori- mentin the hopes that a cians, political scient- fuller understanding of ists, sociologists, and the American movement r e 1 a t ed disciplines. will be promoted. The First, there must develop movement under considera- a core of individuals who tion here is the English perceive their lot and ex- suffrage movement, with perience dissatisfaction. theemphasis on EmmelineVOTES forIn thedebate metaphor, Pankhurst asthemove- this process might be cal- ment's most visible lead- led therecognition of a er. "need forchange."From

THE RHETORIC OF A RADICAL MOVEMENTBy Dan L. Miller this core of dedicated workers, phase ority, the majority of Edwardian Eng- one of the movement developed when the land was not yet ready to conferthis advocaters of change attempted to dis- mantle of status onto the seminate group. From their feelings and attitudes speaking at Wakes, where in Emmeline's to others. The function of this stage own words"We rivaled in popularity is obvious. Before a group of like- the Salvation Army and even the tooth minded individuals can haveany impact drawers, and patent-medicine ped- they must have a sufficient unityand dlers."° Mrs. Pankhurst beganto membershipto be perceived as a "min- court the power structure. Typical of ority." Hence, it is this organiza- most idealists unaccustomedto tion ofworkersand the membership the realities of the power structure, her canvas that marked the beginning of approach might even be termed foolish the British movement. nisus. She and those friends of her former lawyer-husband Emmeline in Parliament, Pankhurstdid not begin her urging them to support own political career thevotefor as aradical women. As might have been predicted, militant. Rather, she began rather the response she received was minimal quitely with a small meeting in her at best. She held a few gatheringsat own home. On October 10, 1903, largely her home, but only a few attended. upon thepromptingof her daughter Christable, Emmeline Pankhurst summon- Realizingthata newstrategy was ed a few friends toher parlor to needed to secure the type of recogni- found the Women's Social and Political tionthat themovement needed, Mrs. Unionto campaign for "Votes for Wo- Pankhurst went to London where she men." met daughter Sylvia, and together theybe- ganto "lobby" for the vote. The Accord- organization ofthe Union is ingto Sylvia, who was making her de- clearly a step along the path to radi- but as a lobbyist, she "knewwe had an calization. Mrs. Pankhurst recounts uphilltask before us, but I. had no the specific reason for selecting the conception of how hard and discourag- name of the new organization.."We ing it was to be."7 voted Although they did to call our society the Women's succeed in gettingone member Social to and Political Union, partly to champion theircause, they failed to emphasize itsdemocracy and partly to secure the type define of recognition they itsobjectivesas political sought. .rather than propagandist."5 poli- ticalbasis of a society of women was Despite the failure of the formalap- a departure from the existing British proach, themovement did not falter. suffrage organizations. This time it was Christabel Pankhurst who accomplished what Sylvia and Em- Phase two isan attempt to gain re- meline's methods could not. Christa- cognition. It is during this stage bel plummeted the that the movement into the newly emerging minority at- public eye when she, along with Annie tempts togain at least verbal and Kenney attendeda meeting of the Li- necessarily a public recognition of berty Party in 1905 at the Manchester their existence. In this phase of de- Free Trads Hall. As Sir Edward Grey, velopment, it appears typical of the laterto becomeForeignSecretary, developing movement to use the "estab- spoke, Christabel rose to ask him if lishment" for favors. the Liberal government would give the vote to women. As she spoke, a home- WhileMrs. Pankhurst and her devoted made bannerwas unfurled--asymbol bandof followers early saw the move- thatwas to later characterize the ment as a growing and significant min- movement for the British public. Re- 12

14 ,:eiving no reply, Christabel and Annie ladies were able to give themselves a persisted in their questions and dis- self-identity separate from other suf- tractions untilthey were physically fragegroups, and by the same techni- ejected by the steward and handed over ques of confrontation, they defined to the police. the limits of their minority group for the public. Acting rhetorically, the EdwardianEngland was shocked. The ladies deliberately sought imprison- newsuaners, which for years had ignor- ment tocall attention, to the injus- ed the women's suffrage movement, ban- tice of the laws. They spoke in nered the stcry and subsequent arrest rounds in Parliament, one speaking un- and intermentof the ladies. A pat- tilarrestedand as she was taken a- tern was set for the future. way, another taking her place, contin- using the address until she too, was Hence, Christabel's "shocking" behav- removed. They served short terms in iordid accomplish phase two in the jail, and gave fervent speeches upon movement. She did effectively secure release. Mrs. Pankhurst established a publicrecognition of the movement her ownidentity within the movement ona national scale. However, it was by beingsubjected to physical hard- not the same type of recognition for ships, and eventually to serving long whichMrs. Pankhurst had hoped. The terms in prison. establishment did not shower the growing minority with favors. Rather, the In allof thisactivity, the ladies recognitiongrew out of confrontation were striving to gain both an internal whichpropelledthemovement into aswell as external understanding. phase three and it was this pattern of Internally, theywereattempting to confrontationwhich was to character- demonstratetheirunique call to the ize the movement for the British pub- movement and the sense of duty, at all lic for the remainder of the campaign costs, to see the movement through to for votes for women. its final political goal.

Atalmost every meetingat which a Therhetoric of the movement is en- candidate spokewas also attended by lighteninghere in the sense that it women hecklers bearing homemadewhite provides insights concerning the banners proclaiming, "Votesfor Wo- duties of members: men." The hecklers were successful: "Inthe firstplace, our members Usuallythe banners were confiscated, are absolutely single minded: they the ladies removed, or even upon oc- concentrate all their forces on one casion, locked in side rooms. object, political equality with men.. No member of the WSPU divides Thewomenachieved one of their pur- her attention between suffrage and poses: They had drawn attention from other social reforms."9 all over the land to their cause, and Thusdid Mrs. Pankhurst describe mem- votes for women had become an item on bers ofthe WSPU to prospective mem- the nationalagenda. Throughcon- bers. Orlater in 1906 to a meeting frontation, publicity, and public re- of Trade Unionists in Downing Street, action, the establishment was forced Mrs. Pankhurst described WSPU members to recognize that there was a growing thus: number of individuals dedicated to the "Wefeelthis question (the vote) idea of female suffrage. so keenlythat we are prepared to sacrifice for it life itself, or Phase three of the movement marks the what is perhaps even harder, the beginningsof planned radical behav- means by which we live."10 ior. Through this technique, the

15 Externally, the ladies were attempting The "enemy" appeared to be everywhere. togaina wider understanding of the Secret night meetings were held where reasonsfor the movement--i.e., the young women werebriefed on attacks public presentationof their "need." andsupplied with "weapons." Arson In herautobiography, Mrs. Pankhurst became a tool as country mansons, recountshow they went about the task railway stations, and sporting arenas of educating the public: wereburnedto the ground. Lloyd "The first thing we did was to en- George's incomplete new home was bomb- ter upon a sensational campaign to ed. Pictures in national art gal- arouse the public to the importance leries were slashed, and with the aid of woman suffrage, and to interest of acid, the ladies even burned the it in our plansfor forcing the legend "Votes for Women" into golfing Government's hands. I think we can greens. claimthat our success in this regard was instant, and that it had Obviously, after voicing a political proved permanent. From the very philosophy withsuchan emphasis on first, in those early London days, destructive violence, repression by when we were few in number and very the establishment increased. The la- poor inpurse, we made the public dies weredriven "underground" in an aware of the woman suffrage move- attempt at self-preservation. Asa mentas it hadnever been be- result, the ladies became more adament fore."11 thanever before as the battle metaphor indicates. In 1912, Mrs. Pank- The rest of the history of the WSPU is hurst appeared, before an Albert Hall oneof increasinghostility toward meeting, this time in the role of the those who refused women the vote. As valiant warrior addressing her forces: theactions of the ladies changed, so "I incitethis meeting to rebel- did theirrhetoric. Withthe in- lion! I sayto the Government: creased activism, the women ceased to 'You havenot daredto take the askthe establishment for favors, and leaders of Ulster for their incite- began todemandtheir rights. From ment to rebellion. Take me, if you this stance, it was only a short shift dare: but so long as men rebel and into the military metaphor which char- and voters are at liberty, you will acterized the substance of the rheto- not keep me in prison!"13 ric of the movement. Butthe governmentdid dare to take her, and in 1913, while on trial, the Secret militancyreplacedthe older war metaphor was again voiced: morespectacular demonstrationsas "Whatever sentence youpass upon me both public and private property was I shall do what is humanly possible attacked. In a 1912 meeting in Albert toterminate it. I have no sense Hall, Mrs. Pankhurst voiced the stra- ofguilt... I feel I have done my tegy of the WSPU: duty. I look upon myself as a pri- "It has never been, and never will soner of war."14 be, thepolicy of the Women's So- ciety and Political Union to endan- Thebeginning of World War I marked ger life. We leave that to the en- theend of theactive suffragette emy. We leave that to men in their movement inEngland. The nation was warfare. It is not the method of plunged intodanger, and the country women!. ...There is something which seemed to feel the need to pull toget- Government cares for more than hu- her. There was little activity in the man life: the security of proper- suffrage movement; their fantasy, their ty. It is through property we shall metaphoric expression seemed to lose strike the enemy. 1,12 itspower in theface of an even 14

16 larger threatened injustice. However, conservativefigures as Congresswoman these not quite demure Edwardian la- Shirley Chisolm of New York appear to dies had made their point: The nation make morewomen aware of their needs wasawareof the issue. In 1918, as a minority group. In a campaign Parliament ranted women the right to speech titled"Of Course Women Dare" vote. she states: "America has been sufficiently sen- The study of any movement must attempt sitized tothe answer whether or toaccount for process and the dyna- not black people arewilling to mics of change. The suffragettes under fight anddie for their rights to theleadership of Emmeline Pankhurst make the questionitself asinine didnotutilize a stagnant, static and superfluous. America is not rhetoric. Rather, their development yet sufficiently aware that such a as a movementwith fairly distinct question applied to women is equal- phases was paralled by the development ly asinine and superfluous."15 of different metaphors to express their ideas. Their rhetoric began by Is such a position merely propagandis- asking for the vote, then came the de- tic? Not hardly, because later Con- mand, followed closely by the mili- gresswoman Chisolm declares that "wo- tary/martyr metaphor. The final and men have a special contribution to mostradical rhetoric adopted a mili- make to helpbring orderout of tary metaphor replete with the enemy, chaos..." In short, Shirley is trying the warrior, and the prisoner of war toconvince other womenthat they complexes. "have special qualities of leadership" and that "women must participatg more It is perhaps too early to draw a dis- in the legislativeprocess. bb Ob- tinct orstrict analogy between the viously then, likeMrs. Pankhurst's British "Votes for Women" movement and founding of WSPU, Congresswoman Chisom the American movement centering around is opting for a political role for Women's Lib. However, certain emer- Women. ging parallels may beobserved from which' it mightbe possible to posit But other spokeswomen for the movement certain predictions for the American are already taking positions typical ladies. One initial and significant of phase twoof the movement. They disclaimerneeds to be made however, appear to be seeking a public recogni- andthat is the fact that to date tion by courting the establishment for there is little unity within the Wo- favors. On the issue of Day Care cen- men's Lib movement. Thatis, they ters for example, several journals haveyet to congegrate around a cen- voice the position that these centers tral figureas did the British, and shouldbemore extensive, adequately they haveyet topolarize around a funded and expanded in scope. For ex- specific ideological loci. They have, ample, Louise Gross and PhyllisMac instead, several leaders of national Ewanentera plan for officials to importanceand just as many differing consider the centers as "an environ- "levels of consciousness" as indicated ment for child raising." This is in by the rhetoric of the positions they contrasttothe establishment view advocate. which "hasbeen motivatedby the 'needs' of the economy rather than by Still, strong similarities in terms of aconcern for the welfare of either techniques, strategies, and develop- women or children."17 ment may be observed. It would appear that some womer; are at phase one of On the other hand, other ladies are radicalization process. Such rather alreadyengaged in more radical rhet-

17 orj.c in 'anattemptto gain a wider licly" which advises advocates to public recognition. Activities here anticipate questionsand then spells extend all the way from protests like out specific answers to be utilized. the one launchedagainst theMiss America contest in November of 1968 to Other ladies have found additional the New York "Congress to Unite Women" artistic avenues to employ. Poetry to the Redstockings Manifesto issued published in leaflet form by Women's in mid-1969: International Terrorist Conspiracy "We call on allour sisters to from Hellis perhaps one of the best unite with us in struggle. We call examples of the radical rhetoric being onall men to give up their male privileges and supportwomen's "We are going to stop liberation in the interest of our all confinement of women. humanity and their own....This time we are going all the way. "1 WITCH calls down destruction on Babylon In short, itwould appear that some Oppressors: ladies are moving as predicted towards the curse of women is on you. a confrontation tactic which is typical of phase three. DEATH TO MALE CHAUVINISM."19

There can belittle doubt that some Todate, the American ladies involved women arealready opting for planned inWomen's Lib are not as united and radical behavior. In November 1969, at the same levels of awareness which The Women's Monthly ran an essay en- was characteristic of the "Voices for titled"Women Unitefor Revolution" Women" movement. However, individual- whichadvocatedspecific lines of ly, some members of the movement have actionregarding political power, sex progressed through a period of asking roles, the law, and abortion. forequality and are now engaged in demanding certain "rights." If his- In fact, in an attempt to assist other tory is any guide, unless these de- sisterswho take up the cause pub- mands are listened tohonestly and lically, Sally Medora Wood has written met, the average American male may in- a speaker's manual entitled "Questions deed find that the widely publicized I Should HaveAnswered Better: A "bra-burners" could prove capable of Guideto Women Who Dare to Speak Pub- setting far larger items ablaze.

Dan L. Miller (M.A., Northern Illinois University, 1965) is a Ph.D. Candidate and Teaching Assistant in the Speech-Communication Department at the Univer- sity of Minnesota.

1. "Gloria Steinem: A Liberated Woman Despite Beauty, Chic and Success," Newsweek, August 16, 1971, p. 55. 2. Ibid. 3. This picture results in part from the "selective" process inherent in writing any history text; however, it is probably more directly traced to the existence of two non-military suffrage groups in England during this same period. See: David Mitchell, The Fighting Pankhursts (New York, 1967), pp. 701 ff. 4. Dudley Barker, Prominent EdwardWiew York, 1968), p. 37. 5. Emmeline Parkhurst, My Story York, 1914), p. 37. 6. E. Sylvia Pankhurst, The Life of Emmeline Parkhurst (Boston, 1936), p. 71. 7. E.S. Pankhurst, Suffragette, p. 11. 8. Eleanor Flexner, Century of Struggle (New York, 1968), p. 251. 16 9. Emmeline Pankhurst, p.57. 10. E.S. Pankhust, Life, p. 60. 11. Emmeline Pankhurst, pp. 61-62. 12. E.S. Pankhurst, Life, p. 116. 13. Ibid., p. 117. 14. Ibid., p. 128. 15. Unpublished Campaign Speech, 1970,supplied by office of Congresswoman Shirley Chisom. 16. Ibid. 17. Louise Gross and Phyllis MacEwan, "On Day Care,"from WOMEN: A Journal of Liberation, 1970. Ir--Leslie B. Tanner, ed., Voices fromWomen's Liberation (New York, 1970), p. 111. 19. Ibid., p. 123.

GRADUATE STUDENT'S MOTHER GOOSE by Virginia Kidd

There was an old woman Lived out by the loop Had far too many children For an effective small group

She divided them up Assigned task force interaction Let each evolve a role And dealt with them all as abstractions

19 "The esoteric deviations (necrophilia, zoophilia, coprophilia, non-assaultive fetishism, partialism) are statistically and criminologically insignificant. Cunnilingus is now widely accepted among sexolo,.ists as normal precopulative sex play, while transvestitism is rapidly becomming the victim of changing hair and clothing styles which are erasing external differences between male and female. Masterbation, fornication and adultery in twentieth century America are considered 'crimes' only by legislative, judicial and canonical anachronism; and seduction, statutory rape...consensual adolescent sex experimentation, miscengenation, plural marriage (polygamy), and geographical and jurisdictional violations are not, for the purposes of this discussion, considered 'sex crimes'...." The Introduction to Sex Offenses and Sex Offenders, la Dr. McNamara

".1

_:'....004011.°11117.

EH Ann SEHUALITY- Reuolutionary Ethic By James W. Chesebro

20 1

Changingconceptions of deviation and ate. Indeed, we shall examine sexual the emergence of Women's Liberation, ethics.as rhetorical acts -- actions de- Gay Liberation and more recently Men's signed to convey a message to others. Liberationhave lead some to conclude As rhetorical acts, sexual ethics be- that America is now in the midst of a come prescriptive messages designed to "sexualrevolution." Yet, from a provide security and practical guide- functional standpoint, American sexual lines for interpersonal sexual activ- behavior has not undergone any drastic ity and are responsive, hopefully, to change since the 1920's. Comparing the needs of a people in the midst of datacollected in 1920 and 1963, Pro- revolutionary behavioral and attitudal fessor Ira. L. Reiss found little change. Given this perspective, the change in sexual behavior itself since major argumentative stance adopted the 1920's, but he did find that Amer- here is that most common sexual ethics ican attitudes about their sexual be- areunresponsive to people and do not havior is drastically changing. A provide the relevantand viable foun- "consolidation process," notes Reiss, dation needed for a meaningful sexual is taking place in which "a change in ethic. Asa result, thisanalysis attitudes" is beginning to "match the concludesbyexamining a set of mes- change in behavior."1 As sociologists sages which most would find extreme. SmigelandSeiden put it: "If there Yet, these extremes do reflect a di- hasbeen a sexual revolution (similar mensionof the norm, but more import- to the 1920's but ideologically dif- ant they can function as avaluable ferent), it is in terms of frankness sourceof knowledge--much as Freudian about sex and freedom to discuss it."2 psychology, anextreme, provided a Nonetheless, this revolutionary atti- refreshingandvaluable perspective tude possessesa power equal to the for psychologists in its day. In this behavioral change of the 1920's. This particular case, the emerging sadomas- attitude is creating new perceptions ochist liberation movementsare exa- and evaluations of virtually every re- mined for the ethical contributions ligious, political, cultural, and e- that they can provide in the construc- conomic institution and social process tion of a relevant and contemporary in America. sexual ethic.

Inthispiece, we shall initially i- The Loss of American Virginity dentifyand describe the sexual revolution that has occurred in America, The "sexual revolution," as a rejec- paying deference to both the behavior- tion of puritan ethics and Victorian al and attitudinal dimensions of the morality, occurredin the generation change. However, we shall focus pri- born in the 1900-1909 decade which marily upon the gap that now exists "came to sexual age during or immedi- between what people are doing and atelyafter World War I." A direct thinking about sex and what people as- factor contributing to this behavioral sume they should be doing and thinking revolution was Freud and Breuer's about sex. Typically, sexual ethics Studies in Hysteria. Studies was pub- are themechanism which could close lishedin 1895, but "it was not until this gap for ethical systems ought to after the war that the Freudian gospel be constantre-evaluations which ul- began to circulate to a marked extent timately provide a responsive set of among the American reading public."5 prescriptionsrelevantto social and Studies popularized psychoanalytic human development.3 Because these theory, freed individuals from the pu- ethical systemsare generally verbal ritan anxieties about sex, and stimu- statements, a rhetorical analysis lated the publication of sexual mater- wouldseemto be extremely appropri- ial by sexologists, sociologists,

19 anthropologists, and psychologists. havior. This merger of behavior and attitude, essentially among young peo- Moreover, the change in sexual prac- ple, wasa step toward authenticity. ticesamong Americans was influenced Although permissiveness (premarital by political, economic, technological, sexualintercourse) had been arecog- cultural and demographic dimensions as nized and fairly stable feature of A- well as rates of invention, accultura- merican life since the 1920's, by 1968 tion, culturaldiffusion, and resis- young Americans began to recognize tence to change. TheIndustrial Re- "permissiveness withaffection" as volution initiated increased social the favored standard for both males and geographic mobility, the growth of and females."8 The standard was es- industrial centers (concentrated urban sentially an individual and personal populations), rationality (the loss of matter9 strongly influenced by peer religion), the emergenceof the nu- group members10 in the social context clear family (social isolation and de- of the American bars or pubs which increased familysize), and increased stitutionalized: education.° These chlnges, note Smi- "a system of bringing together gel and Seiden, directly affected A- like-minded people; they speed the merican sexual mores and practices: dating process, for they offer this "As the population moves from small particular group of affluent young towns and intimate personal rela- people a wide variety of partners tionshipsto urbancenters, old to choose from, and they can choose forms of social control breaks down. quickly, independently, andfre- This disintergration and the accom- quently. "l1 panying anonymity is speeded by new Sexually, the 196(;'s were strongly in- andfaster forms of transportation fluenced by this step toward authen- whichfurther increases the possi- ticity. bilities of anonymity and independence. A rational society affects Concomitant to authenticity, therewas the individual's world view, and he a marked effort to eliminate dehuman- tendsto see his own life in terms ized sexual encounters--"the use of of more rational standards. As the prostituteshas diminished,"12 and extended kinship system dissolves sexualgender is considereda less andloses its importance, mate- compelling factor in determiningper- selection processes become a more sonality expectations (sometimes this personal responsibility, and incr- called the "depolarization of sex ease the importance of peer group roles"13). It was inthis context norms, whichtake precedence over thatWomen's Liberation appeared in family norms. In the evolving in- 1968, Gay Liberation in 1969 and Men's dustrialsociety, women take a new Liberationin 1970. From the per- andlarger part in theworking :;pective adopted here, these movements world, thereby securing greater in- are not surprising and, in one sense, dependence forthemselves and in- could have been predicted. creased equality in male-female relationships. The general increase Sexual Ethics Disappear in education has made possible widespread dissemination of sex in- The increase in sexual permissiveness formation to the public."7 was also accompanied by an increase in insecurity. Predictable "rules" In the early 1960's, paralleling and a governing human sexual relationships part of the protest and drop-out move- were diminished and role expectations ment among young people, sexual atti- 'were, andcontinue to be, unclear. tudesbeganto align with sexual be- Sociologist Charles Winich has been 20

22 able to conclude: basic human drive. AL; the Reiss study "Multivalent, amorphous, and de- indicates, thisconventional, conser- polarized roles might theoretical- vativewisdom was not, then, even a- ly lead to increased flexibility dopted by theelders and the elders and options inbehavior, but in wouldappearto proclaim a principle actuality' may tend to invoke un- which they themselves found impossible certainly. Some tolerance of am- to sustain as young people. As Smigel biguity is desirable for a healthy and Seiden haveaptly noted: "The personality, but today's environ- parent generationis far more conser- ment andculture are ambiguous vative thanthe younger generation -- enough to tax the adaptability of and is apparently more conservative even the healthiest personal- than it waswhen it was the younger ities."14 generation."18

Itmight be expectedthat durable The advice of the American liberal is ethical standardswould be readily likewise unresponsive to the attitudes available for this period of change. that already exist. The traditional Moreover, it mightbe expected that liberalresponse is that all sexual the elders would provide the leader- behavior ought to be permitted if the ship and experience needed to identify relationshipsexist among "consenting and inipliment these ethical standards. adults in private."Rhetorically, the However, as with several other social- position is controlled by a legalistic political issues,15 the elders have metaphor which necessarily minimizes provided no satisfactory answers. Re- the overpowering interpersonal issues gardless of their political positions, young people currently face. One is they have not provided meaningful eventempted to suggest that the lib- standards. eral positionis a form of indiffer- ence. Yet, because the liberal posi- From many of the conservative elders, tion is more responsive than the con- the response is similar to the stance servative stance, it is appropriate to found in the Dutch Catechism: consider each of the liberal prescrip- "The great guide in these matters, tions in greater detail. better than hard and fast rules, is the chastity of courtship which is First, the liberal argues that the re- characterized by an intimacy which lationshipmust be a "consenting" re- still keeps a healthy distance from lationship. The concept of "consent- the total surrender of marriage.... ingrelationship" does preclude force As long as the bond has not been and violentcrimes such as rape, but confirmedby Church and State, it it is not a standard that would affect is not definitive hence, though the or alter mostrelationships. While a young people may have become very minimum standard, the standard is intimate, sexual intercourse in baldly irrelevant to the question such a situation is irresponsible.. raisedhere. Yet, the standard can ..From all these human reasons, we become destructive to the extent that can deduce God's will and law--that it is maximizes "self-reliance." High- only married people should live to- ly consistentwith the liberal stance gether."1° is a commitment to independent and in- Rhetorically, this message is strongly dividual decision-making (cast stra- controlled by a religious-moralistic tegically as "self-reliance). But in metaphor17 and indirectly implies re- terms of sexual ethics, self-reliance turning to the Victorian-puritan sy- fails to provide a social standard or stem by reversing the evolution of the set of guidelinesthat affect the technocractic societyand denying a quality of interpersonal relation-

21 ships. these negativeprescriptions do not indicate what ought to be a desirable Second, theliberal argues that the and functional mode of interaction--in relationship must be an "adult" inter- a sense, the negative prescription de- action. The concept of an "adult re- mandsa change without indicating the lationship" is generallydefined by direction or nature of change sought. legislative or legalistic dictate and generally means sex only at the age of Positive prescriptionsare difficult 21 or 18. The definitional category to detectamong movement people. At is adirect denial of the biological points, forexample, there is an im- fact that puberty begins at 13--per- plicit assumption that interpersonal haps earlier now.The concept of an sexual behavior ought to be essential- "adult relationship" becomes irrele- ly a personalmatter. However, the vant to young people, if not destruc- stance seems to be a "hang-over" from tive if the law is, in fact, enforced. liberal ideologyanddoes, in fact, directly deny the radical's quest for Finally, the liberal argues that rela- "collective" living and community i- tionshipsmust occur in"private." dentity and decision-making. Perhaps The concept of "private relationships" the clearest positive statements heard stems from a fear of sex itself and a have taken the form of slogans: "Make fear of emotionality--the implication Love, Not War" and "If It Peels Good mightbephrased somewhat like this: Do It." The clear indication is that "Ifyou must do it, do it so I can't sexualrelationships ought to be non- see you."This fear of publicly pro- competitive, non-violent, pleasurable, claimedpassions stems from a commit- and spontaneous. Initially, hoWever, ment to rationality anddenies the itought to be noted that these "pre- beauty and naturalness of sex as a di- scriptions" are often contradictory in mensionof the social humanity shared practice and generally would not be by allpeople.The stance parallels explicit enough to be "guidelines" for (may emerge from) the kind of argument community interactions. On a broader made by St. Jerome: "He who too ar- base, however, these "prescriptions" dently loves his wife is an adulter- are intended to provide the foundation er." Moreover, the demand that sexual for a re-assertionof humanism in a relations be"private" affairs rein- sharing society. Yet, the standards forces the schizophrenic personality remain too ambiguous. Unanswered wherein a person must be one thing in questions remain: "Isit enough to "private" but another in "public." treatallpeople as equals?" "What The liberal response has simply, then, does it mean to treat someone else as not been responsive to many young peo- a human being?" "What is the best way ple. to share?" "Do I lose self-control in a humanistic, sharing society?""May Likewise, the radical or revolutionary I say that I have a 'wife' or 'lover' response is unresponsive or more aptly in such a system or am I treating a put, "underdeveloped," at this point personlike a possession in Making in time. Standards are only haphaz- such a claim?" Put another way: "How ardly evident in the "movement." Nega- woulda humanistic, sharing society tiveprescriptions are the most popu- affect me personally?" lar. Rules guiding interpersonal sexual behavior ought not be,for example, The Great American Denial based upon the sex, sexuality, or sexual preference of a person--the The quest fora meaningfulset of writings of Women's and Gay Liberation standards to guide young people today are abundant at this point. However, is not easily resolved. However, one 22

24 ethical systemhas recently emerged tal activity "is reg10,,;r and charact- which may yield important insights for eristic in many human so cieities," and the development of a new sexual ethic. further note that "for most people The source of these insights would not highlevels-of erotic arousal tend to be predicted and the source itself may generate moderately assaultive tenden- mean thatmanypeople are unable to cies."25 deal with the message itself. But I wouldargue that the S&M Liberation To theextent that sadomasochism is movement doesprovide important an- defined as assault, the phenomenon has swers to the questions raised although clearly affected the American culture most would deny the validity of the itself. George De Coulteray's study source and hence the message itself. of Sadism in the Movies identifies the brawl, wound, firearms, weapons, war, At the same time, there can be no de- the killer, death (asphixiation, the nying that sadomasochistic relation- atom, cataclysm, creamation, cruci- ships exist. Eight percent of males fixion, crushing, decapitation, e- and five percentof females are re- lectrocution, engulfment, burial, epi- gularly engaged in such relation- demic, mastication, plague, sawing, ships.19 Moreover, 20 percent of strangulation, handing), rape, the males and12 percent of females are whip, torture, the slap, spanking, the sexuallyaroused by sadomasochistic torture chamber, acid, burning wax, stories.20 Packard notes: molten lead, boiling oil, sexual as- "a surprisingly large number of sasins, and vampires as common forms students--both male and female--re- of American amusement.2° Moreover, port they have participated in pain social psychologists have found that inflictingactivities during acts Americans appreciate membership in or- of intimacy. And I am talking ganizations more if there is punish- .about acts that go beyond pinching ment associated with joining the or- and biting.1121 ganization.27 Other social psycholog- ClinicalProfessor of Psychiatry Dr. istshave found that people exper- Leon Salzman notes that sadomasochism iencing great fear prefer others ex- is neitheruniquenor bound to any periencing simllar fearrather than particular temporal period. As he calm company,20 work better if they puts it, there is a "universality and are deprived, 29 and are more likely to timelessness about sadomasochistic harm the pacificist.3° When sadomaso- phenomena."22Salzman's claim is sup- chism is defined as mental or physical portedby Professor Ford and Beach's assault, it would appear to be a com- surveyof nearlytwo hundred human mon cultural behavior in this society. societies.'3 At the same time, most Americans would Even if onegrants the universality deny reality. Thedenial occurs and timelessness ofsadomasochistic through verbal denunciations and more behavior, the issue is not eliminated commonly through silence. When men- byclaimingthat only a small and a- tioned, masochism is viewed as a form typical minority participates in such of passive, suicidal victimization. activity. Degrees of sadomasochistic Sadism is viewed as a form of unleased activity are common among most people. and uncontrolled passion stemming from As Professor of Clinical Psychology at apower stance designed to kill anot- Indiana University Medical Center EU- her person. Dr. Levitthas attempted gene Levitt puts it, "Mildly painful to capture the popular mythology as- stimulation may berelatively nor- sociated with sadomasochism: mal. "24 Ford andBeach suggest that "The phenomenon is variously por- the association of mild pain with coi- trayed as associated with obsessive 23 neurozAs, manic-depressive psycho- In recognizing the birth and apparant sis, paranoia, drug addiction, lack importance of SW Liberation, one is of achievement drive, and political tempted toassess the worth of these radicalism."31 particular relationships or to ask if De Coulteray notes that sadism is pop- sadomasochism might becomea more ularly associated with "gangsters"or popular sexual norm. However, it with "torturingNazi-style."32 Even would seem that such questions might the radical-revolutionary---theoreti- be more appropriately addressed by the callythe most open to differences a- liberationspeakers themselves. The mong people--employ "sadism" or "maso- central focus of this analysis is upon chism" as the ultimate in derogatory the kind of value system advocated by terms. Kate .Millett, for example, those now association with S&M Liber- argues that Mailer and Lawrence employ ation and the quest is to determine if masculinity as a disguise for "sexual these speakers provide an interperson- sadism."33 Americans want to believe al model for sexual ethics that may be that sadomasochistrelationships are directly related to we non-sadomaso- the most extreme form of social-sexual chists. relationships within thissociety and the desirehas almost created a fan- Initially, it would seemthat sado- tasy in whichall agree not to recog- masochism wouldbecompletely anti- nize or speak about the subject. The thetical to the development of a sex- effort succeededforyears but with ual ethic grounded in meaningful self- the adventof MK Liberationas a liberation. Yet, Terry Kolb, speaking movement, thatfantasy may come to a for "Masochist's Lib," directly deals rapid halt. with such a perspective: "Let usclear up certain miscon- S&M Liberation ceptions about masochism. Not all forms of suffering are pleasurable Sadomasochistic liberation appeared in to any masochist. We each have our the early part of 1971, initially be- pet ways of enjoying our misery. fore radical-revolutionary groups. The Theseways will vary considerably demands were similarto the demands from one individual to another. No heardfrom other oppressed groups. two masochists are alike. We are They seek recognition and respect for notreally 'passive' either, al- their existence as people, understand- though that is a favorite word we ing of their life-styles, equal rights use. We all want to dictate the despite differences, the right to de- terms under which we will be treat- fine their own identity, aid the right ed. This is a vital fact, very to formcommunitieswith all rights seldom recognized....The conclusion given anyothercommunity. Since is that there is no inconsistency their first appearance, these demands whatsoever in a masochist wishing have attracted interest. The Village to alter the conditions of society Voice has carried articles dealing so that he is not the really help- with sadomasochistliberation, the less victim of social repression. popular, "serious and authoritative" We desire the same freedoms other magazine Sexual Behavior has devoted a people desire and are enraged when major section of its September 1971 forced to assume an inferior status issue to the group, and Ramparts has against our will."34 provided a pictorial analysis of sadomasochism. There is every reason to Likewise, sadism is not to be equated believe that a great deal more will be tooppression or the desire to limit heard from and about the group. the freedoms of others. P.N. Dedeaux, speaking for "Sade Lib," notes: 24

26 "True sadism is a style. It has erosexual ones.... When an M indi- nothing to dowith concentration cates he's had enough, the S usual- camps, OAS tortures in Algeria, or lystopsunless ,he's looking for shelfloads of novels stacked around the gas chamber."3° Times Square...SWinburne knew that Dedeaux attempts to highlight the the aesthetic power, and loss of point by notingthat the Marquis de self involved, turns so-called Sade and sadism cannot be equated: 'sadism' into themost exquisite "Sadeanismisn't Sadism, the two intensificationoftrue love, and forces met head on. But Sade was makes of its practioners the most going in one direction and the rue tender ofpeopleas well as the Sadist is going in the other. "3 most ardent of lovers."35 This denial of the "death wish" by S&M speakers is highly consistent with the From this initial perspective, it is reactionsof clinical psychiatrists. not clear that S&M relationships can Dr. Salzman notes, for example, that: viewed as maximizations of the Freudi- "Actually masochistsmayhave to an "death wish." Pain wouldnot be experience some pain in order to equated to harm or displeasure. Pain function successfully, but the goal would beequatedto pleasure. The is eventuallyto derive pleasure Freudianprinciplethat no one seeks andreward by accepting some pain. death is not overtly denied by the The sadistoperates in a similar existence of S&M relationships. S&M fashion; the inflicting of some relationshipsare efforts to maximize pain or humiliation on the accep- the pleasure associated with living- - ting partner is to guarantee some as with all people. The only differ- bondageor dependency to fulfill ence is that pleasure is derived from more extensive needs beyond the im- selective forms of pain. Dr. Levitt mediate sexual interests."40 has noted that for, "Most laymen" the Dr. Levitt notes that, "It is import- "questfor pain" is "inconceivable." ant to realize that painperse is not Freud himself felt tautmasochism was attractive to the masochist. and gener- "incomprehensible."3° Perhaps, then, allynotto the-aTTOE74I--From a the explanations offered by S&M speak. sociological perspective, the same ers in May of 1971 provides an import- conclusions have been reached.42 For ant dimension: those engaged in S&M, then, there is a "The damage done by the tongue, by clear rejection of death and clearly a saying things in ordinary relation- desire for pleasure. Although the way ships which have S8d4 undertones is inwhich pleasure is secured may dif- more damaging thanthe physical fer, clearly the S&M must be confident actingout done by consenting S84. of any decision made, must have devel- The average sadist is not going to opedtrust between each other--such a go beyond reasonable bound.; because relationship wouldautomatically be he has a reputation to uphold and examined for ethical guidelines espec- sadists are very self-disciplined. ially when other ethical systems seem You see there is a lot of referring to avoid such concerns. done betweenS's and M's. Cases where someone is taken home and put Foundations for a Sexual Ethic in the hospital are rare."37 Another spokesman put the point this S&M relationships provide, then, a way: pragmatic model wherein a sexual ethic "S&M isn'tcruelty, because it's is not a luxary item, buta necessity pleasure for the M. This S&M is crucialto the safety, pleasure, hap- just a manification of normal sex- piness and life of the people invol- ual relationships, especially het- ved. We could, inextracting the

25 meaning of this model, turn to the work outperfgptly for both partners writings of a new school of people now is very small."44 The implication is involved in developing new perspec- very clear--asexual ethic would he tives or interpersonal communication-- based upon a conceution of sex as a CarlRogers, Erich Fromm, and Martin "socio-sexual" relationship whichnec- Buber. Yet, the social and pragmatic essarily requires that time andenergy meaningof these new interpersonal be expended. Biologically, we know viewpoints isoften ambiguous as we thata sexual act alters the brain are told to developlove for one's patterns and sets off significantsoc- self orthat affirmation of the self ial implications for most people. Al- is an internal, individual disclosure though we maysquarely deny the ad- process. These messages are important vocatesof "sexual freedom," a human- butweoften find it helpful to pro- istic perspective would demand that we ceed inductivelyin theory building. recognize the profound social implica- The message S&14 provides can be im- tionsof sexual behavior and frame a portant to us, and we may even con- sexual ethic within this context admit- clude that the message is more mean- ting that duration and commitmentare ingfuland credible than we initially human characteristics inall social expected simply because the life-style and humane environments. commitment is so great. Second, the relationship requires un- In defining the foundations for asex- derstanding. As Kolb puts it: ual ethic, it is important to note "The s/mrelationship is the most what that ethic is not as well as what democratic relationship that it is. A meaningful sexual ethic, for exists! Yes, democratic! The two S&M relationships, is not basedupon a consenting partners must work very desire or quest for a legally sanc- hard to achieve a compatible rela- tioned marriage. AS Dedeaux puts it, tionship because so much depends on "Our is the last romanticism....Pub- relating the fantasies of each lic exhibition always qualifies fan- partnerto the other....A great tasy...Our encounters come, indeed, deal ofintuition, ability to im- from the depths of the soul and chal- provise, and cooperation is need- lenge theppfoundest sources of the ed."45 imagination."43The meaning of a re- As one of the New York S&M panelists lationship, then, emergesfrom self put it: andcannot emerge froma desire to "Youdon't jump right in on first satisfy legal sanction or conventions. go-round. You have to gain confi- Rituals easily become routine. Thus, dence. If you take someone home the ultimate ethic must be governed by and tie him up andhe becomes interpersonal issues, not restrictions frightened,this is a turn off. S&M such as "adults only." should bg away of erotically turning on."46 Within an interpersonal framework, a In this context, then, understanding sexual ethic is framed first upon the is equality, compatibility, intuition, recognitionthat sexual relationships cooperation, confidence, and erotic. A are also social relationships. While sexual act should emerge from and re- sexual relationships are biological, flect this sense of understanding. the "biological release" is not a sufficient justification orfoundation Third, the relationships should pro- for sexual relations with anotherper- mote growthand development. Stabil- son: "No good S8& is likely to evolve ity isreplaced bya commitment to in a one-night liason.The chances of change, toexperiment, andto con- going out and having a relationship stantly maximize the abilities of the 26 people involved in the relationship. standards mentioned above, we note A relationship is stagnate if the peo- that it forcesus to considerthe ple involveddo not become more than overall interactions. theywere when they first entered the Conclusion relationship. As Kolb notes, "a person witha weakly developed imagina- We have argued that a meaningful sex- tion cannotbecome a masochist....I ual ethicmust be based upon a closer simply wish to make it clear that the unity between sex and social inter- formof ecstasy we are into reaches actions based upon understanding, sublime heights."47 We would expect, growth, development, and love. Cur- then, that a sexual ethic would entail rent sexual ethics avoid these inter- guidelines for mutual change and grow- personal issuesandwould recommend th and that a relationship which fails that sexual ethics be guided by legal, to achieve this objective would re- religious or moral societal standards. quire re-consideration for the health As a result, contemporary social pre- of all people involved. scriptions aretied to a concern for sexuality, sexual preference, age, the Finally, the relationship should be a place where the sexual act occurs, and "loving" relationship. The concept of whethera relationship is legally ap- a "loving" relationship shifts our at- proved by the State and/or Church. The tentionto a higher level of aware- framework does not seem appropriate to ness. Ratherthan being solely con- the changesthis society has experi- cerned with specific factors (sex as ened. As a result, we have. examined social interaction, understanding or theprescriptions guiding the MN! re- growth) of a relationship, we begin to lationship for valuable input in the assessthe overall relationship that construction of a new sexual ethic. We exists between two ormore people. have concluded that any social rela- Theeffort is to secure a set of pat- tionship that promotes understanding, terns in the relationship that makes growth and love is consistent with the the overallrelationship satisfying changes we now experience. Other re- exciting (risk-taking), meaningful and strictions wouldseem far less reli- kind. Dedeaux, in describing SO1 re- able as guidelines. We need, then to lationships, grapples with this issue change the realitydescribed by S&4 by noting that "true love" makes "its speakers. No longer should the speak- practitioners the most ardent of ers be able to claim that, "An S&14 re- lovers" and that "sex apnpure power" lationship requires more trust and embracesa "total love."4° While not more confidenceanddeeper personal attemptingto define "love," yet con- understandingthan ordinary relation- fidentthat it does include the three ships."

James W. Chesebro (M.S., Illinois State University, 1967) is a Ph.D. Candidate and Teaching Associate in the Department of Speech-Communication at the University of Minnesota.

1. Ira. L. Reiss, The Social Context of Premarital Sexual Permissiveness (New York, 1967), Chapter VII, and p. 233. 2. Erwin 0. Smigel and Rita Seiden, "The Decline and Fall of the Double Stand- ard," The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 376 (March 1968 ), 17. 3. Our formal systems of ethics must be responsive to human development. See Albert J. Croft, "The Functions of Rhetorical Criticism," The Quarterly Journ- al of Speech, XLII (October 1956), 288; Richard McKeon, "Communication, Truth, 27

29 and Society," Ethics, LXVII (January 1957), 95-96; Thomas R. Nilsen, Ethics of Speech Communication, (Indianapolis, 1966), D. 7; and Gibson Winter, Elements for a Social Ethic; Scientific and Ethical Perspectives on Social ProcT7772717 York, 19&777 pp. 258-259 and 275. 5. Frederick Lewis Allen, Only Yesterday: An Informal History of the Ninete- en-Twenties (New York, 1932-75. 98.

. Smigel and Seiden, 8. 6. Wilbert E. Moore, Social Change (Englewood Cliffs, 1963), pp. 100-103. 7. Smigel and Seiden, 9. 8. Smigel and Seiden, 12. 9. Smigel and Seiden, 9. 10. Robert Bell, "Parent-Child Conflict in Sexual Values," Journal of Social Issues, 22 (1966), 38-39. 11. Smigel and Seiden, 17. 12. Smigel and Seiden, 16-17. 13. Charles Winick, "The Beige Epoch: Depolarization: of Sex Roles in America' The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 376 (March r§t":7877-87 14. Winick, 24. 15. See, for example, Michael Brown, The Politics and Anti-Politics of the Young (Beverly Hills, 1969). 777New Catechism Catholic Faith for Adults (New York, 1967), pp. 386-387. The controversy surrounding the Dutch Catechism--as it is commonly called-- centered upon the radical stance taken on questions of faith and morals but the stance on personal morality continued to be conservative. Condemnations of the Catechism from Rome dealwith the radical stance on faith and morals and not on the issue of personal morality. For our purposes, the terms con-_ sevative may apply to both political conservatives and political reactionaries. 17. For a more detailed description of the term metaphor as used here,see: Bernard L. Brock, "Nixon's Cambodian Rhetoric: Interpretative Metaphor," paper read at the Central States Speech Convention, April 16, 1971. 18. Smigel and Seiden, 14. 19. Vance Packard, "Sadomasochism," Sexual Behavior, 1 (September 1971), 71. 20. These statistics were originally gathered by Kinsey for the Institute of Sex Research at Indiana University. Eugene E. Levitt, "Sadomasochism," 76, discusses them. 21. Packard. 22. Leon Salzman, "Sadomasochism," 73. 23. See, Morton M. Hunt, Her Infinite Variety (New York, 1962), p. 44. 24. Levitt, 69. 25. Hunt. 26. (New York, 1965).The same kind of cultural argument is made by Gilles .Deleuze, Masochism (New York, 1971) but related to masochism. 27. E. Aronson and J. Mills, "The Effect of Severity of Initiationon Liking for a Group, Journal of Abnormal Social Psychology, 59, 177-181. 28. S. Schachter, The Psychology of Affiliation (Stanford, 1959),p. 24. 29. J.L. Gewirtz and D.M. Baer, "The Effect of Brief Social Deprivationon Behavior for a Social Reinforcer," Journal of Abnormal Social Psychology, 56, 49-56. 30. G. H. Shure, R. J. Meeker, and E. A. Hansford, "The Effects of Pacifist Strategies in Bargaining Games," Journal of Conflict Resolution, 9 (1965), 106-117. Also see, D. Marlowe, K.J. Gergen, and A. N. Doob, 'Opponent's Personality, Expectation of Social Interaction, and Interpersonal Bargaining," 28 Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 3 (1966), 200-213. 31. Levitt, 69. 32. De Coulteray, p. 9. 33. Kate Millett, Sexual Politics (Garden. City, 1970), p.253. 34. Terry Kolb, "Masochist's Lib," The Village Voice, May13, 1971, p. 5. 35. P.N. Dedeaux, "Sade Lib," The Village Voice, May 13,1971, p. 5. 36. Levitt, 70. 37. Randy Wicker, "S&M Spokesmen Tell It Like It Is," 21x, May 10, 1971, pp. 3 and 12. 38 Wicker, p. 12. 39. Dedeaux. 40. Salzman. 41. Levitt, 78-79. 42. Duane Denfeld, "Sadomasochism," 78. 43. Dedeaux, p. 6. 44. Wicker, p. 12. 45. Kblb. 46. _Wicker, p. 12. 47. Kblb. 48. Dedeaux, p. 6.

GRADUATE STUDENT'S MOTHER GOOSE by Virginia Kidd

The king was in the counting house Counting out his money The Been was in the kitchen Eating bread and honey The maid was in the backyard Hanging out the clothes If you neglect the social dimension Your whole group goes

31 The objtive of this analysis is tocompare two schls of thougnt regarding interpersonal communication. One, long

trad:%L.) iL this country, can 't,e .11 designated the etiquette school, or more for- mally, the Emily Post School of Interpersonal Relations. Flying banners of tact, politeness, and selflers .onzid- eration of others, it is this philosophy that has immortalized such notable bylaws "If you can't ,3ay somthini:, nice, don't z-Ay anythinc ail." Ir. contrast II the Rogurs-Fromm-BUber-Jourard School of Congruenoe, Self- Affirmation, Dialogue, and Transparency has evol7ed tenets much at odds with the etiquette injunctions. The contrast between the two groups is of great significance, for the Rogers, et al. school is certainly the wave of the present, and yet a large bulk of the populace would seem to adhere strictly to the traditional-conventional style. At least a delineation of the differences in the two seems warranted.

Emily Post set the keynote of the conventional style in her book etiquette (revised in 1969) "One of the primary rules for behavior in company applies particularly to 'Ifyou can't say somet in nice...' EMILY POSTvs.CARL ROGERS,et al. By Virginia Kidd 30 L 32 conversation: Try ts, do and say validity. onlythat which will be agreeable to other::."1 Thenew philosophyof interpersonal This mandate to pleasantry is support- communication stems in part from the edbya myriad of speech texts, all view of man expressed by Erich Fromm. admonishing the reader to tact, calm Central to this concept is the belief andkeeping the peace. Wilhelmina thatpeople have a primary obligation Hedde and William Brigance inThe New to themselves.Fromm sees the conven- AmericanSpeech set a list of rules tional view as rerlective of an "I" am expressing"How to Improve Conversa- as you desire me"° attitude where per- tion." These include "Don't talk too sons losetheir individual integrity muchaboutyourself, give others a to the "market." Advice to change chance to talk, don't be dogmatic, and one'smanner to suit each occasion or beconsiderate and tactful."2 Karl to belie one's natural feelings in the Robinson and Charlotte Lee in Speech interest of tact, Fromm sees as a part in Action suggest: of the "marketing orientation," where A skilled conversationalist can "success largelydepends on how one adapt to almost any situation. A- sell's one's personality."7Fromm dapting is changingyour manner, views this response as fundamentally ideas, language, voice or action to wrong. Using the term "love" to re- fit any situation."3 present the ultimate communication, he Modern Speech byJohn Irwin and writes: "Automans cannot love; they Majorie Rosenberg continues the tone can exchange 'personality packages' when it urges the conversationalist to and hope for a fair bargain." If in- 1. Cooperate terpersonalcommunication cannot be 2. Select topics of mutual inter- achievedat a meaningful level by the est "marketing approach," what then is the 3. Select pleasant topics. Your appropriate behavior forproducing ailments and family problems are of adequatehuman relations? Fromm pos- little interest to others....To in- tulates a form of "self-love" as the troduce topics...whichare highly beginning of the answer: controversialandapt to stir up "The affirmation of one's own life, heated feelings is in extremely bad happiness, growth, freedom is root- edin one's capacity to love...If AndrewWeaver, Gladys Borchers and an individual is able to love pro- Donald K. Smith echo these behavioral ductively, he loves himself too; if maxims, including on their own list: he can love only others, he cannot Consider the interests of others love at all."9 Be a good listener He adds: Improve your voice "The idea expressed in the Biblical Improve your action 'Love thy neighbor as thyself' im- Improve your language lies that respect for one's own in- Find interesting things to say tegrity anduniqueness, love for Adapt your conversation to each oc- and understanding of one's own self casion) cannot be separated from respect for andlove and understanding of Such suggestions for communication another individual."10 seem soin line with expected behav- ioralpatterns and so much a part of This firm belief in the importance and our cultural heritage that it is some- affirmation of theself is constant what of a shock to realize that a very throughoutthe new interpersonal phi- strongmovement in interpersonal com- losophy. It is no longer proper be- munication isdenying much of their havior to "be a good listener" alone.

33 It is mandantory that one be aware of style. One can envision Jourard pub- the self and able to relate this self lishinghis studies (includinghis to others. Such relation is viewed as hypothesis that "self-disclosure is "hone:A, interaction" of one's *real" systematically related to mental and selfto another's "real" self. It is possibly tophysical health"15only contrasted witha relationship in to turn to The New American Speech, which each party forges an image suit- finding in the section on improving edto the situation; such interaction conversation theadmonition"Don't is likened to a stage play; the new talktoo much about yourself."1°His philosophy would contendthat such response is predictable. staged interactioncannot lead to meaningful communication. If the speech texts are upsetting to Jourard, it is equallylikely that Sidney Jourard, a leading empirical Carl Rogers isupsetting the propon- researcher in thisarea, smmarizes ents of politeness at anycost. this point ofviewin his book The Rogers, possibly the most immediately Transparent Self: influencial of theauthors thus far "It is possible to be involved in a discussed, is the spokesman for many socialgroup such as a family or a notions central to the new communica- work settingfor years and years, tion philosophy. One of these is the playingone's roles nicelywith concept of congruence. It too stems other members--and never getting to from thebelief in the importance of knowthepersonswho are playing the self. Writing of the counselor- the other roles....There is no real client, he defines his term as occur- self-to-self or person-to-person ring when: meeting in such transactions. "the counselor iswhat he iswhen Jourard terms genuine revealing of the in the relationship with his client "person" or the "self" as self-dis- he is genuine and without "front" closure. He explains: or facade, openly being the "Idon'tmean anything mysterious feelings and attitudeswhichat by 'self.' All I mean is the per- that moment are flowing in him."17 son's subjective side--whathe At anotherpoint he adds, "We are thinks, feels, believes, wants, dealing withthe person him elf, and worries about..."12 not with a polite...facade."1° Refer- He finds such genuine interaction ring specifically to negative feelings absolutely vitial, claiming that "no Rogers offers the tentative position man can come to know himself except as that: an outcomeofdisclosing himself to "evenwith such feelings as these another person"13and he stresses his which we all have from time to time positionevenmore strongly when he it is preferable...to be real than speaks of love: to put up a facade of interest and "Effectivelovingcalls for know- concernandliking which he does ledgeof the object. How can I not feel. "1 love a person whom I do not know? Rogers does not speak lightly of his How can the other person love me if concept of congruence; indeed he terms he does not know me?"14 it "highly important, perhaps the most For Jourard as for Fromm the self must crucial" of communication conditions be affirmedand adequately disclosed he describes.20 for effective interiersonal communication to take place, The Rogerian objective with regard to congruence is not to acheive a cathar- The Fromm-Jourard attitude seems in tic releasewithout regard to others, conflictwith the more traditional but rather to face up to internal re- 32

34 aztions as they occur and :mare and opposition to the Rogerian ideal. discus: them as relating individuals. Sucha manner of being, Rogers terms An extension of this notion of congru- trustworthiness. He posit7 t? -.at :ne the ric;ht of the individual to person acting in an accepting manner avoid interaction. The literature in- when feeling annoyed is "in the long dicatesasupposition that followers run to be perceived as inconsistent or of the new philosophy will be open and untrustworthy."23Congruent or trust- accepting; it does not imply, however, worthy behavior he sees as fundamental that all persons will reach the same to interpersonal relation. levelof intimacy or that there is no distinguishing between relationships Jourard offers similar statements con- inthe new systems. Indeed, each in- cerning communication, terming "real dividual has the right to determine selfbeing" the ultimate state. He her/hisown gift of self to others as suggests that "therecan be no real such actions honestly reflect internal growthof the self (Which like Fromm, responses. Jourard regards as highly positive) without real self being." Withre- The basic assumption underlying treat- gardto socially pleasant behavior, ment of others in the new philosophy Jourard acknowledges the socialex- is thateach "other" is the same as pectations: (i.e., has the same rights as) each "An authenticperson maynot be "self." Thatmeans that others heve very 'nice.' In fact, he may seem obligations to themselves, including much 'nicer' sociallyand appear the rightand duty to make decisions more mature and healthy when he is regarding themselves. The ethical not beinghis real WS than when position ofpersons in interpersonal he is his real self."2' relations, then, becomes the fostering of conditions under which such obliga- The standards set up by the new school tions can be honored. of interpersonal communication offer no little discrepancy with the conven- The new school even offers terminology tionalmode. Post, for example, of- distinguishing this recognition of the fers preventative methods for avoiding otherfrom a less aware, more conven- any form of conflict, warning: tional approach. The writing of Martin "...be careful not to let amiable Buber has been of great significance discussion turn into argument. The in the newmovement and his descrip- tactful person keeps his prejudices tions of the "ultimate" communication, tohimself, and even when involved which he termsdialogue, have set d in a discussion, he says, "It seems standard for interaction. I-Thou is tome" thusand so. One should histerm for"a living mutual rela- never say, 'That's not so!'...if he tion" where each person "really has in findsanother's opinion unreason- mind the other or others in their pre- able, he tries to find a more plea- sent and particular being;"27 I-It is sant subject as soonas pos- "the way one relates to someone or sible."27 (EMphasis mine3 something when one is observing, Hedde and Brigance offer the same line analyzing, manipulating or using. 1128 of thought: "If someone makes a tactless remark From thistheoretical ideal, three the good conversationalist covers practical manifestations have devel- it by carrying on the conversation oped which have become canons of the as if nothing out of place ---had been new philosophy; responses to communi- saia-.4"26 (Emphasis mine cation must be non-judgmental; inter- Such incongruous behavior is in direct action mustbe non-manipulative; and 33

35 somewhatless significant, exchanges action: "It respects the other person mustreflect the "now," the present as a separate individual, and does not state of being of the persons involved. possess him.".).) Such is the ethical goal of the new communications. In the area of nonjudgmentalcommuni- cation, thework of Carl Rogers has The finalstandard of the new school again beer a motivating force: involves relating as one is, not as "Ishould like to propose...that one hasbeen. Eachindividual is the major barrier to mutual inter- viewed not as a static thing which can personal communication is our very be analyzed, classified and filed away natural tendency to 4udge, to eval- but ratheras persons who are contin- uate, to approve (or disapprove) ually growing and must be related to thestatement of the other person in the process of becoming. Jcurard or the other group."29 writes: "I suspend my concept of my Rogers traces the base for his philo- own being...and let my changing being sophy back to the importance of the present itself to my eNperience...."34 other and his/her autonomy: Rogers phrases his position as a ques- "The meaning and value of his [the tion: other's] experience is in the last "CanI meet this other individual analysissomething which is up to asa person who is in the process him, and. no awmnt ofexternal ofbecoming, or will I be bound by judgment can alter this."30 hispastand by my past' If I accept him as a procesJ of becoming Theadage against judgmental behavior then I am doing what I can to con- is bothan ethical and a practical firmor makereal his potential- one. Ethically, the new philosophy ities."35 assumes the right of every self to be; it is not incumbent upon anyone to The essential nature of the new inter- justify his/her existence; it is personalcommunication can be summar- equally notthe rightof anyone to ized intermsofthe following: a measure that existence. Certainly any recognitionof the importance of the given individual is expected to offer self, and of the need to affirm the a natural response to another, but the self in public interaction; an exten- newschool sees a fundamental differ- tion of this importance into the right ence between the implications of "I am ofthe individualto accurately re- angry" (my response) and "You are an flect her/his inner state, even if idiot" (a judgment). On the practical such state is negative; a recognition level, the assertion is that judgment- of the same rights in the other and an alstatements tend to prohibit honest ensuringincumbence upon a participa- interaction; that once one becomes torin interaction to reflect a non- concerned with being adjudged, the judgmental, non-manipulative stance spontaneity of an open interaction is with personsacting in their present lessened. being.

The prohibitions against manipulative The questionwhich must be raised at behaviorareeven more strigent than this point concerns the relationship those againstjudgmentalresponses. ofindividuals in these two schools. Rogersexplicitly eliminates any kind Certainly persons adhering to both of manipulation, even "for the welfare philosophies must meet on frequent oc- ofthe state, or the good of the edu- casion; can they accurately give mean- cational institution, or 'for their ingto the interactions which result? [the individuals]own good.'"31 Rogers J. D. Cardwell, in his book Social summarizes non- manipulative inter- Psychology, discusseshow meaning is 34 given to "symbols," a term applied chool's :-..on-manipulative, non-judg- bothto words and nonverbal behavior, mentalindividual is criticized from includingone must presume, human ex- the etiquette viewpoint as preoccupied pectations: withthe self and unwilling to gt-t.in- "Symbols, then, have no inherent volved. It is easy to envision a hy- meaning. They acquire their meaning pothetical conversation between mem- through the process of consensus of bersof the two schools. Member A of the human actors who use them. Were the etiquette school asks, "Do you humans notto arrive at consensus need any help in your project?" Mem- as to the meaning of symbols,social berB of the new school replies, "No, interaction...would be impossible. I cando it all right by myself." We could neither understand nor Member A, operating from his conven- anticipate the behavior of others, tion, assumes that B's response means andthey couldneith.er understand B doesnot want to impose but needs nor anticipate ours.3° encouragement toaccept assistance. The underlyingconsensus asto the Appropriate behavior for A is to re- meaningof specific forms of communi- peat the offer, even to pressure B to cation seems to be missing in inter- accept help. Member B will of course action between persons following the be taken aback by this response since two differingphilosophies. As indi- byher interpretation she has clearly vidualsacting withinthe framework statedher preference already and is of his/herown assumptions will give now being manipulated by A. It seems certain meaning to behavior; the same apparent that two individuals can hold behavior, however, may evoke conflict- similar values and strive for equiva:.- ing meaning from her/his compatriot in entgoals and yet find themselves in the other school. communication conflict notbecause they disagree on the kind of relation- Certain obvious interpretational dif- ship they seek but because they inter- ferences can be immediately identified: pret differently the behavioral mani- the new philosophy discusses the self festations of the relationship they in terms of "openness" and "sharing;" have. the etiquette school uses terminology of "selfishness" and "selfiessness;" Both the new philosophy and the con- what apolite member of the conven- ventional school have definite rules tional school calls being "a good lis- of appropriate interaction and give tener" is viewed as "closed" and un- specific meanings to particular modes willing to shareby the new school; ofbehavior. Until each school of the congruent individual is rude by throught realizes that themeaning conventional standards while the tact- given tobehavior is not necessarily ful interactionist is dubbed "phony" the meaning intendedor the meaning in return; what the conventional given by another, misunderstanding school places under the heading "posi- seemsinevitable. The irony of the tive reinforcement" and "involved con- situation is that the one commonality cern" the new philosophy cataloguesas between the two philosophies is an at- manipulative behavior; and thenew tempt to eliminate misunderstanding.

Virginia Kidd (M.A., Sacramento State College, 1970) is a Ph.D. Candidate and Teaching Associate in the Department of Speech- Communic ation at the University of Minnesota.

1. Elizabeth L. Post, Emily Post's Etiquette (12th ed., New York: Funk & Wagnails, 1969), p. 38.

35 2. Wilh,amina Hedde and William Brigance,The New American Speech (New York: J.B. Lippincott, 1957),pp. 18-21. 3. Karl Robinson and Charlotte Lee,Speech in Action (New York: Scott, Foresman & Co., 1965), p. 36. 4. John Irwin and Marjorie Rosenberger, Modern Speech (New York: bolt, Riut.- hart & Co., 1961), p. 27. 5. Andrew Weaver, Gladys Borchers and DonaldK. Smith, Seaking and Listening (Englewood Cliffs, NewJersey: Prentice-Hall, 1956), pp. 323 -326. 6. Erich Fromm, Man For Himself (New York: Fawcett World Library, 1947), p. 80. 7. Fromm, p. 78. 8. Erich Fromm, The Art of Loving (NewYork: 73 Harper & Row, Inc., 1956), p. 9. Fromm, Man for Himself,p. 135. 10. Fromm, Man for Himself,p. 133-134. 11. Sidney Jourard, The Transparent Self (Princeton: D. Van Nostrad Company, Inc., 1964), pp. 23-27- 12. Jourard, p. 24. 13. Jourard, P. 5. 14. Jourard, p. 25. 15. Jourard, Self-Disclosure, An ExperimentalAnalysis of the Transparent Self (New York: Wiley-In;:erscience, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1971),p. 39. 77- Hedde and Brigance,p. 18. 17. Carl R. Rogers, "The InterpersonalRelationship: The Core of Guidance," in Sensitivity Training and the LaboratoryAppraoch, ed. by Robert T. Colem- biewski and Arthur Blumberg rItasca,Illinois: S.E. Peacock Publisher, Inc., 1970), p. 158. '18. Rogers, p. 159. 19. Rogers. 20. Rogers, p. 160. 23. Rogers, "Characteristics ofa Helping Relationship," in Basic Readings in Interpersonal Communication, ed. by Kim Giffin andBobby R. Patton (New York: Harper & Row, 1971), p. 409. 24. Jourard, Transparent Self, p. 27. 25. Post, p. ho. 26. Hedde and Brigance, p. 23. 27. Martin Buber, Between Man and Man, trans. byRonald G. Smith, 6th ed., (New York: Macmillan, 19707P. 19. 28. Raymond Anderson, "Martin Buber's Philosophyof Dialogue," paper read at the Speech Association of America, December 1969,p. 1. 29. Rogers, "Barriers and Gateways to Communication,"Harvard Business Review, Ma (July-August 1952), p. 46. 30. Rogers, "Characteristics," p. 414. 31. Rogers, "Interpersonal Relationship,"p. 165. 33. Rogers, "Interpersonal helationships," p. 162. 34. Jourard, Self-Disclosure, .!). 180. 35. Rogers, "Characteristics," p. 414. 36. J.D. Cardwell, Social Psychology (Philadelphia: P.A. Davis Company, 1971), p. 6.

36 i

0:. Henry W. Irady e1e .trIffed attendane at t:-.e THE RHETORIC ann,a1 banquet of the New E:.itland So- ciety of I:ew T.,rk with im:romptu OF THE nau SOUTH: speech entitled "The ::ew Su : :." This spee(:h heralded a three year period it. whichGrady was to l:e:pple known as "the apostleof a New Suth."- As a roving ambassador from a defeated South, freshfrom the ravages of the Civil War, he employed a rhetoric of reconciliation aimed primarily at the North.

Eighty-five years later, the South finds itself arising from another defeat and ,Tow spokesmen with new rhetoric are once againpleading the South's ,-ivatts, There .are major differences ish the 1971 setting as opposed to that\ faced by Grady in 1:80. The defeat this time was in the political arenarather than on the battle field and the appeal of the rhetoric of the New South in 1971 is to the South itself.

Despite a valiant effort ly forces led by the redoubtable Senator Richard Russell of Georgia, the South suffered consecutivedefeats in the passage of the CivilRights Acts of 1957, 1960, 1964 and 1968 plus the Voting Rights Act of 1965. Massive resistance movements flared up in many sections of the Southand the one voice heard a- bove the rest was that of George Cor- leyWallace, the Governor of Alabama. Wallace was able to crystallize the support ofthe embittered right-wing conservatives to the extent that he was able tomount a serious bid for the Presidency in 1968.

Following the presidential election of 1968, a new breed of Southern politi- cian emerged, using new appeals that foundacceptance among large numbers of Southern constituents. Among these was Jimmy Carter, elected to the Gov- ernorship of Georgia in 1970 general elections, proclaiming a platform A Study in Contrast callingfor a new freedom in the 37 South. of 1964 had been passed and signed in- to law by President Lyndon Johnson. In order to determine the validity of Earlier in the year, Wallace carried any claim thata new rhetoric is e- hls opposition to this then pending mergingin the South, a critical com- bill to parts of the country outside parison should be made of speeches de- the South. He had announced his LI- livered by a representative spokesman tention to run for the Presidency on of boththe old and the new types of an independent ticket. His successes Southern politicans. Therefore, the had completely upset the predictions speakerschosenfor this study are of the professional political prog- Governor George Wallace of Alabama and nosticatorsas he had scored heavily Governor Jimmy Carter of Georgia.The intheprimaries of Wisconsin, Indi- two speecheschosen for analysis are ana, and Maryland. However, the Civil the speech delivered by Wallace at the Rights Act of 1964 was now law and he Southeastern Fairgrounds in Atlanta, concentratedhis heavy artillery on GeorgiaonJuly 4, 1964 and Carter's this act in hisIndependence Day inaugural address delivered in Atlanta Speech. The speech was entitled, "The on January 12, 1971. Civil Rights Bill: Fraud, Sham and Hoax." The remainder of this paper shall be dividedintofour sections. A brief Governor Carter's inaugural address description of the background and set- waschosen becauseit is typical of ting of the two speeches is followed the rhetoric of the newly successful by a critical comparison of the treat- moderate Southern politican. His e- ment of issues by the two speakers and lection followed byfour years an un- a generaldiscussion of some rhetor- successfulattempt byhim to attain ical techniquesused by Wallace and the same office. He had won a hard Carter. In conclusion, mention is fought primary campaign but had sound- given to the implications of this rhe- ly defeated his Republican opponent in torical analysis. the general election.

Wallace's Independence Day speech in Carter was one of the five moderate Atlanta was chosen for this study be- governors elected in the South in the cause it offers an excellent opportun- 1970 general elections. John West was ity to study the typical rhetoric of elected Governorof SouthCarolina thecontemporary, anti-aggressor rhe- witha pledge to minorities that they toricansof the South. These rhetor- would be given "nospecial status icanscloak their Southern bias in other than full fledged responsibility verbal thrusts at those who would des- ina ggtvernment that is totally color troy states' rights and other tradi- blind." LinwoodHolton became the tions held dear by the South. Chester, first Republican governorelected in Hodgson and Page described this rhe- Virginia in nearly a century, pleading toric in An American Melodrama: that the electorate "Let our goal in "For a century, politicans in the Virginiabe an aristocracy of ability Southhad learnedto talk about regardless of race, color or creed." states' rights, and constitutional- ReubtnAskew reflected on his victory ism, and the Southern way of life, over Claude Kirk in the Florida guber- and many another resounding shib- natorial racebysaying that his e- boleth, in such a way that everyone lection was a "departure from the cus- knew what was meant."2 tom wherein the person who took a hard racial line always won."5Dale Bum- The setting of Wallace's speech was in pers, newly elected Governor of Arkan- the Deep South. The Civil Rights Act sas, stated that the election of the 38

40 fivemoderate governors in the South ment continually derives its. power was nota coincidence but that "There from independent and free men. If has been cry for new leadership in it is to survive, confident and the South."' Therefore, Carter's in- courageous citizens must be willing augural speech was delivered in the to assume responsibilityfor the midst of a change developing in South- quality of ourgovernment at any ern politics. particular time in history."8

Governor Wallace, in employing the Following his introduction, Wallace tactics of the anti-aggressor rhetor- moved directly into the negative rhe- ican, aimed his attacks at three basic toric of the anti-aggressor rhetorical: targets: aneverexpanding federal In referring to the Civil Rights Act government, the United States Supreme of 1964, he declared that; Courtand Communists. This could be "This bill will live in infamy. To construed asa negative rhetoric. sign it into law, at any time is Governor Carter's address employed the tragic. Todo so upon the eve of positiverhetoric of a politican of the celebration of our independence the New South by referring to positive insults the intelligence of the A- methods of solving the problems of il- merican people. literacy, law and order, the environ- "It dishonors the memory of the ment, and the races. countless thousands of our dead who offered up their very lives in de- The introduction of these two speeches fense of principles which this bill were similar in that both were patrio- destroys. tic in nature. Wallace beganhis "With this assassin's knife and a speech with these words: blackjack in the hand of the feder- "We come here today in deference to al force-cult, the left-wing liber- to the memoryof those Stalwart als will try to force us back into patriots who on July 4, 1776, bondage. Bondage to a tyranny more pledged their lives, their fortunes brutal thanthat imposed by the and their sacred honor to establish British Monarchy which claimed anddefendthe proposition that power to rule over the lives of our governments are created by the peo- forefathersunder sanction ofthe ple, empowered by the people, de- divine right of kings." rive their just powers from the consentofthe people, and must These statements byWallace formed forever remain subservient to the part of his attack on the ever expand- will of the people. ingpowerof the federal government. Today, 188 years later, we cele- In contradistinction, Carter's only brate the occasion and find inspir- reference to interference in state af- ation and determination and courage fairs by an outside power was related topreserve and protect the great to a positive statement regarding the principles of freedom enunciated in cessation of discrimination in the Declaration of Independence."( Georgia: "We Georgiansare fully aware of Carter, a former member of the United making ourown judgments and man- StatesNavy, began his speech witha aging our own affairs. We who are reference to the presence of the Naval strong orin positions of leader- Academy band, saying that he was re- ship must realize that the respon- minded: sibilityof making the correct de- "ofthe love of our nation and its cisions in the future is ours. As goalsand ideals. Our country was Governor, Iwill never shirk this founded on the premise that govern- responsibility." t;: 39

41 Though this statement could be inter- control by the federal :adie::try pretedas referring to the federal to its use and disposition. goverment, it could also refer to "Another assert:, that theguamhtet: GovernorWallace or any other outside of equal protection and dueprooess politican who would try to meddle in of law cannot be extendedto a cor- the affairs of Georgia. poration. "Inone instance, following the In attacks upon the Supreme Court and edicts of the United States Supreme its rulings, which Wallace alleges Court, a state supreme court has favors Communists and criminals, the ordered and directed a privatecit- Alabama Governor posits that: izen to sell his home toan indivi- "the chief if not the only bene- dualcontrary to the wishes of the ficiaries in thepresent Court's owner." rulings, have beenlawfully con- viced criminals, Communists, athe- Carter makes his positionquite clear its, acid clients of vociferous on these issues in unequivocal lan- left-wing minority groups." guage: "I say to you quite frankly that In contrast, Carter's call for lawand the time for racial discrimination order positively treats the issuewith is over. Our people have already acall for support of law enforcement made the major and difficult deci- officials and justice to all: sion. No poor, rural, weak or "In Georgia, we are determined that black person should ever have to the law shall be enforced. Peace bear the additional burden of being officers must have our appreciation depriv :dof the opportunity of an and support. educatiol) a job or simple justice." "Crime andlack of justice are e- Other references on this issue. parti- speciallycruel to those who are cularlyin the area of education,are least able to protect themselves. made by both speakers. However, the Swift arrest andtrial and fair basic thrust of the rhetoric used is punishment should beexpected by analogous to the above citations. those who would break our laws. It is equally important to us that The rhetorical techniques used by Wal- every effort be made to rehabiliate lace and Carterwere also of a con- law breakers into useful and pro- strasting nature. Wallace's speechwas ductive members of society." replete with ad hominen attacks a- gainst the Supreme Court, the press, It is in the area of racial discrimin- government officials, Communists, ationwhere we findthe most basic left-wing groups and the Congress. The contrastin the two speeches involved speaker attackedHubert Humphrey and in this study. In an obvious refer- Ralph McGill by name. Carter's speech ence to the Supreme Court's upholding was characterized by the complete ab- theright of minorities to use public senceof the ad hominem attacks, long accomodations and to purchase proper- the standby of southern politicans. ty, Wallace charges that: His basicappeal was to the pride of "They assert the right to convert Georgians and to the sense of fair a private place of business into a play that he hoped was inherent in all publicplaceofbusiness without citizens. the consent of theowner and without compensation to him. The useof god-terms and devil-terms "One justice asserts that the mere has always been an identifying feature licensing of a business by a state of Wallace's rhetoric. Some of the is sufficient toconvert it into god-terms used in his Independence Day 40

49 the %nti-ag...resr.:r ri.v- .cri,:ai. while .:'artcr ,z,ti the rre..:dom: emer,7ine moderate our form coverment; and our Lhe fihiluren. Ath):44 the devil-term.; used were: 11ack-rol,,,7d dunpJts; To make any final ..onA.sions. at thit: left-win6 radicals; out-of-state in- time, as to the emergence of a new terests; tyranny; and pinknik social rhetoric in the South would perhaps be engineers. premature. After all, Carter and the othermoderate Southern governors e- ThoughCarterused such god-terms as lected last November have not served "truth," "frankness." and "ideals" in their first full year in office. We reference to responsibility in govern- must not forget that George Wallace mental administration and such devil- was alsoelected to another term as terms as "avarice," "selfishness," and governorof Alabama. We may not be "procrastination" in reference to the able to make any conclusion until af- necessity of preserving the environ- ter theelections of 1974. However, ment, theywere allused within a we can surmise that no longer must one positive context of seeking unified preach "segregation now; segregation accomplishment for the good of all. forever" to get elected to a big political office in the South. This could As a general conclusion regarding the be the first step toward the real rhetoric of the two speakers, it could emergenceofa rhetoric of the New be said that Wallace used the negative wlW. Gerald H. Sanders (M.A., Texas Tech University, 1969) isa Ph.D. Candidate in the Department of Speech-Communication at the University of Minnesota. Mr. Sanders is currently on leave from The College of Wooster, Wooster, Ohio where he is an Assistant Professor and Director of Forensics in the Department of Speech. 1. Warren Choate Shaw, Histbry of American Oratory (Indianapolis: The Hobbs- Merrill Company, 1928), p. 481. 2. Lewis Chester, Godfrey Hodgson and Bruce Page, An American Melodrama (New York: Dell Publishing Company, Inc., 1969), p. 308. 3. Time, May 31, 1971, p. 18. 4. Ibid. 5. Ibid. 6. Ibid. 7. This and all following quotations from the Wallace speech are taken from the text as printed in the following source: Floyd W. Matson, ed., Voices of Crisis (New York: The Odyssey Press, Inc., 1967), pp. 178-193. 8.T1is and all following quotations from the Carterspeech are taken from the transcript printed in the January 13, 1971.Atlanta Constitution, section B, p. 11.

41 The ti\PentagonPapers A Statement Against Democratic Elitism

44 We, the American Left, 1:: order to On August 4th, the night the Maddox form a more perfect government created was attacked by North Vietnamese gun- large federal bureaucracies, that like boats, 34A raids were going on and The an atomic explosioncontain a half- Papers specifically state that the life of their own. We, the American captain, of the Maddox was informed of right, built a military-industrial these raids and their specific loca- complex toprovide us a margin of tion in advance of General Westmore- saftey which has become themajor land.3 Furthermore, the Joint Chiefs source of our insecurity. The 1964 of Staff had informed Secretary Mc Na- rhetoric of the Johnson Administration mara that with the addition of trained andthe Pentagon Papers laid side-by- sabotage teams and fast PT boats, the side reflect the many faces of EVe raids were becoming increasingly ef- thatformed the American society. In fective.4 a self-analysis of our psychosis, we haveattemptedto assess motive and Now, the story that Mc Namara and Mr. fix blame. From this therapy session Rusk told the Senate Foreign Relations Lyndon BainesJohnson has emerged as Committee on August 6th wasn't e;:actly thepersonification of our sick per- the truth. Secretary Mc Namara des- sonality. It was through his public cribed Plan 34A as a South Vietnamese floggingthat we gained a measure of "anti-infiltration operation being sanity. Now that our emotions have conducted by a fleet of coastal patrol beenventedwe should reanalyze the boats that the U.S. had helped South rhetoricaltensions that were present Vietnamto organize in 1961."5Mr. in 1964. Hopefully the reexamination Ma Namara also stated that the Maddox willsuggest more permanent solutions did not know that the raids were being to our problems. carried on against the North Viet- namese. When Senator Church asked Mr. The impactof the Pentagon Papers is Rusk if the United States was aware of of suchmagnitude that they demand the raids, Mr. Rusk responded by say- that our rationality gain control over ing: "In a larger sense, that is so, our passions. This intellectual exer- but as far as any particular detail is cise suggest several theories that concerned we did not from Wphington mightprovide rationalorder to the follow that in great detail."° past and indicatefuture courses of action. One set of arguments could be Later that day, in a news conference, labelled "The Congenital Liar Theory." Mr. Mc Namara described the Pentagon's Thisanalysiswould argue that the 34A raids as nothingmore than a Vietnam tragedy can ue explained by coastal junkpatrolwhich inspected thefact that the Johnson Administra- "suspicious incoming junks seeking to tionwasinfested with liars. The deterand prevent the infiltration of Pentagon Papers contain ample evidence both men and material from North Viet- to support this interpretation. nam into South Vietnam."7

ThePapers reveal rather clearly that The cry of a "credibility gap" (the Mr. Mc Namara and Mr. Rusk lied to the newspaper's code name for The Congen- Senate Foreign Relations Committee ital Liar Theory) is easily supported during the secret sessions on the Gulf bya comparison of public statements of Tonkin Resolution.1 The Papers re- andthe Pentagon Papers, in fact, the portthat for several months prior to major strength ofthis theory is the the Gulf of Tonkin incident, the U.S. abundance of evidence that exists to hadbeen raiding the North Vietnamese substantiate it. However, the major coastline. The code name for these weakness of this theory is the course clandestineraids was "Plan 34A."2 of action it would suggest. If the 43

45 problem with the Johnson Administra- action until Felmary of 19.:5 for tionwasmerely that it contained a tactical reasons.10 Oae of the pack of liars, then the solution to writers of The Papers states that the ourdifficultywouldbe to elect an "President was inthe midst of a:: honest man, one who is pure of heart election campaign in which he was pre- and soul whowould in turn appoint senting himself asthe candidate of other truth-speaking men to his admin- reason and restraint as =posed to the istration. If we had Mr. Nixon's quixotic Barry Goldwater."11 papers we might discover that we failed in our search in 1968. Furthermore The New York Times neatly summarizes we could well exhaust the populace in the case the Pentagon Papers make for ournever-ending search for this il- the Conspiracy Theory: lusive candidate. As I recall, the "The segments of the public world-- rationale of our Founding Fathers in Congress, the news media, the citi- creating the Constitution was based on zenry, even international opinion the notionthat this honest creature as a whole--are regarded from with- of truth was nowhere to be found. in the world of the government insiders as elements to be influenced. Anothertheory that could be used to Thepolicy memorandums repeatedly assimilate the Vietnam issue is "The discussways to move these outside Conspiracy Theory." TheConspriacy 'audiences' in the lesired direc- Theoryis an all-time favorite of the tion, through such techniques as American people. In this particular the controlled release of informa- case, the argumentwould be that a tion andappeals to patriotic small group (the Conspiracy Theory re- stereotypes." 12 quires that it be a small group not a large group) of clever reactionaries This theoryhas the same weakness as draggedan unwilling people into this The Congenital Liar Theory, namely its terrible war. They were generally a inabilityto prevent future Vietnams. secretive lot but they were easily re- If weadopt the theory we would pro- cognized by their close resemblance to duce a Joe McCarthy witchhunt only in- Dr. Strangelove. stead ofpurging the Left we would purge the Right. Some astute fellow There is, of course, considerable evi- would produce a list of some 200 known dence to support thistheory: The Johnson sympathizersand some ambi- Papers provide numerous incidents. For tiousman wouldget elected to Con- example, the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution gress byconvictingthem. Although wasdrawn up fgur months before the advocates of the ConspiracyTheory Tonkinincident.° The Pentagon plan claim they can tell a conspirator when which produced the attacks were refer- they see one, (generally by dress, re- red to by Assistant Secretary of De- ligion or national origin), they never fense McNaughton as the "provocation seem to beable to do it until a na- strategy."9 Furthermore, this small tional calamity is upon us. group of mennot only deliberately provoked the North Vietnamese into at- The third theory that might be used is tacking so that they could justify the Communication Theory. This theory taking military action to the American says thatpeople (senders) are not people, they waited until after the very clear about what they mean to say 1964 elections to carryout their andthat audiences (receivers) are plot. The Pentagon Papers argue that selective inwhatthey hear. Thus, the Johnson Administration was ready there are constant communication break to bomb North Vietnam in September of downs. In fact, President Johnson 1964 butthat they delayed their used this theory to refute the Congen- 44

46 itul Liar Theory and the Conspiracy Theory says that we take action like Theory. In explaining that he was creating bureaucraciesor fighting misunderstood (a communication break wars on the basisof some phantasy down) in the 1964 campaign, Johnson which generallydoes not differ in stated: sophisticationfrom the old western "Theyheard us say: 'The most im- movies complete with the good guys and portant thing to you is whether we the bad guys. have peace in the world.' But they didnot hear us say: 'In order to In the case of Vietnam, the theory have peace we must have strength.' would argue that the war was an out- Theyheard us say: 'We are going growth of the cold-war phantasy and to keep our hand out.' But they that the government and its people had did not hear us say: 'We are going participated in it for over two de- to keep our guard up.' cades. In this drama we are locked in They heard us say: 'We do not want a life anddeath struggle with the war; we do not believe in rattling monolithic-communistic bloc which is ourrockets or talking about drop- seeking to enslave the free world.16 ping our bombs.' But they did not hearus say: 'We must always be One important set of characters in alert.'"13 thisphantasy is the elite corps of intellectualswhodirect our foreign This theoryis also quite popular in policy. They, with the aid of massive academic circles. Professor Connelly, bureaucracy, assess the relative after examining Johnson's public merits of intricate diplomatic strate- papers and the Pentagon Papers con- gies and military tactics. cludes: "Johnson's complaint that he was The intellectual elite are a necessary misunderstood in the 1964 campaign part of thisphantasy because the shouldserve as a lesson for all average citizen does not have the time students of rhetoric. A speaker or the mental capacity to participate mustadapt his rhetoric to the in such high-powered discussions. Be- psychologyof his receivers. This sides, the cold-war is a war and the means not only linking his argu- enemywould learntoo much if the ments to those receiver emotions people debatedthe issues. It was whichhe feels will arouse action; this sortof phantasizing that pro- it means, also, including language moted Democratic Elitism--the system designed to reduce ambiguity which which is the most logical outgrowth in may arise due to the selective per- the cold-war phantasy.17 ception of receivers."14 Fortunately, the Pentagon Papers pro- Theproblem with this theory is the vide adeath of evidence to support same as the first two, they don't ap- the intellectual-elite image. The pearuntil Mondaymorning. Even if rhetoric of the "inner circle" cer- President Nixon learned a lesson from tainlydoes not enhance the notion of Johnson, the metaphorical nature of government by elites.The labels used language and the pragmatic necessity by the experts for their varying stra- ofpolitics wouldprevent him from tegies aremost revealing. The five being perfectly clear. major contingency plans that were considered by the Johnson Administration Thefinaltheory in this article is for the resolution of the Vietnam con- the Phantasy Theory. This theory says flict were entitled: "the .larrot and that people createand participate in the stick approach," "the tit for tat rhetorical dramas.15 ThePhantasy approach," "the full-fast squeeze," 45

47 The twomost important military ac- the bureaucracy that served them.: tions duringthe Johnson Administra- tion were referred to by the Pentagon Thephantasy theory not only demands experts as "piecing arrow" and "rol- the debunking of the bad phantasy, it ling thunder."I° requires that the old phantasy be re- placed with a new one. One possible The analysisbehind the label also candidate might he labelled Participa- violates the character sketch of elite toryDemocracyor the everyman phan- thinking. The"carrot and the stick tasy. It would baffoon the Robert Mc approach," the brainchild of Henry Namarasand the Henry Kissingers and Cabot Lodge,19 is a good example. The praise the Harry Swartz' and the Tommy "carrot and the stick approach" in- Cornsilkers. The basic sagacity of vOlved"sending a secret non-American the commonmanwouldbe brought to envoy to Hanoi with an offer of econ- lifewith new scripts for TV programs omic *Ad, such as food imports to re- "All in the Family" or movies like lieve the rice shortage in North "Joe."The new phantasy would produce Vietnam, in return for calling off the a revival of old Gary Cooper and John Vietcong. If the North Vietnamese did Wayne movies where the honest but poor not respond favorably, the stickun- dirt - fanner, beset by tyranny, rose in publicized and unacknowledged air a time of crisis anddelivered a strikes, withunmarked planes- -would simple, inarticulate soliloquy which be applied until they did."° turnedthe tide andestablished a democracy in Yuma. The Papers complete the transformation of the elite from god-figure to devil- The most important aspect of the drama figure when they reveal the absence of would be the vivid depicting of the two criticaldebates. The reporters devil-figure--the technocratic system. fromthe New York Times note that The The script would call for a polariza- Papers contained no discussion of the tionbetween the people who supported morality ofour actions in Southeast theold phantasy and those who were Aeia or of the political maneuvering buildingthe new one (different cos- at home. Theonly restraints were tumes forthe systems people and the "what the body politic at home will non-systems people would help distin- tolerate and the fear of clashing with guish the badguys from the good another major power."21 guys). As the new phantasy gained in vividness, the people and the govern- The second missing discussion was the ment would act out their new roles. analysis of our basic objectives in Vietnam. From 1950 untilmid-1957 We may still die in an atomic war but therewas nore-examination of our at least we will have participated in Southeast Asian Policy by the elite or it.

John F. Cragan (M.A., University of Missouri-Kansas City, 1967) isa Ph.D. Can- didate and Teaching Associate in the Department of Speech-Communication at the University of Minnesota. 1. Neil Sheehan, et al, The Pentagon Papers as published by The New York Times (New York: The Bantom Books, Inc., 1971), pp. 265-267. 2. Ibid.,pp.258-259. 3. Ibid.,p.260. 4. Ibid.,p.258. 5. Ibid.,p.265-266. 6. Ibid.,p.266. 46

48 7. ibid. 8. Ibid., pp. 234-257. 9. Ibid., p. 240. 10. Ibid., p. 310. 11. Ibid. 12. Ibid., p. xiii. 13. The fulltext appears in Department of State Bulletin, August 15, 1966,p. 226. 14. F. Marlin Connelly, Jr., "Some Questions Concerning Lyndon Johnson's Rhetoric in the 1964 Presidential Campaign," Southern Speech Communication Journal, XXXVII (Fall 1971), 20. 15. For a more complete explanation on the phantasy theorysee, Ernest G. Bormann, "Fantasy and the Rhetoric of Motives," unpublishedpaper, University of Minnesota, May 1970. 16. For a more detailed discussion of the cold-war phantasysee, John F. Cragan, "Johnson, Goldwater and the Cold War Phantasy," Momentsin Contemporary Rhetoric and Communication, I (Summer 1971), pp. 9-16. 17. For a critique of Democratic Elitism see, Peter Bachrach, The Theoryof Democratic Elitism: A Critique (Boston, 1967). Also see, Theodore J. Lowi, The End of Liberalism (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc., 1969). Ir These labels are used by theexperts throughout The Pentagon Papers. 19. The Pentagon Papers, p. 244. 20. Ibid. 21. Ibid., p. xv. 22. Ibid., p. xix.

49 e-examming the Parameters otRhetoric

AN INITIAL STATEMENT byan Editor of MOMENTS This issue of MOMENTS initiates a com- emergence of several rhetorics since mitment to critical examinations of that critique suggest that the limits the mass media and fine arts. We have ofthe disciplinemight easily flow choosentocast this commitment as a fromalternativeconceptions and de- permanent and distinct section to ap- finitions of speech-communication as a pearin each issue of MOMENTS. It is discipline. impossible to deal with the full range of mediaand fine arts in one or two In initiating this journal, for exam- articlesor by way of a Special Fo- ple, we assumed that the field might cus. As a reflection of American cul- easily deal with more than the "great ture and dominant American values, the speakers" and that any social-politi- media and fine arts continually cal actions that conveyed a message to change. We hope to deal with these others might legitimately fall within changes as they occur. the purview of the rhetorical/communication critic. Evenif the critics This commitment is a departure from limit the field to only those messages the traditional, conventional wisdom which induce cooperation among others, withinthe field of speech-communica- it would seem that the mass media and tion. Conventional wisdom would have fine arts play a crucial role in se- the rhetorical/communication critic curing such an objective. focus upon the great speaker as he ad- We have, then, re-defined rhetoric and dresses a large public audience. in doing so shifted our attention to Hence, the field is often identified the interaction between themessage withthose critics who would examine and critic, necessarily minimizing a the single-speaker/single-audience si- single message sourceasa criterion tuations suchas the Lincoln-Douglas for defining the scope of the discip- debates, William Jennings Bryanor line. This shift also posits new de- Presidential addresses to the nation. finitions for the concepts of message Yet, the decision to limit the rhe- and critic. Traditionally, a message torical/communicationperspectiveto is viewedas one distinct item or great speakers stems from limits es- variable in the communication process. tablished by a community of scholars However, we would view the message as who seemto be less prominent in the a holistic composite of multiple in- disciplinesince Edwin Black's criti- teractingforces--the forces being que of thediscipline in 1965.The people, media, social-political envir- 48 onment, images, moods (relationships the critic's reacting inthis section to subject material), tones (relation- would necessarily be "biased"--such ships to different audiences), and would seem to bea necessary charact- pace. It would not be enough to des- eri3tic of a critic. cribe each of these items as independent variables for the whole is greater If we were to "summarize" this defini- thanthe sum of the parts and a com- tion of rhetoric, itwould have to be mitment to interaction theory and a said that we have reacted to flagrant, holistic perspective would demand that ly compelling messages that create an we examine interactions, not individu- awareness in the particular critic. al components. It is not adequate to Thus, we have found it appropriate to claim that we shall continue independ- examine any mediumor fine art that ent variable analysis for "analytical" conveys such a message to others. It or "teaching" purposes. We must de- is, of course, impossible todeny velop methods that deal with relation- one's heritage andthus we have de- ships. We begin such a methodological finedthis section by its source, but move when we define message as a hol- weare overtlyaware that our label istic concept. emerges from a renewed definition of rhetoric which focuses upon the inter- Moreover, as we shift the definition action between message and critic. ofrhetoric to the message-critic interaction, the conceptof critic This stance is no longer unique in the changes. Traditionally, the ideal discipline for clearly a growing num- critic was "objective"--he wasunin- ber of established scholars have begun volved, politically and socially in- to dealwithmessagesfroma much different tohis material. The im- broader perspective--nonverbal commun- passioned was dismissed with a "he is ication, interpersonal communication, too close to the problem." It was of- campaigns andmovements. The mass ten recommended thathe study a pro- media itselfis now gaining recogni- blemin a previous age to secure this tion in the disciplinedue tothe point of view. Importing the scienti- creative analysis of Marshall McLuhan. fic method into the humanities has ex- Moreover, within the field of speech- tended and justified this point of communication, there is a growing review. However, we have tended to view cognition that rhetoric, communication thecritic as submerged in a social and broadcastingare intimately re- and political environment which con- lated. In an effort toward such unity, trols and conditions hiscritical Wayne Brockriede, for example, spoke choices--thecritic's background, in- ofthe "Dimensions of the Concept of terests and ability prevent him from Rhetoric," andappropriately argued being an "objective observer." In- that thefield of rhetoric must be stead he providesa singlepoint of viewedas a set of dimensions reflec- view which we shall view as useful or ting "a wide range of possible des- rejectasunuseful. More precisely, criptions and not as expressing dicho- thecritic's observation becomes mean. tomies." Brockriede argues that the ingful if they allow us to describe, subfields of speech-communication predict, adapt, evaluate orcontrol "each bear a relationship to each ot- each of our environments more effec- her." Indeed, it does seem pointless tively. Thus, the critic's involve- to view the communication scholar as ment, biases, and feelings are not the pitted againstthe rhetorical critic issue. The central issue is whether or the rhetorical critic as pitted a- we have, indeed, gained a valuable in- gainst the broadcasting scholar simply sight as a result of examining the because their objectives, methods, and critic's piece. We would expect that insights differ. We believe that the 49 discipline can be enriched whenwe be- Americans lack a critical dimension gin to maximize the relationships in that theirviewing/listening habits. might easily exist among the subfields Yet, we might also begin to feel that the within speech-communication. rhetorical/communication critic has donenothingto change this state of It is from this perspective, thatwe affairs. Clearly we must grapple with find a rhetorical/communicationanaly- Otis Walter's descriptive claim,"The sisof themass media and fine arts world at largetakes no note of the extremely appropriate. These are the work of the professional rhetorical major mediaemployed to convey mes- critic." Perhaps the problem lies not sages to others in this society. Pro- withthe audience but with the criti- fessor Fetherling has noted, forexam- cal choices being made. ple, that "The generation born after 1945 has failed to produceone signi- By considering the mass media ficant writer. and fine Instead, its medium of artsas part of rhetoric, we also be- communication is decidely music." We gin to introduce other insightful may feel that "significantly promising met- hodsandissues into the discipline. writers" such as Malcolm X have been Theconcept of "image," for example, produced. Nonetheless, Fetherling's has become a critical term inpoliti- comment is appropriate--music, indeed cal science, sociology andanthropo- hair and dress, not to mention film, logy and would seem to be of novels, and critical non-fiction books do in- importanceto rhetoric when the mass fluence us and as critics tempt us to mediaand fine arts are recognized critically examine as the messages they part of the field. A critic might, convey. for example, examine Marcus Welby in aneffort to describe and interpret If we grant that these are major media the images conveyed by theprogram and of communication that convey messages then adopt an evaluative stanceto de- toothers, the critic is necessarily termine if those imagesare meaningful captivated by whatcan be said of and useful models for Americans.More- these media. Variety, for example, over, when weseriously consider the notes that the "biggies" of 1971 films mass media and fine artsas wereLove part of Story, Willard, Summer of thefield, we also begin to introduce '42 , and Carnal Knowledge.The rank- - issuesinto the field that wouldseem ing is intriguing from a critic's extremelyappropriate for any commun- viewpoint--the urge to describe, in- ication scholar to consider. A critic terpret and evaluate the messages con- mightaskhow the Federal Communica- veyed bythese films seems self-evi- tion Commission interprets andcon- dent. Moreover, one is also tempted trolsthe "public to interest, conven- ask why Carole King's Tapestryhas ience and necessity" clause of been the the FCC number one selling album in Act of 1934 (ethics America for over half a and freedom of year: "What speech), how directors selectmaterial message does Tapes'.ry convey to others for broadcasting(organizational and that so captivates the listeners?" decision-making theory), how a medium Finally, even if we believe the mes- limits creativity (structural and sages mundane, the mo- critical impulse tivational studies). In addition, it emergeswhenonenotes that Marcus becomes relevant to ask howadvertise- Welby, Flip Wilson and Here'skla are ments control media ("The Rhetoric thetop three television of programs and Edward R. Murrow"), how the under- major communication channels in Ameri- ground press differs from the esta- ca. Clearlywecome to a critical blish press (ideological studies),and pointof hesitation with these recog- how the radical-revolutionary would nitions and we begin to believe that alterthe media ("The Rhetoric of the

50 . Underground Film'). no theoretical justification for such an emphasis. I would merely observe From an editorial viewpoint, then, the that giventhe present evolution of mass media and finearts do convey the field, sucha choice is pragma- contemporary messages and would neces- tically justified but does not stem sarily become a part of a journal com- from the message-critic definitionof mitted to examining moments in contem- rhetoric offered her.: although the de- porary rhetoric and communication. In finitiondoes provide a rationale for developing the critical basis for such articles in this section which assume examinations, we have, thus, con- theprimacy of the message-critic re- sciously selected the entitlement term lationship in critical analyses. "Mass Media and the Fine Arts" because the two concepts in this title seem In this analysis, new definitions have automatically related. The focus upon also been offered for the conceptsof the "Mass Media" draws our attention message and critic. Certainly a host to the scope, significance and effect of issuesare createdby those de- of theomessages. The focus upon the finitions which have not been resolved "Fine Arts" draws our attention to the here: "Howshall we go about examin- intrinsic standards guiding these mes- ingamessage if it becomes such a sages in their quest for effectiveness holistic concept?"Such a question is or self-fulfillment. "Effect" and notresolved here but work currently "effectiveness" seem to be the rele- being done with "fantasy themes," "im- vant and compatible standards which ages," "interpretative metaphors," and define and guide an examination of the "world-views"would directly apply to mass media and fine arts.We believe, such issues.Moreover, the concept of then, that the "Mass Media and Fine the "biased critic" as an ideal raises Arts" section warrants the permanent several issues. While we cannot re- attention we shall give it in subse- solve such concerns here, the methodo- quent issues of MOMENTS. logyof "participant observation" be- ingdeveloped in sociology/anthropo- The focus of this analysis, then, has logy wouldseem to be directly rele- been uponthe operational definition vant. It is extremely difficult, at of rhetoric as a term that delininates this point in time, to indicate the the scope of the field of speech-com- form that applied, popular rhetorical munication. It has been recommended criticism ofthis sort might assume, that the parameterscontrollingthe but the analysis offered by Lewis Lap- discipline be expanded. Rather than ham in his article, "What Movies Try concentrate upon a source-receiver to Sell Us," in the November 1971 is- framework in defining the field, it sue of Harper's would seem to come ex- has been recommended that the defini- tremely close to the kind of criticism tion of rhetoric be shifted to a mes- we have in mind. sage-critic framework. Certainly such a shift does not resolveall tensions Whilethe stance developed here is evident in expanding the scope of the best identified as theoretical, cer- termin this fashion. A manor te- tainly methodologies are currently be- nsion exists, for example, in the de- ingdeveloped which allow the defini- cision made in this issue of MOMENTS. tionofrhetoric posited here to be We havechosen to identify this sec- viewed as a serious theoretical frame- tion of the journal by the source of work. The decision to relate sub- the messages, and there is an implicit fieldswould seem to for:.te us to re- reference to particular audience in consider our understanding of the com- suchan action. Given the definition ponents within the entire field. of rhetoric outlined above, there is J.W.C.

53 Television: To Serve the Public

By Jon A.Coleman TheCommunications Act of 1934 pro-.1934Act were notapplied to our videsthatapplicationsfor broad- pluralistic society, for only recently casting licenses are tobe granted have werecognized the pluralistic only if the commission than find that societyto be a social fact? We must the "public interest, convenience, and examine the Act and subsequent quali- necessity will be served."1 Further, fications, not as they applied in 1934, the Communications Act established the butas they apply today after some 37 Federal Communications Commission or years of social and political changes. the F.C.C. underthe assumption that "a fundamental premise of theAmerican Is the public being served by tele- system of broadcasting is that... vision today?The policy statement of [television) is a natural resource be- the F.C.C. seem an ideal rather thana longing tothe entire national pub- reality. Thereare two key words in lic..."2 Toserve the public interest the F.C.C. policy statement. They are is clearly the intent of the F.C.C. "to serve" and"public." There are statement, but what is the public in- too many ways that T.V. does notserve terest? Since 1934 the F.C.C. and the the peopleandthere are very many courts have grappled with the problem ways that it could. The potential is of howthepublic interest is best there if thebroadcasters will only served. In their consideration they use it. havedealt with many varying aspects of public interest. Because public To servemeansto discharge the re- interest has been explored before does quirements of an office or duty, or to notdeter from the necessity to con- meet a responsibility.It has already stantly re-examine public interests in been determined that the responsibil- lightofdifferent times. There are ity of television is to serve the pub- many inconsistenciesbetween F.C.C. lic interest. Although television policy andits practical application operates in a free enterprise system, that have not yet been resolved. Many it is not devoid of social responsi- ofthe problems extant in 1934 still bility. But this responsibility has existtoday, but inaddition since not been met. Every evening the TV 1934 new definitions have arisen be- viewer isblitzed with variety shows, causeof thechanging nature of the situation comedies, adventure shows, public. The total implication of the movies, and many reruns. In a typical 52

54 week'sevening prime time there were realism, but what happefls when they 48 hoursof programs devoted to the think the fantasy is real? ° According above, plus five and a half hours of to sociologist Dr. Charles Winick a sports specials. Onlytwo hours of child who has novalues to weigh network specialis andtwo hours of against TV valueshas a hard time local specials were shown. making personal value judgments.9 The moral and ethical value system we re- In 1971 theF.C.C. shortened network ceive over our airways today is of one prime timefrom three to two-and-one kind. Television programs sell a mat- half hours. The other half-hour was erialist, white, middle-class sinless given to local stations in the hope and unattainable life-style. Children that they wouldconcern themselves must have a frame of reference, but with local issues and problems. What alltoo often the only standard of havethey done with the time? In the comparison is the next channel. All came weekmentioned above there were of the messages from TV, both explicit five and anhalf hours of syndicated and subliminal contextualmessages, programsand reruns and only one hour and uncritically devoured without dia- of locally originated 8hows.4Week- logue or feedback.10 daysaredevotedto soap operas and game shows. Saturday and Sunday Television Has Failed mornings the kid' are swamped with cartoons and reruns. With television Whydo wehave so few programs that like this, isTV meeting its social serve the public interest?There are responsibility? The President of the several reasons forthe failure. National Association of Broadcasters First, the TV industry lives under the statedthat, "Broadcasting to serve assumption that they must reach all of thepublic interest must have a soul the people all of the time. This is and aconscience...(and) the urge to inherently impossible. There is no buildcharacter, citizenship and in- possible waythe American public can tellectualstature of the people..."5 be reached all at once. The diversity Television should promote interest and is too great. This is also the reason understanding, teacOthe great tradi- why programs sell a way of life. They tions of the past. b° The F.C.C. has, produce whatwill appeal to the most moreover, noted that,"Presentation of people and themost people are the social and politicalissues is indis- American middle-class. pensable."7 Second, programmers must operate with- Accordingto these standards, how do in a cost-profit system. They believe The Doris ply Show., Three that to producea program that will Mannixand Bonanzafare? Do these be good would cost too much--to pro- shows andthe others like them teach duce better shows would cut into pro- goodcitizenship, confront social and fit. Cost dictates that a show must political issues, buildcharacter? be made to run as long as possible. Does the violence of Gunsmoke meet any The longer the run, the higher the of thesestandards? What about the profit. A program notdirected to daytime soap operas and game shows? mass appeal wouldnot sell and thus The biggest problem is that these pro- supposedlycouldnot be done. Pro- grams are unreal. Not that realism is grams done artistically, well-produced essential to good television, but when and. writtencould bemade to reach a program which is unrealistic is sold large enoughaudiences to be profit- as if it were real, then a problem able and still be more than the usual exists. Studies have shown that sameness. TV must be made to perform children enjoy fantasy more than as responsiblyas it can within the 53

55. profit. structure,11 andprofit for did not recognize the full implication television is high.12 of its policy in terms of a pluralistic society. What the 1946 Blue Book A thirdreasongood public service refers to as minorities is very dif- programming is missing on TV is that ferentfroma 1971 conception of the 14 stations are afraid of controversy. term. But it seems that television Realpeople mean real problems which is stillworking in the confines of mean real issues and real controversy. the old definition. It is now recog- Do TVdocumentaries andtalk shows nized thata pluralistic society is tackle real problems.They seldom do. emergingin America.15 The emergence Public service programs arouse no tem- of minorities did not just recently pers andpost no solutions. Tele- occur. They have always been present- - visioncommentatorsskirt issues and just not recognized. Richard Hofstad- are afraid to take a stand. TV must ter aptly notes that, "Dissenting min- go beyond its journalistic concepts orities werealways present," but anddevoteprograms to real problem- "they were submerged by the over- solving. After a full day of football whelming realities of industrial Sunday, needwemoreona Tuesday growth."lbBlacks, for example, were evening?13 Do Saturday morning inter- never a problem to be considered until views with local businesses, or Com- the late 1950's. Whatwasonce munity Chest presidents fulfill the thought tobethe great melting pot requirements of presenting social and has not done its melting so well. Re- political issues? By taking a value cognizing this fact, television must stance, TV stations could do more to adapt itself to the situation. "Tele- movepeople to action and problem- vision must render the best practical solving thananyothermedia. To service to the community it reaches."17 question our society is the first step Since there are communities of minor- to bettering it. ities that are not restricted by physical boundaries it becomes nation- Finally, TV is afraid of offending the al television's responsibility to F.C.C. The F.C.C. is in theory re- serve thesepeople. A community is sponsible to protect the public inter- not just a city, but should be consid- est. The F.C.C. is supposed to be eredanygroup of people who share non-political but is obviously very common values and ideas. Our society susceptible to political pressure. has probablymore diversity of life- Spiro Agnewt ravings about TV stations styleand culturalbackground than and F.C.C. licenses certainly did most any other in the world. It is silence network programming. Seen any clear that to really serve the public, more Selling of the Pentagons? News- television must serve all the public. casters and analysts have lived forever under a self-imposed censorship. Pragmatic Implications Removalof thisfear of losing one's license would do much to improve pro- Who are the people that constitute our gramming. To serve must mean to give pluralistic society? Who are the peo- somethingof value to the people, not ple who must be served by television? just to serve up rotten, mind-decaying Certainly there is more to the viewing shows that sell an unattainable life- audience than Middle America. Indians, style. Chicanos, Blacks, Puerto Ricans, women, homosexuals, and atheists are all part A Pluralistic Society of the viewingaudience. Eachof thesegroups and many more are a part Earlierthispaper alludedtothe of the community. If television is to fact that the Communication Act of 1934be ofthe community, theneach of 54

56 these groups must have some television these showsneed not be the cold and of, by andforthem. The ways in dry documentary types, but could be whichtelevision has failed and the lively, entertaining programs that de- ways it could serve could be discussed pict true and exciting history. Could for each minority above. Each has its not therebe programsdealing with own problems and each its own solu- ghettolife and life on a slave plan- tions. However, an analysis of Black tation justas there are shows like television, as a most obvious example, DorisEaz and Gunsmoke? Television willhelp clarify the problem. But couldbe of more practical value for rememberforeach groupa similar Blacks and other urban dwellers. Pro- grams could be shown on how to get rid of rats, deal with welfare laws and In dealing with the concept of "Black" police, fighttenement landlords, or television, initially it is important get an abortion. Shows could be edu- to note that television owners are cational like Sesame Street, for ruled by theprofit motive and they children, or others for teens and par- believe that there is no money in Black ents. television. But shouldn't there be a proportionate numberof programs for The only real value television has had Blacks inAmerica? Twenty million for the Black community (a value not people is a large minority that has intended by the producers) has been to practically no television. Black TV awaken the population to the disparity should be written by, directed by, and between Black and White, rich and poor. produced by Blacks. Programming Television hashelpedto spawn the should be controlled by the community Black Revolution. TV must now go be- and must concern itself with all as- yondawakening toproblem solving. pectsofBlack life. "Unlike other Justasthere was the need to inter- programsfeaturing Negroes and drama- grate public schools for quality edu- tizinga whitewriter'sconcept of cation so television must intergrate Black people. Black programming seeks itself for quality programming. to frame Black reality in Its authentic context of not just Black people look- Many of the ways that television could ing at, hearing andtalkingabout help minority communitieshave been Black people, but Black people being outlined, but better service to the Blackand apRropriately telling it people would not be limited to minor- like it is. 11 The whole spectrum of ities alone. Televisioncould also the community shouldbegivenair serve therest of the country. Pro- time. Black Panthers, Black militants, grams could expose retail businesses Black Muslims, and the Black estab- that over charge for their products, lishment shouldbepart of the pro- helppeople find jobs, organize child gramming. The shows must be more than care centers and much more. Good edi- just the interview type. Programming torial and investigative reporting can show what's happening in the com- could help speed actions in solving so munity. Black history and culture many ofoursocialproblems. This should be shown to place the Black man type ofprogramming could be done on in his proper historical perspective. commerical as well aspublic tele- Programslike these would be of value vision. Notall shows would have to to far more than the Black community. be one-half or one hour in length, "For the first time in TVhistory," manycould be mere minute spots. But notes Ebony, "whites have a chance to the important thing is that television be the 'shadowaudience,' but still must useits powerful position to may learn more about themselygs than serve all the people. The industry is thanabout the Blackman."-7 And able, but not so willing.

57 Theoretical Implications the decisionis made automatically), The FirstAmendment to the Constitu- but what we add. And how much we add. tion, which guarantees free speech, By adding different programs withdif- might be used by networks and stations ferent value systems totelevision to argue thatfurther regulation of wouldnot mean that television would the kind and amount of programsre- be imposing these beliefs. Television commended here is a violation of their should not moldsociety, but should right. Yet, it has been repeatedly reflectand question it. Television established that the F.C.C. has the wouldbeupgrading its programming, right to regulate TV. There are only not because it is taking away some- a limited number of stations for all thingthat is accepted by the public, thepeople. "The right of the public but because TV is adding something the to service is superior to the right of publichas never seen. The mass of any licensee."20 Rather than think of Middle America will still getsubstan- theFirstAmendment protectingthe tial worthwhileprograms directed to the stationsonly, it should al:A) be them as outlined earlier, but alsoa recognizedthat the "use of all media little more. Remember that people is a public right guaranteed by the "may learn more about themselves"than First Amendment."1 the other's life-style.

In the past, free speech by television What method could be used to determine hasonly been defined as applying to the number of programs devoted to min- news, religion and documentaries. But orities? Whatmaynotbe the best this is far too limited a perspective method but certainly wouldbe the if we are to adequately deal with our fairest would be to have a proportion- society. It willnot do that tele- atenumber of programs as there are vision gives only a fragmented view of people in that community. To start at the degradationof our ghettoes, or this point is necessary; it does not the ideas of the Black Panther Party. mean that other methods of determining The issue becomes not so much a ques- quantity will not be found later. In tionof whatwe take off television a nation which has TV directly only to (so many programs failevery year that one audience is worth a try. AMMMOMEMMEMMEMMO Jon A. Coleman (formerly a Broadcast-Communication Arts Major at SanFrancisco State College) is a Senior and History Major in theDepartment of History at the University of Minnesota.

1. Section 309a. 2. F.C.C. Network Staff Study to the Network Study Committee,Vol. I., Chapter 3, (Washington, D.C.: United States Government, 1957 p. 4. 3. See the following for more extended treatments of theconcept of the "public interest": a. F.C.C. Study Staff, Vol. I: Within this context, public interest is discussed in terms of concentration of the industry in threenetworks. Ques- tions raised in this regard: Does this serve the public interest?Is there sufficient opportunity for competition between networks? Are there anti- trust implications?Also discussed is competition between networks andnon- network organizations. b. Report on Chain Broadcasting, F.C.C., May 1941: This report also deals with public interest and the networks. c. Public Service Responsibility of Broadcast Licensee, F.C.C.,March 7, 1946 (The Blue 13131:7057-1rhis reportdeals with substantive requirements of a broadcast licensee. Necessity for sustaining programs, service to non-profit 56 organizations, program experimentation, discussion of public issues, programs for significant minority tastes and programs inappropriate for commerical sponsorship. 4. "TV Week," Minneapolis Tribune, Minneapolis, Minnesota, October 10, 1971 has been used for all statistics related to televised programs and hours. 5. Leroy Collins, speech to the Oregon State Association of Broadcasters, Portland, Oregon, November 20, 1970. See: Vital Speeches of the km, December 15, 1970, p. 220. 6. Newton Minow, speech to the Thirty-Ninth Annual Convention of Broad- casters, Washington, D.C., May 9, 1961. See: Vital Speeches of the June 15, 1961, p. 535. 7. F.C.C. Network Staff Study, Chapter 3, p. 7. 8. John Leonard, "Why Not Use TV for a Headstart Program," New York Times Magazine, July 14, 1968, p. 5. 9. Good Housekeeping Magazine, March 1968, p. 193. 10. Leonard, p. 26. 11. Lawrence Pinkham, "Role of Mass Media and TV Ghetto Audience," Current, June 1969, p. 33. 12. Minow, p. 536. 13. "Moore on Tuesday," WCCO Television, Minneapolis, Minnesota, September 14, 1971. 14. In the 1946 Blue Book, it was noted that significant minority tastes and interests must be served. The report refers to the following as programs meeting minority needs: New York Philharmonic Symphony,Orchestra, Of Men and Books, and Columbia Broadcast Symphony. 15. James W. Chesebro, John F. Cragan and Patricia McCullough, "The Small Group Technique of the Radical-Revolutionary: A Synthetic Study of Consciousness Raising," paper to be read at the SCA 1971 Convention in December note: "A fairly wide range of sociologists are beginning to recognize that a pluralistic society can and is emerging. See: Pierre L. Van Ben Berghe, "Dialictic and Functionalism: Toward a Theoretical Synthesis," American Sociological Review, 28 (October 1963), 695-705; and Karl Mannheim, Ideology and Utopia 1W74York: Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc., 1936), p. 2. Supporting analyses are also provided by Don Martindale, Community, Character and Civilization, Studies in Social Behavioralism (New York: The Free Press of Glencoe, 1963), p. 301; Richard M. Merelman, "The Dramaturgy of Politics," The Sociological Journal of the Midwest Sociological Society, 10 (Spring 196 222.

In addition, political scientists are also beginning to recognize thata pluralistic society is emerging. See: Robert E. Lane, Political Ideology (New York: The Free Press of Glencoe, 1962), 15 and Robert E. Lane, Political Life (New York: The Free Press of Glencoe, 1959), p. 6; and Nathan Glazer and Daniel P. Moynihan, Beyond the Melting Pot (Cambridge: The MIT Press, 1963). An important historical observation is also made by Richard Hofstadter, The Age of Reform from Bryan to F.D.R. (New York: Random House, Inc., 195577 16. Hofstadter, p. 60. 17. Federal Communications Commission v. Sander Bros. Radio Station, S19 vs 470 (1940). 18. Ebony, September 1969, p. 90. 19. Ibid., p. 94. 20. Network Staff Study, Chapter 3, p. 4. 21. Pinkham, p. 34. 57 The Fiction of Non-fiction

BY DAN L. MILLER A Review of 'Bury My Heart at Wounded Kned BURY MY HEART ATWOUNDEDKNEE: AN pact of Brown's method is to remove INDIAN HISTORYOF THE AMERICAN WEST. all issues of red injustice from the ByDee Brown. New York: Holt, Rine- logical dimension to the psychological hart & Winston, 1970. $10.95. where emotions may be stirred with greater effectiveness and facility. With the thundering of unshod hooves and thequixoticallyrendered war Thefirst planethrough which Brown whoops echoing from between the pages: propells his reader is pollution.The authorDee Brown attempts to bury the initialchapterof this hi3tory is a American heart at Wounded Knee. With synapsof American treatment of east- the assistance of many fine old prints, ernnations before the author narrows a rhetoricalpicture of the "noble hisfocus to the western tribes. The savage" is painted with skill, feeling picture of two clashing hierarchies is and artistryusually reserved for boldly presented with alarming lucid- works of fiction. Yet the Indians of ity for the Indian perspective to whom the American West are portrayed on a "it seemed that these Europeans hated canvas of expandingAmerican con- everything in nature." Later, such sciousness asperhaps the primordial militarily eminent oppressors like exampleof American oppression of a GeneralJames ("Star Chief") Carleton minority group. It is from this per- are utilizedto further clarify the spective that author Brown renetlessly clashing ideologiesbyciting the and purposely stalks his prey--the A- ManifestDestiny doctrine which de- merican public--attemptingand suc- manded thatthe Indianforego his ceeding in wounding the reader's heart homes, traditions, and associations in with an almost intolerable guilt. order to "give way to the insatiable progressof our race." No reader can Viewed rhetorically froma Burkean traverse thepagesof this history plane, Bury Heart at Wounded Knee without feeling a deeply seated sense moves the reader through the phases of of ill and wrong done the red culture the cult of kill. Using the usually by the white. dry and dusty chronologically documented method of the historian, Brown Phase twoof the author's method is intrudes his presence into his work designed to inflict guilt in the and re-creates history through the heartsof the American public. Pri- joint devices of testimony and omni- marily throughthe process of author presence. Consequently, the reader selectionof material, the reader is becomes anactive participant in all led tothe realization that his gov- of the scenes of cruel white acts of ernment, his society, and his very extermination as well as the scenes of conceptcf advancement be it religious, poeticred onenesswith the living economic, or social is guilty of the forests, the boundless plains, and the vividly presented scenarios of racial soaring mountains. The rhetorical im- genocide. Scenes like the bayonetting 58

60 of innocent children or the "Long Walk silent innuendo of the once stylis- of the Navahos" where nearly naked tically omnipresent author. Indians froze to death in their forced march to the Bosque reservation is Since this book stops short of the presented through contemporary testi- redemption stage, this criticwas mony of brave American soldiers left with one burning question:Why charged with solving the "Indian pro- is this history such a hit? Differ- blem." ent answers suggested themselves with various degrees of satisfaction. Now that author Brown has polluted the First, this book has terrific snob reader andrendered him sufficiently appeal. Afterall, every pretend guilty, the next step is the rite of partyought to include at least one purification. It appears to me that individual who can stop the flow of merely wallowing through 445 pages of conversation with a fifteen minute Indian suffering, sorrow, and sacri- monologue on the trials of Donehogawa fice constitutes such an act. Yet I (ala a Perils of Pauline perspective rather doubt if this is precisely the of course). Second, those readers act that Brown had in mind. Rather, who live in their own little "in" (or this heavy recordof broken treaty is it "out") world of the typical after broken treaty is more likely de- rad-liberwill perceive this work as signed to stem the continued attitu- a valuable and significat document dunal plunder of the Americar. Indian. which establishes a viable parallel In fact, Browninartistically tells to the systematic and planned repres- the reader in the introduction that sion, oppression and 1%!'iression of there are reasonsfor the "poverty, societyupon helpless a;-.d innocent the hopelessness, and the squalor of a groups like the Black Panthers, Gay modern Indian reservation." Hopefully Lib, and Spiro Agnewites. In short, then, this history isdesigned to it provides this groupwith yet raise individualawareness of these another tool for self flagelation and reasons. reinforcement that society is "boo, bad, nasty, and evil." Finally, this Brown lays a heavyburdenon the book might merely serve an informa- white man in terms of the blame and tive function and provide an adequate the measures necessary to effect a solutionfor those with $10.95 to cure or purification, but his history spareand not the gumption to go out is unfulfilling in terms of a redemp- on a Saturday night. tive directional impetus. Like too many authors, Brown offers valid criticisms of past and present behavior, Dan L. Miller (M.A., Northern Illinois but fails to suggest the cost of re- University, 1965) is a Ph.D. Candidate storing the balance. The cost of and Teaching Associate in the Depart- righting the wrongsdone to proud ment of Speech-Communication at the names like Sitting Bull, Standing Bear, University of Minnesota. Mr. Miller's Little Crow, and Spotted Tail can column, "The Fiction of Non-Fiction" never be detailed if one accepts the will appear regularly in MOMENTS.

61 TheWonderful World of TV

BYAL AUSTIN A Review of Made for -TV Movies It' the yearof the made-for-tele-- ernor and J.J.).Julie and her illeg- visionmovie, the "World Premier" 90- itimate son move in to help take care minute wonders starring everybody from of the Mrs. and the house. And Lorne all the series on that channel. begins toperk up. All of which appears to scandalize most of the West- Thosehome-grownflicks always start ern Seaboard. The town disapproves of outas of one-third a short story. the girl, Green's brother -in -law-- Guy's just yanking page two out of his partner disapprovesof her, the wife typewriter when along comes a network disapproves too, of course, but that's vice president who hasn't cranked out of small consequence inasmuch as she a single movie all week. So he's des- passes onpractically in mid-disap- parate, and whenhe spots all those proval. typed words he goes ape: "Hey, Lonnie, great first sentence there, fella. So far so good. Alas, that's where Makea great movie." And off he goes page two of Lonnie's script must have insearch of the cast of The Young ended and our performers had nothing Lawyers and Jack Webb to direct it and left to do but stand around and try to he's in productionwithin the hour. fill out the remaining hour and a half Lonnie never finishes the story. Which as best they could. In the end Miss is okay. Dangling endings are contem- Sommars ridesoff forever, leaving a porary. Trouble is, this season even ray of her sunshine behind for Greene the middles dangle. andthe hide-bound town. But not before she has delivered herself of some One recent example (I'll have to write of the most pompous speeches ever com- this down fast; those movies are about mitted to a sound track. Announcing asmemorable as a favorite son candi- that she loves a guy who's in Soledad date nominating speech)was NBC's prison for "conspiracy to demonstrate" Fridaynight (November 12) offering, andthat she only seduced Greene the "The Harness."Bonanza's Loren Greene night before for his own good and that played the aging but virile California he's an old creep who ought to adopt 'farmer (theynever let these things herlist of values, shewarms the stray very far from the studio) in the cockles of his (and our) heart by de- process of being widowered by his dour claring, "I still have hope for you." 'weak-hearted, super-pious, weasely- domineering wifewho kept him shaped This particular movie wasworth upin mindand body to the point of singling outbecause all the others having him wear a back harness so he'd star Michael Cole, orsomeone who standup straight and who never let looks like Michael Cole and acts like him plant romantic items like sweat Michael Cole, which is to say he peas and strawberries. When along doesn't. the sunshine inthe person of free- spirit Julie Sommars (late of The Gov- It would seem thatthe main criteria 60

62 for getting the part of the young pro- One begins to long for the fascinating tagonist in this season's television over-actingof Rod Steigeror Burt drama area bland countenance and an Lancaster. ability to suppress emotion. Faced OrPeter Falk. And therein lies one with death and/or dishonor the proper of the fewredeeming names inan expression is one of having just otherwise lowest-common-denominated ordered three hamburgers and now set- season. Mr. Falk's fumbling detective tling down to wait for them to come. I genius, Columbo on NBC'sWednesday suppose this is considered restraint, night Mystery Theater series. I'd a Stanislayskian tour de force meant like to seethe plot take a lot more to show the charactei's inner strength, twists in the ninety minutes. I mean as though beneath what looks remark- Falkhardly has to try. You realize ably like boredom is great torment and from themoment he first asks the as long as the actor feels it it's not killer fora light that he knows who necessary to letanyone else know. done it and the one who done it knows Cole's partner in the Mod Squad, he knows, and since the viewer knows, Clarence Williams III, goes one step theonlything left isthe fun of further andwears sunglasses and al- watchingMr. Falk act. Which is con- most neversays anything, so that we siderable. But it's only once every thrill to a mute actor with immobile three weeks. In between there's an features and hidden eyes. I suspect awful lot of Michael Cole. that what it is with Cole and his ilk Al AustinB.A., University of Kansas, is not restraint but a simple matter 1956) is the editorialist for WCCO- of not being able to act their way out TV (CBS Network), Minneapolis, Minn. of wet paper bags. And I think Mr. Austin's column, "The Wonderful Williams III is asleep. World of TV" will appear regularly in MOMENTS. Fiction, Fantasy,Reality BY SANDRA E PURNELL A Review of The Exorcist' THE EXORCIST. By Wiliam Peter Blatty. withthe great white whale becomes a New York: Harper & Row, 1971. tempest in a teacup. The theme of the novel, however, and its great popular The Exorcistis a contemporary drama appeal, do tell us something about the of man's eternal struggle with the proclivitiesof the American'reading otherworldly forces of good and evil. public. Inits pages, paper thin characters battle in a quasi-heroic fashion with Blatty's moral tale goes something spirits beyond their comprehension and like this. An eleven year old child, control. Themajor difficulty with Regan MacNeil, begins to exhibit the novel is that the supernatural peculiar psychotic tendencies: at forcesarea bit too far beyond the first it is obscene language, a voice the comprehension of these superficial which is unlike her own, lack of con- human agents, so that what should be a trol of her bodily processes. Shortly, struggle comparablewith Ahab's duel thereare severalvoices unlike her 61 own, violent physical attacks on peo- character. ple arcand her, horrid facial expres- sions, emaciationand protrusion of The finalduel forthe girl's soul the stomach, profuse vomiting and a commences. Theyoung priest assists pervasive stench. The concerned the aged one. The devil is tenacious mother, actress Chris MacNeil, takes anddeceptive. Heplays one role herdaughter to several doctors, then after another, tauntinghis age old to psychistrists. None of these rival, Father Merrin. It is revealed specialists can diagnose Regan's ill- that the devil, using the girl, has ness, but a psychiatric clinic report killed a film director. The director's strongly implies that she is possessed soul hastaken upresidence in the by 'ademon (a rather unscientific girl's body, along with the soul of thought, which compels them to dismiss the young priest's recently deceased heras a patient). Finally, for rea- mother. The old priest, quite to the sons not wholly clear, Mother, who reader's surprise, dies of a heart happenstobe an aetheist, calls on attack. This, somehow, does not seem Father Damien Karras; a Jesuit attached appropriatelymelodramatic. Perhaps toGeorgetown University, to exorcise the devilwould smite himwith a the devil from her daughter's soul. mighty blow. Or accuse him of hidden sins against God and man, causing the Father Karras, who also happens to be priest todie inpenance. But for a psychiatrist, does his own examina- thismighty devil smasher to just up tionof the girl and then, convinced, andhave a coronarylike any other beginsto explore seriously the pos- sixty yearold man seems unworthy of sibility of conducting an exorcism. It the weightysubjectof this novel. happensthat the Catholic ritual does Rising tothe situation, the young containa procedure for this purpose, priest conducts a verbal duel with the littleused in recent centuries. His devil andfindshimself thrown from requestfor permission to conduct the the bedroom windowand crushed to a exorcism is granted, but he is not ap- pulp several stories below--but he pointed to personally officiate. smilesrapturouslyin death. For in death he has triumphed; Regan is freed FatherLankester Merrin, aninter- from the devil and she and her movie- nationally famousCatholic scholar, starmother areoff to the wilds of archaeologist and student of ancient Hollywood with hardly a second thought religion, is called to conduct the about the dead director, thedead battle withthe devil. Perhaps the devil smasher, the dead young Jesuit, most intriguing aspectof the novel or even the defeated Prince of Dark- andone which is largely undeveloped, ness himself. There is hardly an echo is the personal history of this priest to disturb their fairy tale existence. andhis previous encounters with the devil. This assignmentcomes as no The real significance of this work of surprise to him or to the devil. They fiction comes to light when we examine havemet before and this is the ap- the reasons forits popularity. Of pointed time and place for their final course, we canonly speculate about struggle to the death. Where had they the source of its appeal, but on. the metbefore? What had been the nature basis of its subject matter we might of their previous battles?Who was make some tentative conclusions. aheadin points? By what power had this final meetingbeenappointed? The era we live in today witnesses the These questions are unfortunately left apparent or real collapse of many tra- unanswered. Wehave a very limited ditionally sacredinstitutions: the picture of anextremely fascinating "church" has been in a period of de- 62

. 64 cline for years; confidence in the working out of this supernatural con- wisdom of the state has been eroded by flict betweenthe powers of dar:ness the war in Vietnam and unending domes- and of light is not totally satisfac- ticproblems; even the family is no tory because both the Christian and longera source of comfort and secur- Satanic forces are defeated (they de- ity. Divorce rates are high. Many stroy each other) and the survivor is other couples remain together in spite the aetheist. Chris MacNeil might be of the acknowledged "failure" of their seen to represent modern man, separ- marriages. The younger generation is ated totally from the eternal powers, turning to drugs, resisting participa- andnot convertedby this fictional tion in the corporate state, searching drama to either form of supernatural- for new patterns of human interaction ism. She and, symbolically, we remain and involvement. Myriad social move- in a state of alienation from God. mentshave sprung up which attempt to establishor re-establish the unique For the reader, however, the response identityof a group of people: Black might be quite different from that of Liberation, Gay Liberation, Women's the surviving protagonist, particular- Liberation, Chicano Liberation, etc. ly since she is a cardboard character Thesociety might be described as anyway. The reader might be artis- going through agigantic identity tically induced to greater personal crisis. Even President Nixon has no- .attraction tothe supernatural, to ticedthat our problems today are not continue the search for substance or material but spiritual. consubstantiation in this direction.

A possible interpretation of this pro- Blatty's novel is not the first nor blem might be that man cannot, in this will it be the last manifestation of era, identify with any significant as- our current intrigue with the super- spects of the established culture. If natural. Other contemporary examples man, being a social animal, seeks his include the Jesus people, the Manson substance or essential.nature and per- cult, the noveland film Rosemary's sonal definition through social insti- Baby, the new film The Devils and an tutions then we might say that contem- intriguing newfilm titled The Jesus porary culture is extremely hostile to Trip which apparently combine-srb7giiir his needs. America of the 1970's does and religious themes. notprovide a formula for spiritual unificationandthe transcendence of In sum, we arefacing a period of conflict. spiritual re-generation; people are searching for a newand meaningful This analytic framework makes the suc- relationship witha higher power- - cess of Blatty's book susceptible to whether Diabolical or Godly. explanation. Religion or the supernatural has alwaysfunctioned as a Blattyhas tapped a major theme of meansof transcendence of earthly di- contemporary culture and this accounts, vision, conflict, alienation. Re- somewhat, for the success of his book. flecting this idea, Marx called reli- His use of the theme, however, tends gionthe opiate of the masses. Thus, to be relatively superficial because the struggle between supernatural thetitanic supernatural struggle is forces portrayed by The Exorcist might rigidly segregated from"everyday be seen to be intriguing to a fearful life." The devil is right there in population searching for some defini- the house, but people go on having in- tion or explanation of human life. terminable morningcoffee as usual; the actress is concerned with the tan- Inthenovel itself, however, the gible: the future of her career and 63

65 the physical welfare of her daughter. University, 1966) is completing a She evades the intangible issue: the Ph.D. in the Departmentof Speech- eternal struggle between God and the Communication atthe University of Devil for the possession of Man's soul. Minnesota and is an Assistant Profes- Perhaps this is the essential tragedy sor inthe Departmentof Speech at of the novel and of modern life. CaliforniaState College at Is Ange- les. Ms. Purnell's column, "Fiction, Fantasy, Reality" will appear regular- Sandra E. Purnell (M.A., Wayne State ly in MOMENTS. Fiction, Message and Critic BY JUDITH WILLIAMS A Review of 'The Other' THE OTHER. By Thomas Tryon. New York: Perry, identical yet as unalikeas two Alfred A. Knopf, 1971. $6.95. sides of an odd coin. Niles can play a gameof transference where he ima- Since Rosemary's pal and Charles Man- gines what it's like to bea dragonf135 son's family, we've witnessed an ex- a rooster, or a sunflower. Holland is plosionofbooks, movies and college guarded, dark, andaround whenever courses on the black arts. Astrology, violence is committed. Both are dom- spiritualism, poltergeists, and satan inated by their grandmother and un- worship are nowserious business in naturally solicitious oftheir de- the U.S. Reasons for the revival of ranged, alcoholic mother. interest in the black arts may be the threatof technological overkill, The corruption of children is alwaysa guilt aboutVietnam, a return to the fascinating theme, especially when we worship of the old gods still with us, suspect a supernatural influence, and or the political - social direction the Tryon does manage a beautiful reversal established church is taking. Thomas not whollyanticipated. But, a kid Tryon's first novel is another psycho- who wipesout an entire family is a logical taleof murder and madness monster whether you call him "possess- with supernatural overtones. ed" or "schizo." With so many falling bodies, it's hardto take all this In a small Connecticutt mid-30,s town, psychological terror seriously. the onceprosperous Perry family is plagued by a series of bizarre events. Tryon does, however, create a personal The men of the household die brutally senseof identification withevil, and mysteriously; a one month old in- whether called original sin or demon fant is drowned in a wine keg at an'possession. Coupled withthe reality annual family memorial dinner; and, a of personal acts of intentional evil, cousin is speared on a pitchfork. The is the question of accountability for story crackles to a close with the im- suchviolence even when committed by molation of the psychic Russian grand- psychologically tormented minors. In mother inagiant molotov cocktail. thiscase, the grandmatriarch accepts All this and more happens on the 13th the responsibility by admitting her summer of the twins, Niles and Holland failureto stop_ what she foresaw as a 64 dangerious game in which part of human leaves usto deterMine if redemption will is abdicatedtoanother form. is possible. Clearly, Tryon impresses us that the psyche of man need not be limited to Judith Williams (M.A., Illinois State the reality of our five senses. When University, 1968) has completed course going beyond, it is not always easy to work toward the Ph.D. at Ohio State detect evil from good, as reflected in University and is currently an Assis- 13 year old twin boys. Tryon succeeds tant Professor of Speech-Communication in posingfor us a consideration of atPasadena College. Ms. William's the source, nature and accountability column, "Fiction, Message and Critic," of personal evil, violent acts, and will appear regularly in MOMENTS. Focus onFilm BY GARY LEWIS SHERMAN A Review of 'Carnal Knowledge' Carnal Knowledge is clearly the "yes - into 1971. They grow older but their but" movie of the year. I liked it, attitudesremain the same. In regard but I wasn't entirely satisfied. Yes, tolove, each is as ignorant and lost it's brilliant, but under Mike Nichols as the other. Nicholson's self-assur- direction from Jules Feiffer's origin- ance and his braggadocio lets him de- alscreenplay, this grimly purposeful fine where they both stand on intimate satire about depersonalization and how matters. He seems to have more infor- weuse each other sexually as objects mation about girls, particularly about is like a neon sign that spells out howyoucan best maneuver them into the soullessness of neon. This movie giving you what you want. Garfunkel... doesn't just raise the problem, but a shy, earnest boy who might have inadvertently it becomes part of it. turnedidealistic under nobler influ- It's as if Playboy Magazine had sud- ences...is morethan prepared to and denly seenthe error of its ways and finally does accept Jonathanas mentor. nowsold its remorse in the same cru- Sandytotally embraces Jonathan's vi- sading format. What'seven more i- Aon ofthe male-female game. Of ronical is Playboy'sfilm column course, no morepathetic model than ecstatically praising the very movie Jonathan could be found anywhere. It's that so demises itsphilosophy of watching the blinder leading the life. I've always maintained that the blind. Sandy doesn't just learn from cronies at Playboy who pass themselves Jonathan; he embodies him as the per- off as editorsand writers will do fect emblem mouthpiece of the pre- anything for a quick buck, and here's vailing vision of the game. The game proof positive of my suspicion once whose object consists mainly of again. scoring offlots ofwomen without reallycaring deeply. Without allow- Carnal Knowledgedeals with two stu- ing oneself to be ensnared by any one dents at Amherst College in the late of them. '40s, Sandy (Art Garfunkel) and Jona- than (Jack Nicholson), and traces them The first woman in their lives is through the '50s and '60s right smack Susan (Candice Bergen) who falls in

67 lovewith Jonathan but sets UD house- contaminated at its source t.y the oe:- keeping with the somewhat innocent and ret of Jonathan's betrayal. Not that more naive Sandy. She turns out to be Feiffer and Nichols do not believe its theperfect co-ed side for this same any insurmountable sinto sneak off game who object is to put out strate- withyour best friend's girl. Jona- gically if not equally to both of them. than's cockoldingwas not an attempt Goingwiththem both, and not really to take anything away from Sandy. The sure whichone she wants more, she mennever touch one another, but at endsupbeddingdown with Jonathan least they can both spend time in the first. Soon they're both bedding her same place. Inside Susan. This theme down andJonathan begins to torment of friends longing for one another,and himselfoverthe sharing. Now he their inabilityto get genuinely to- longs for exclusivity. gether exceptbysharing the same pussy, typlifies theirrelationship By theconspicuous omissionof any throughout the film. Through their further reference to her two-timing, misplaced mutual envy, each always we presume that Sandy (Garfunkel) wanting what the other's got...through never discovershe's been cuckoled. their more than intimate confessions.. Cuckoledin advance, no less, by his thio ugh their titilation and glee at best friend. This collegiate cuckold- the prospect of setting each other up ingturns out to be crucial, however, or, better yet, swapping...it is both considerably more so than Garfunkel's ironic Rnd pathetic that neither can short-lived marriage, crucial by vir- be honest with himself let.alone with tue of its never coming up. eachother. Therefore, they never make true contact. They continually The film proceeds mainly by duologues seek fulfillment from mere fornication. (conversations between the two buddies And because neither of them ever learn discussingtheir women, the man-woman to understand or appreciate the erotic conversations) to show us interchanges as a metaphorfor one's deeply felt snatched from the course of their next connectedness, each is doomed to fall twenty-five years. Their work (Sandy short of satisfaction forever. becomes adoctor; Jonathan a lawyer) recedes to seem arbitrary...almost We can te amused by teenage boys dur- peripheral. Wecome to realize that ing puberty who are unwholesomely pre- women pass clear through their lives, occupied with carnal knowledge. They leaving no more than an aftertaste. We can strike us often times as humorous, are shownnothing of their lifes ex- warm, provoking, and even nostalgic. cept as it touches on their hungry Sex may mainly afford them nothing but "love" maneuvers. Duringa tennis torture, but isn't that what adoles- match, Nichols anti Guiseppe Rotunno cence is all about? And even in the (his director of photography) have so process of growingup half a dozen staged theircamera as to withhold yearsmore into college, if this con- even a glimpseof the actual tennis fusion still persists, there seems no match becausewhat counts is not the real cause yet for concern. After all, tennisbut the double date. We are aren't these years for testing out, focused in on games within games, both for playing the field, and for sowing deviousand blindat the same time. wild oats? It's easy enough to laugh Their lives contain no personal cumu- atall the phony come-ons, the missed lation. Their is nothing solid or and botchedconnections, the gratui- sustained apart from the friendship tious intrigues, andgraceless and between them. traumatic love play at this age.They canall easily be chalked up to good Yet eventheirveryfriendship was old experience. However, the popular 66 mythology, which the good old movies that matter, with another man. have set up and made us believe by the most handsome and sentimental of lies, However upuntil now, Nichols has al- leads us to expect affirmative resolu- ways madedisturbingmovies with tion. We expect immaturityto be Martha (Richard Burton and Elizabeth followed by maturity, failures at love Taylor)embrace at dawn, make up, tobe followed by amatch made in having got through another long night's heaven, stormyand futile courtships journey into day. They emerge with blossoming intohappily-ever-afters. their terrible compromise still intact. Thingsare always supposed to and do In The Graduate, screenwriters Buck get better. Jules Feiffer has had the Henryand Calder Willingham shift the maturity, fortitude, andtalent to focus first fromBenjamin's (Dustin write a screenplay that not only de- Hoffman)confusion over his future to flates but destroys this popular Amer- confusion over his destructive affair ican myth. The exact sexual foolish- withMrs. Robinson (Anne Bancroft). ness we find amusing and forgivable in Thenfurther shift the film to a mood a boy of fifteen is pathetic in a man of anguish turning to a mood of adven- of thirty, andtragic ina man of ture. The distressing questions which forty-five. This is why Carnal Know- the script raised early on in the film ledge is so unsettling, so unnerving, get mislaidwellbefore the chase so depressing, and finally so sad in which brings the boy gets girl...loses spite ofall its funniness...so very girl...gets girl back to a rousing very sad. finale. In the last few minutes of the film, when we've just about forgotten What has always been strongest in Mike the impasse Benjamin had reached about Nichols' films is his perfect recon- his future, Williamham, Henry, and strIction ofthewalking nightmares Nichols reassert some echo of that im- people frequently find themselves lost passe (cul-de-sac). The film's high in. Mike Nichols and his screenwriters spirits quaver and fall down a little. havehad the perfect knack of showing Yes, he'ssnatched his girl from the uswhat's so bad. In his first film, alter ofa disastrous marriage. Yet Who's AfraidofVirginia Woolf ?, insteadof endingona note ofa screenwriterErnest Lehmanand he jubilantgetaway, Nichols has the two showedhow a husband and wife, need- ofthemstare blankly at the camera. lessly, canturn theirhome into a Aquizzical shot that frames up and po!son den. In The Graduate, screen- asks, "So what happens now? What have writers Buck Henry and Calder Willing- we really solved?" In Catch-22 the hamand he showed howa promising harrowing and depressing senseof youngman, on the threshold of every Yossarian's (Alan Arkin) isolation and reward to which young men are supposed dislocationis repeatedly interrupted to aspire, can despise the life he's by a Bettle-Baileyish genre of farcial about to inherit. In Catch-22, servicecomedy. Nichols and screen- screenwriterBuck Henry and he showed writer Buck Henry are easing up on the how a man caught in war, and who is no viewer. They dissipate the pressure, longer able to depend on his leaders, and ask us to laugh in ways we've many his friends, hisown reason, can be times been asked to laugh at before. reduced to a fearful crazed helpless- In theend when Yossairan makes his ness. And now, in Carnal Knowledge brilliant director ofphotography cartoonist, playwright, and screenplay David Watkins pullthe camera back writer JulesFeiffer andhe have slowly, further, further, and further showedhow men can pass through their into the horizon. In the expanse, we entire lives without ever making any see a platoon marching off the air- real connection witha woman or for strip todrill formation, and on the

69 soundtrackwe hear a triumphant march with the brilliant and iru.ov%tive. melody. Yossarian is now only a tiny photography of hi: previous film: dot in the center of the screen set- (HaskellWexler didWho'3 Afraid of ting outto sea in a tiny life raft. Virginia Woolf?; Robert Surtees did His escape is the perfect embodiment The Graduate; David Watkins did Catch- of futility and absurdity at their ul- 7e777 whatwe have in Carnal Knowledge timate, butnevertheless, his escape merely verges on the austere. Watching is also heroic at the same time. Again every shot and angle is like takinga the change in mood at the ending pep pill to Antonioni-Land minus the undercuts the severityof what has style and brilliance of Antonioni. goneonbefore, but undercuts only Nichols andGuiseppe Rotunno have so slightly. overconcentrated onthe frame...the overheld shot...as theirsource of It's very possible that Mike Nichols powerthat it eventually not only didn't really believe an escape exist- overpowers them but deadens their film ed for any of his characters in any of cinematically. Intheir use of the these three films. Or if indeed there camera as a watcher, it has become an was an escape available, these char- obstacle, not an integral participant. acters couldn't escape. For when they All of Nichols' other films havebeen do escape in the ending moments, noth- adapted screenplays (one from a play ing is conclusive. There is never a and two from novels), butnone of them wholehearted spirit of victory, but hadthe quality of appearing adapted. just an uneasytruce. It is as if Carnal Knowledge, which is from an some imaginary movieland mogul had original screenplay, is stylistically demanded the typical happily-ever- the most stagnant and least filmic of afters from him that we all know too Nichols' four filmsto date. Every well, and Nicholsdelivered them as shot and edit is predictable, and the asked. Except Nichols has struck a editing totally lacks confidence. I subversive little twist on each one. was aware ofevery cut in the film. A subversive twist so subtle that the Sam O'Steen's filmediting looks as stupid Hollywood mogul would never get if he were editing a movie basedon a it. In Carnal Knowledge Nichols and Neil SimonBroadway play. This is Feiffer offer us no reassurance, no somewhat ironicalanddisappointing resolution, and therefore no subver- since Mr. O'Steen did such a brilliant sive final twist. Carnal Knowledge is job on all of Nichols' previous films. a filmof uncomplomised subversion from beginning to end. Some people may claim this filmhas a simplicityand straightforwardness in Carnal Knowledgehas been hailed by style...a filmic style whichin the theeast coast critics and others as end, I might add, becomes simplyzero. Nichol's watershed film for its candor Onepoint of brilliance though is and "right on" approach. These same RichardSylbert's production design. silly people are now ready to dismiss Here as inhisartdirection of TheGraduate as if his new film were Nichols' other three films, everything not the social and historical conse- is perfectly right. Sylbert may never quence and outgrowth of his earlier win many Academy Awards--he refusesto one. Also, I've seenfar too much designgarishly or design out of con- silly and undeserving priase for text of the material he's designing Guiseppe Rotunno's photography. There for. Hisproduction designs never is no doubt that Nichols has refined draw attention to themselves like so his camerastyle, but he has refined many Hollywood hack and rather dubious it into stagnancy and not to a cin- artdirectors who seem to be on super ematically acceptable style. Compared inflated ego trips merely to lookmore 68

70 lavish than eachother and win more * Claire's Knee awards. * The Clowns The Conformist Ina year whenwe can view works by * Death in Venice brilliant stylists and innovative dir- Desperate Characters ectors such as Robert Altman and Ber- * Klute nardo Bertolucci, Mike Nichols ba- * Little Murders sically still remains a director who * McCabe and Mrs. Miller essentially looks for things to do in- * Summer of !42 steadof being a director who essen- * Taking Off tially has thingshe wants to do. * The Touch This, to me, is why he is not (and possiblynever will be) an artist of the cinema. He is a competent gifted Gary Lewis Sherman (B.A., Moorhead director, and that is all. State College, 1969) is a creative Other Films Worth Seeing free lance writer and film buff. Mr. Sherman's column, "Focuson Film," ',* Bed ;and Board will appear regularly in Moments. Poems BY R.W. LELAND

two in def in it ely dis tant stars shimmering for a moment as though our candle caught in a gust of wind catching the beat of our intent and the rhythmic heaving ofour breath flickered for a moment brighter than the rest tightened for one last thrust and then gave way to a flood (of darkness)

69 these leaves they are mine for you

take them crumple them in your tiniest most feeling hand of hands

take them for they are pain to me now and rub away their memory

press them until the last dusty dream of yesterday falls from their sky

hold them until the essence that was and the spring that always always is is no more

70 Meditations of Summer

Whether to prefer the wretched wings of arrogance, The vacant cross, the mute migration of meaning From what mattered to mutterings of nothingness; Or whether to prefer the spinsters of disenchantment, The half entangled autumn reverting to a day of summer, The putting off of things as they are or as they should have been; Turning from the final denegration to the aggregate anatomy of anxiety, The text of philosophy, the manuel of religion, the rubric of desire. It comes to this: One day brighter than the rest For which the future looks to have lost its fortune; Forgets the bloom, the flower, the seed, the purpose. It comes to this: One day of blazing sun Flowering into a night of remembrance, Then a morning for which no sun blazes Nor any night presumes to recollect, This and a d .11 sorrow lasting into silence, A hiatus of the spirit, a gagging of god.

II It is different with defiance: The silver bowl into which is poured The essence of life's water; Onto which is broken one flower Petal by fragrant petal; Belief in the water's ability to sustain: Weight over essence, Beauty beyond submergence.

Yes, but the sorrows of summer, Orpheus looking back at Eurydice, Think of the longing and the losing And the agony between them. But this is not defiance; This is their desire defeated: Estrangement under a pallid sky, The scent of lilacs lapsing away, The half remembered twilight The moon not shining, The desparate misconstruing of stars Into a consoling constellation.

73 In this garden, which isours alone The walls are high beyond the reach ofyesterday, Beyond the merely mortal touch of time. I do not know what it is about this garden Which opens the rose to silence Or shuts the sun to essence

I only know that this seldom deeper (And only byyour touch) Me Forgets and welcomes the you of your warmth.

So this is my body, my blood,my being. The rest is in the forgetting And the now too tranquil twilight Tipping thoe wings and these breasts Into a sane nary of sleep.

R. W. Leland (M.A., University of Hawaii, 1970) is a Ph.D. Candidate and Teaching Assoclatein the Department of Speech-Communication at the Univer- sity of Minnesota.

72 Critical & directive input:

To survive as an open system, MOMENTS requires evaluative as well as crea- MOMENTStast tense tive Input. The function of "MOMENTS/ Fast Tense" is to provide an oppor- tunityfor critical assessments and reactions to articles which have appeared in moEurs.

'Other established journals havenever touched on this sullect While I found Moments (Vol. 1, No. 2 e. e. Cummings gay libber, one begins forthe most part an impressive stu- to question whether the focus of this dent effort, I also am included to journal is on Rhetoric and Communica- question some of the choices made in tion or Homosexuality. this issue. The range of articles and the contributions in the Special Focus It is perhaps noteworthy that QJS and showed a healthy spirit of diversity, the otherestablished journals have openness and relevance. never (to my knowledge)touched on this subject. Given the over-kill in However, to find "Women's Liberation, your last issue, perhaps we will ap- TheRadical Lesbianand Rhetorical propriately hear no more. Choices," Jill Johnston's call to joyouslesbianism, followed by the David Herrick future tense ramblings of an aspiring Chicago, Illinois Focus on the Rhetoric of Women's Liberation--A review The Fall 1971 issue of Moments fea- of beingable to determine or judge tured a special focus on trce7711;toric the rhetorical impact of the movement ofWomen'sLiberation." Certainly, from a reading of these essays. This this is a significantcontemporary is not to saythatthe individual issue thatdemands the attention of articles were unclear; rather, that our professional journals. The Editors the essays as a whole did not form a areto be commended for their attempt composite picture. toprovide a critical response to the rhetoric of women's liberation. Never- As a male, I can appreciate the theless, their effort fell short of Editor's hesitancy to provide an over- presenting a significant statement. The view to the focus. However, in an at- journal contained five essays on wo- tempt to avoid chauvinism, the Editors men's liberation, but these, in my were remiss intheir duties. I be- judgment, did not establish a "focus." lieve this action, coupled with the Indeed, the issues raised by the con- diversity of the essays, allowed the tributors often seemed peripheral. The focus toserve only as an abberation result was a felt difficulty in terms of women's liberation. 73

75 SandraPurnell's rhetorical analysis ferentialto a statement that women'z of J. Johnson's, "On a Clear Day You liberation is synonomous with lesbian- Can See Your Mother" was the mostin- ism. However, the specific nature of sightful essay. In this criticism, thereaction (if you wish, attitude Purnell demonstrates her control of shift) is unclear. Furthermore, in theBurkean Method. She adroitly u- the absenceofa longitudinal de- tilizes this approach to draw out the sign, it is difficult toassess important insightthatJ. Johnson's whether or not an attitude shift truly rhetoric on this occasion was appro- occurred. priateto the goals of the movement. Nevertheless, a more lasting criticism Thefinal two essayswere Marlene appears in order. Purnell is to be Fine's "Women's Liberation: complimentedon her unassuming A Rhet- ap- toricalProblem," and Patricia McCul- plicationof the model. It was re- lough's "Germaine Greer: A Call to freshing to see this critical tool ap- JoyousLiberation." pliedwithout Fine's argument the method dominating seems to be that the "feminine mysti- the analysis. que" is sucha salient image in the minds of all women that the rhetorical The focus also presented two attitude image ofa "liberated woman" is not surveys: Virginia Kidd's study of the sufficient to overcome it. Of course, male pronoun as generic, and Joan thisargumentseems crucial to the Locke's study of women's reactions to potential success ofthe liberation lesbianism in themovement. Both movement. However, despite the studies attempted to provide empirical criticalnessof this argument, little confirmation for pointswhich would support is :resented in the essay to seemto be commonly held.Though I'm demonstrateeither the superiority of notobjecting to theconclusions the feminine mystique or the inferior- drawn, the studies, from a viewpoint ity of the image of the liberatedwo- ofdesign, sample, and control con- man. In the absence of such support, stitute little morethan pilot re- theviewthat the dominance of one search. However, rather than belabor image precludes the other from having theweaknesses of "pencil and paper" a chance seems naive. tests to assess attitudes, I feel it more insightful to analyze the under- McCullough's essay is primarily a re- lying assumptions of both studies. view ofGermaine Greer's The Female Eunuch. Although I found the review Kidd seems to believe that "verbal in- tobe enlightening, I had difficulty dicators" are a cause, not a sign of perceiving what McCullough'sbroader the problem. However, her essay pro- purpose might be. Indeed, McCullough vides no justification for this as- seemed to take neither the position of sumption. Indeed, it could well be rhetorical critic nor advocate of wo- argued that as long as the male main- men's liberation. Consequently, the tains a dominate position in our cul- functionof this essay in the rhet- ture, changing labels would constitute orical focuson women's liberation nothing more than anexercise in seemed unclear. nomenclature. Indeed, even the use of "her" to replace "he" as the generic Overall, the basic strengthsof may still produce "male" images on the Moment'sfocuson Women's Liberation part of the subjects. can be summarized as follows: First, the actitself (namely, thatfive Similarly, Locke demonstrates that her articles were devoted to this subject); subjects (tenmiddle-class, moderate second, the articles were all authored income women) react on a semantic dif- by women; and third, Sandra Purnell's 74 essay on the rhetoric of Jill Johnson. Instructor in the Department of Speech and Theater Arts at the University of Donald C. Shields (M.A., University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio. Missouri--Kansas City, 1968), is an

111111111111111i resent Iiiiiirnetfollfote=%'::::;f:T. °articles which appear in the same issue of MOMENTS. The focus of this section, the:.,is on immediate feedback tocriticalanalyses py students. Selected scholars i:. the discipline areasked to devote their time and energyto these critical evaluations. A Review of Barry Irving'sTodays Weather' Barry Irving's clearly written and in- My impression is that the major shift teresting essay on Weatherman rhetoric of emphasis from the first to thesec- is designed to answer the question, ond period isthat of moving from "How has the ideology of the Weather- total preoccupation with the guilt of man developed?" The author implies outsidersto some internal criticism. thatananalysis of the movement's The lastcommunique apparently deals rhetoric is a way to get at the evolu- directly with the inevitable strug- tion of its ideology. glesfor leadership, the conflicts overfuture tactics, and the division The strength of Irving's essay, which into cliques and factions within the is based on the material in the com- organization. In terms of goals and muniquesof the Weatherman underground, strategy, however, the essay presents liesin its clear, complete and well- only theabstract assertion that the written summaryofwhat the author second period is aimed at reaching "a callsthe "First Period" of the rhet- higherlevel of 'revolutionary con- oricbasedon the first four of nine sciousnessand understanding.'" I am messages issued by the Weather Bureau. curious, for example, as to whetheror Less strong is the way Irving develops not theauthor anticipates that the the summary of the ninth communique bombingswill continue as a result of which illustrateswhathe calls the the change in rhetoric and ideology. "Second Period." Indeed, the notion of getting at ideo- From thesummary of the first four logy bycriticizing the rhetoric is communiques I get a clear picture of a bothersome. Irving never defines what rhetoric which views all the world's he means by ideology. Sometimes I get troubles as caused by outsiders. I the impression thatwhat some call learn much of the style in which the ideology, others refer to as rhetoric. rhetoricans of the movement declare At any rate, analysis of the two per- war, attribute guilt, and map outre- iods needs to be more clearly present- volutionary tactics. I find the sum- ed in terms of comparison and contrast mary of the ninth communique more dif- if an ideology is to be revealed. ficultto follow and somewhat ambiguous. The summaryofthe ninth communique

75 suggests that a rhetorical analysis than twat required to hold a revclu- may be a way to decipher the internal tionary movement together. Is the de- dynamics of the Weatherman. Emerging velopment of the rhetoric of the ninth from the previous conflicts and divi- communique anindication that within sionsoftheold SDS, the new group the general frameworkof a polluted had a coherent and consistent rhetoric society the Weatherman is now shifting hammeredout in thebattles at the the conversion machine tofocus on Chicago Convention. Apparently the its on sins? If so, what is the consensus lasted through at least the likelyeffectof the change of focus firstfourcommuniques (the paper is onthe potential for gaining new con- mooton the four middle communiques). verts and of keeping the level of com- Subsequentlystruggles for leadership mitment of those already converted? andcontrolcaused newfactions to emerge and theninth communique re- The best criticalwork in the paper vealedthe nature of these divisions. comes with Irving'sanalysis of the Someofthe participants lost out in analogyof the Weatherman. Stemming thediscussions and left the movement from a line ina song, the fantasy forthe author quotes an article by spreads out to include divisions of four "ex-Weatherman" members who sub- the organization (weather bureau) and sequently criticized the group. forms a controlling analogy to structure the organization's image and i- The essay is rich with hints as to how dentity. Perhapslittle more can be morecriticismof the rhetoric might expected in the framework of a brief makefor a greater understanding of paperbut I think the topic deserves the "revolutionary consciousness." more extensivetreatment. What does While Irving uses the Burkean labels the analogy ofweather forecasting, of pollution, guilt, purification, and weathermen, winds of change, storms, redemption, hedoes not bringthe tranquil periods, do for the movement? psychologyof conversion to bear upon Whythe figure of natural forces with the materials in an explanatory way. man only a forecaster, an observer, as Burke's labels resemble the old evan- nature ccntrols events? My first im- gelical Christiancategories used to pression is that the fantasy of the accountfor the psychological fact of weathermanhas strong media implica- conversionto a "new birth." Burke's tions. After all, the weatherman fol- categories, thus, invite application lows the heavy news of direct shots of to such questions as, "What happens to disasterand war witha relatively the demonstrated persuasive effective- light touchabout rain or sunshine. ness of theconviction, abasement, The weatherman with a bomb in one hand salvation pattern when it shifts from and a pointer in the other noting the focusing onthe sins (pollution) of high pressure ridges seems somehow in- thepeoplewhoare insiders to the congruent. Am I right? Is the whole sinsof the outsiders?" "What was the movement a victimof an accidential power of theargument about Amerika, selectionof a fantasy theme relating imperialism, racism, and the guilt of to "You Dun't NeedA Weatherman To Nixon for Mitchell for the potential Know Which Way The Wind Blows?" that convertto the Weatherman?What was chained out duringsome of.the long the force of the argument on those al- and intensive group meetings that lead ready converted? up to the formation of the weatherman faction? Or is the weatherman analogy, Withthe falling out of grace of some indeed, a usefuland powerful rhet- of the already converted, one might orical force for cohesion? arguethat the cohesive forces of the rhetoric of the first period was less In extending some of the hints in the 76

78 essay and suggesting how one might ex- descriptionofan important body of plore some of their possible implica- rhetoric in contemporary society and tions, I do not mean to diminish the deserves to be read on those terms. usefulnessof the descriptions of the content of the underground communiques presented in the essay. A critic has Ernest G. Bormann is Professor of every right to confine himself largely Speech and Communication at the todescriptionof the rhetoric. The University of Minnesota. articlepresentsa clear and useful Today's Weather A Critique Tobegin withthe virtues of the ablefor deeper analysis. My subse- piece, let mecommend the writer of quentcomments should be taken not so "Today's Weather" forattempting to muchas pointing to shortcomings of analyze the ongoing process of com- the article, but rather as suggestions munication from the Weathermen, rather for pursuing the same line of critical than fixing on some static features of analysis. their messages. Theinteraction of this revolutionary group with its ad- Inthe first place, the author is led versariesandadherents over time is astray, I believe, by a misperception bound to effect changes in the group's ofthenature of the messages which perception of itsroles and stra- make up the first four communiques. tegies, andMr. Irving has attempted He says that "the Weatherman have to identifyandaccount for some of sought to explain and justify their those changes as reflected in the mes- acts of violence and to educate the sages emanating from Weatherman.The public through communiques." The paper illustrates an important, but first four communiques, however,can- often neglected mode of rhetorical not fairly be considered as education, analysis, namely, the study of mes- explanation, or justification. What, sages in orderto learn something then, istheir real character?And about thenatureand development of what can they tell us about Weather- the source. Especiallywhen the man? The fourcommuniques consist source is a group as mysterious, and largely of slogans and catch phrases for someatleast, as terrifying as which have become commonplaces of the the Weathermen, sucha focus of in- revolutionary vocabulary. One searches quiry becomes much more important than themin vain for any sort of "argu- the usualtenuous speculation about ment." Doubtless they serve some effects. Although it is certainly not rhetorical function, but it is more theonly approach, this focus on mes- expressivethan justificatory. One sage as illuminating source should be clue to the reason for the lack of ex- an especially fruitfulone for the planation or justification in these study of the rhetoric of revolutionary messages appears in the quoted article movements. by four ex-Weathermen who criticize the groupfor entering into armed As a study of the changing ideology of struggle prematurely, before the Weatherman, "Today's Weather" isa public had been educated to "revolu- reasonable beginning,but only a be- tionary consciousness." It seems rea- ginning. Onehopes that, given more sonable to suppose that the Weathermen time and space, the author will con- hadthemselves achieved alevel of tinue his investigation in order to readiness for revolutionary action make full use of the materials avail- which leavesrhetoric behind, which 77

79 eschews explanation or justification everywhere," "we can outwit the pig.," as redundant behavior which merely im- "grass and guns are united," et.:. By pedes "armed struggle." seeking such a unifying strategic theme, the critic may illumine the di- Recognizingthe limitations of the verse bits and pieces of the Weather- messages in what Mr. Irving has called man appeal, and may relate them more the "first period" need not deterone precisely to the developed ideology. from attempting to analyze the ideology of Weatherman at that time. For In the jump from the fourth Weatherman although the communiques consist communique to the ninth, one cannot largely ofsloganeering, the slogans help wondering what came between. Why and epithets reflect an ideology which are communiques five through eight waswell worked out over a period of neglected? Dothey contain mere re- timebefore the communiques appeared. petition, or dotheyforecast the The task for the critic is to find and changes to come? In any case, some analyze the documentsof an earlier brief accountof them would give the period which will illuminate the ideo- reader more confidence in Mr. Irving's logy which lies behind the slogans. A fairamount of material for that purpose is available in Jacob's book, in There seems tobe no question that such positionpapers as "You Don't communiquenumber ninemarks a dis- NeedA WeathermanTo Krow Which Way tinct change in Weatherman thinking. The Wind Blows," and more is probably Yet the nature and significance of accessible in themany underground that change could be clarified by a publications of that earlyperiod. more systematic accOunt. Precisely Through such materials the substance which featureL, of the original ideo- of thefirst period ideology can be logy are altered, and which remain the studied more fruitfully. samo? And does the final message explain the reasons for the change? Are Asecond aspect of the article which there explicit reference: to events might be refined through further anal- other than the "military error" which ysis is the delineation of rhetorical have forced a rethinking of positions? strategies. After reading the first It would be especially helpful to have fourcommuniques, I cannot agree with ideologyoutlined explicitly for the Mr. Irving that "pollution" is a lead- sake of comparison with the ninth com- ingstrategic theme, for neither that munique. term, nor related ones, appear in the four messages. This may be merely a Finally, I would suggest that better quibbleabout words, after all, for I evidence is needed to support the ob- havemy own preference for a term servationthat "the new rhetoric of which roughly synthesizes several the Weathermendefinitely -Dntains linesof attack. It is "corruption," tones of humanism, ompassion and un- and seemsto be neatly juxtaposed to derstanding." Itmay be true, but tothe themes of purification and re- the invocation of single words,"love," demption. I wonder if that juxtaposi- "trust," etc., is net very compelling tion of leading themes might not be evidence. examined further as a major rhetorical strategy. Perhaps it is the dominant If the Weathermen can maintain their idea which givesunityto the many organizationwhile pursuing the pro- strandsof thought which seem, on the gram suggested in communique number surface, to be hastily thrown toget- nine, we may expect them to enter into her ineach communique: "we are to- a new stage of communication marked by gether with blacks and revolutionaries explanation and justification. We may 78 ho-oe younif :Like Mr. Irving, and older one too, will Joseri. W. Wenzel As.:istant Frofes- tinue th,:ir effort.: to nelr uner- .-`or of :7peesh and CD:amur.icatio:. at the .2Land revolutionary rhetoric. University of Illinois, Urbanh.

Tile tfou" .1::121.:91 5,1.g:LT: MOMENTS I future tensestatements that are compelling, rich and unique in content and style but which have not been substantively examined in the field of speech-communication so far. All readers are en- couraged to submit statements for '.his area.

Paganism is Alive and Well The Church ofAll Worlds is what we reject utterly the con,:ep', of original call a modernPagan religion (Neo- sin and inherent human evil. To us, Pagan). By this we mean that it is a the only sin is hypocrisy; the only basically life-affirming philosophy evil is anti-life. The basic "com- for the joyous unification of cult and mandments" of the Church of All Worlds culture. It is positivistic, humanis- are: Know Yourself; Accept Yourself: tic, pantheistic and individualistic Love Yourself; Believe in Yourself; Be in orientation. As in the enlightened True to Yourself. These are set forth rational outlook of Existentialism and as a guide towards becoming more fully humanistic psychology,we preach no Humanand self-actualizing, which is metaphysic and embrace no supernatural regarded as necessary before one can elements. Metaphysical questions, hope to function fully with his broth- while interesting, are not regarded as ers and fellow creatures. Herein is relevant to the Church or to the Human the essence of Neo-Paganism. community, and the individual is left to treat than howsoever he wishes. We Originally the term"Pagan" was ap- do extolthe ecological unity of all plied by the official, sanctioned, in- Nature, including Man, and the contin- stitutionalizedreligions of the West uingmystery ofYin/Yang: male and to refer to any of the unorthodox "un- female. Sex is skin to an act of wor- derground" religions of their time (e- ship. specially their competitors and prede- cessors). Theword in Latin meant Pagans are concerned, not with life "peasant," as the celebrations of life after death but with life after birth. were usually conducted in the wilder- To usthe purpose of life is, in the ness by the country folk, who lived words of Erich Fromm: "To become what close to the timeless cycles of na- wepotentially are." Our basic pre- ture. Paganreligionsof the past cept, expressed in the phrase "Thou have included the Dionysians and Eleu- art God," affirms that each man is his sians, the Druids, Magi and Witches, own divinity, ultimately free, ul- the Maenadsand Mithraites, and the timately responsible. Responsible for Adamites, Oneidans and Transcendental- his life, his actions, and his salva- ists inWestern culture, while many tion (defined however he wishes). We Easternand so-called "primitive" re- 79

81 ligions, especially those ofthe Amer- not mind boat-rockers. We can laugh ican Indians, are essentiallyPagan in at ourselves as wellas others, we can nature. All the great seasonalfesti- vals are of Pagan origin delight in absurdity, andwe can poach such as Yule, on sacred cows. Easter, Mayday, Midsummer Pagans believe that and Hallow- each een, to name but a few. individual must work out hisor Contemporary her own faith by which to live. Neo-Paganismin the Con- US includes the sequently Churchof All Worlds, Feraferia, we are a "free" church with The no Churchof creedsor dogma. The only guides the Awakening, Psychedelic for Pagans Venus Church, Wicca and in our faith arereason, various Witch- conscience, craft Covens, The Omniune imagination, andexper- Church, Uni- ience. versal Life Church, The We congregate for stimulation, Discordian So- growth, self-expression, ciety, and manyothers. Increasing life-celebra- numbersof these are joining tion, friendship, loveand responsible together environmental action. in a sort of ecumenical movement,a Neo-Pagan alliance calledthe Council The of Themis. Church of All Worldsis dedicated to the celebration of life, themaxi- mal actualization Institutionalized religions are obli- of Human potential, andthe realization of gated by their verynature to support ultimate individual freedom and personal society. Wesupport responsi- the individual. bility in harmonious Where establishment church-elTeel eco-psychic rela- duty tionship with boundtoeither the total Biosphereof explain or deny the Holy Earth. unknown, wecan simply accept it as From: The butyetunknown. Since Green Egg, Churchof All we are not Worlds, Post Office committedto Box 2953, St.Louis "revealed truth," we do Missouri 63130.

80 The University of Minnesota offers majors in speech leading to B.A., B.'S., and PH.D degrees.

Areas of Study:Public Address, Rhetoric, Radio and Television, Speech EAucation, Communication Theory and Research.

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