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Measurements of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Genotoxicity in Soot Deposited at a Toll Plaza Near Durban, South Africa

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Measurements of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Genotoxicity in Soot Deposited at a Toll Plaza Near Durban, South Africa RESEARCH ARTICLE S.J. Godefroy, B.S. Martincigh and L.F. Salter, 61 S. Afr. J. Chem., 2005, 58, 61–66, <http://journals.sabinet.co.za/sajchem/>. Measurements of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Genotoxicity in Soot Deposited at a Toll Plaza near Durban, South Africa Susan J. Godefroy, Bice S. Martincigh* and Leo F. Salter‡ School of Chemistry, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Howard College Campus, Durban, 4041 South Africa. Received 18 October 2004; revised and accepted 30 March 2005 ABSTRACT This research was designed to examine the presence of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in soot deposited at the Mariannhill toll plaza situated on the N3 highway in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Samples were collected from the toll plaza either by scraping the toll booth walls and surrounding areas, or by wiping the surfaces with cotton wool swabs. The organic component was separated by ultrasonic extraction into dichloromethane and analysed for PAHs by reverse phase high performance liquid chromatography with both fluorescence and ultraviolet detection. The genotoxicity was investigated by means of two bacterial assays: the Ames test and the SOS Chromotest. A number of PAHs were identified and genotoxic activity was observed in both of the assays. KEYWORDS Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, toll plaza, genotoxicity. 1. Introduction mutagenicity.8–10 Since a toll plaza is an area of high traffic Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are ubiquitous density, it is an ideal location for an investigation into the environmental pollutants that are of health concern because of build-up of particles emitted by vehicles, and for a study of the their mutagenic and carcinogenic properties. They are formed extent to which toll booth workers are exposed to harmful during the incomplete combustion of organic matter1,2 and are compounds. The Mariannhill toll plaza situated on a national present in the atmosphere through the burning of fossil fuels highway (N3) approximately 22 km west of Durban, South and vegetation, in cigarette smoke, and in smoked or barbecued Africa, was chosen for this study. The toll booths at this plaza food. contained visible deposits of particulate soot-like material. It is PAHs remain in the gas phase at temperatures greater than known that soot from combustion sources, such as vehicular 150°C, but condense onto particles at lower temperatures. emissions, consists primarily of fine particles which tend to have Consequently, at typical ambient temperatures they exist a higher PAH content than coarse particles.11,12 This paper will primarily in the particulate phase3 and are normally associated describe the extraction of the toll booth soot, PAH analysis by with respirable particles, i.e. particles of diameter less than reverse phase high performance chromatography (HPLC) with 2.5 µm.4 The portion of respirable particles that has the greatest both fluorescence and ultraviolet (UV) detection, and geno- abundance of PAHs is able to penetrate to the thoracic region toxicity testing by means of the Ames test and the SOS of the lung, where it has a higher deposition efficiency and Chromotest. The approach followed here differs from that of provides an in-body source of PAHs which can last for weeks. others in that deposited particulate matter was analysed rather On entering the body, PAHs are metabolized to a variety of than airborne particles collected on sampling filters. In addition, metabolites2,5,6 via a reactive epoxide intermediate. Further the sparsity of actual pollutant level measurements at toll plazas, activation to a diol epoxide can occur,and this is considered to be and in South Africa in particular, and the lack of PAH monitoring a precursor to the product that can interact with the nucleic acid in South Africa, add importance to this work. bases on the DNA. The reaction takes place primarily with the exocyclic 2-amino group of guanine, and this bulky PAH 2. Experimental substituent on the DNA base interferes with replication merely because of its size.7 2.1. Sample Preparation The emission of PAHs into the environment is also of concern The deposited soot was collected by scraping the toll booth because they can undergo reactions with constituents of the walls, ceilings and surrounding areas with a spatula into glass atmosphere – such as oxygen, ozone and nitrogen oxides – to vials, or by wiping the surfaces with cotton wool and storing this produce compounds that are more mutagenic than the parent cotton wool in zip-seal plastic bags. All samples were stored in PAH. 3 the dark at 4°C. It is well documented that particulate emissions from vehicles In order to separate the organic matter from the inorganic exhibit mutagenic properties as determined via the Salmonella and carbonaceous, the soot was ultrasonically extracted into typhimurium histidine-reversion mutation assay (the Ames test), dichloromethane (DCM). Typically, 200 mL of DCM was used and that PAHs are the major contributors of this observed per 0.2 g of soot. The samples were extracted for 2 h, filtered * To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail: [email protected] through a Millipore 0.45 µm HV organic aqueous compatible ‡ Present address: Cornwall College, Cornwall TR15 3RD, United Kingdom. filter to remove the particles, and the filtrate (the crude extract) RESEARCH ARTICLE S.J. Godefroy, B.S. Martincigh and L.F. Salter, 62 S. Afr. J. Chem., 2005, 58, 61–66, <http://journals.sabinet.co.za/sajchem/>. was divided into three portions. Two portions were rotary dards and the sample were filtered through a 0.45 µm syringe evaporated to dryness, weighed and stored in the dark at 4°C for filter prior to injecting onto the HPLC column. Injections of 10 µL analysis in the genotoxicity assays. The remaining extract was of the sample and standard mixture were made and those PAHs reduced to 2 mL by rotary evaporation, loaded onto Florisil for which standards were available were identified from their re- columns and eluted with DCM. The combined eluents were tention times and characteristic UV spectra. evaporated to dryness under nitrogen and stored in the dark at Analysis at Lancaster University was performed on a Perkin 4°C prior to analysis by reverse phase HPLC with UV detection. Elmer binary HPLC pump 250 with a Perkin Elmer LS 40 fluores- This procedure was also performed on DCM as organic solvents cence detector. A Spherisorb 150 × 4.6 mm (5 µm particle size) do contain some PAH impurities and can adsorb them from the PAH cartridge was used. A gradient of 60% (v/v) acetonitrile- atmosphere: it is important therefore to have a solvent blank. In water, held for 15 min and increased linearly to 100% aceto- order to assess sample loss by the ultrasonic extraction and nitrile over 10 minand held for a further 20 min at a flow rate of Florisil clean-up procedure, a solution containing four of the 1.5 mL min–1, was employed as the mobile phase. The crude PAH standards was used to test the recovery efficiency. From extract was dissolved in DCM, filtered through a 0.5 µm syringe the HPLC analyses it appeared that this sample preparation filter and volumes of 2 µL injected. procedure did not result in any loss of the PAHs extracted. Samples of the crude extract prior to clean-up on Florisil 2.5. The Ames Test were also sent to the Department of Environmental Science at This is a bacterial revertant assay developed in the mid-1970s Lancaster University in the United Kingdom, where they were by Bruce Ames and his colleagues. It utilizes specially mutated analysed by reverse phase HPLC with fluorescence detection. strains of Salmonella typhimurium (a colon bacterium) and has been used extensively as a rapid in vitro test for the detection of 2.2. Preparation of Florisil Columns chemical carcinogens14–17 and to demonstrate the mutagenic These were prepared in the laboratory by plugging Pasteur potential of complex environmental samples. The procedure of pipettes with glass wool and packing with1gofFlorisil (60– Maron and Ames18 was followed here. The bacterial tester strains 100 mesh). Each column was loaded with 1 to 2 mL of the crude TA98 (which detect frameshift mutagens) and TA100 (which extract and eluted with 10 mL of DCM. This procedure has been detect base-pair substitution mutagens) were grown up over- reported to give good and rapid recovery of neutral aromatic night at 37°C in Oxoid nutrient broth No. 2. The dried crude compounds.13 extract was dissolved in dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO) to yield the maximum desired concentration in µg plate–1, and serial 2.3. Standards and Solvents dilutions were prepared from this stock to give concentrations of The 12 PAHs obtained commercially for use as standards 0.1, 1, 10, 20, 40, 60, 80 and 100 µg plate–1. Since unsubstituted were anthracene, acenaphthylene, anthraquinone, pyrene, PAHs are not mutagenic in their original forms, and require phenanthrene, fluorene, fluoranthene, 9-fluorenone, chrysene, metabolic activation in order to express their mutagenic activity triphenylene, 2-methyl anthracene and benzo(a)pyrene. These (these are called promutagens), an activating system (S9-mix) were chosen as standards because they are readily available and derived from rat liver enzymes (S9 fraction) was added to the have been identified amongst those found in vehicle exhaust test plates. The preparation is described in detail by Maron and emissions.9,10 Solutions of 10–3 M concentration were prepared of Ames.18 The plate incorporation test procedure was followed. each such PAH in a mixture of 50% (v/v) DCM-methanol, and a This involved the combination of 0.1 mL or less of the test standard PAH mixture was prepared by combining 1 mL of each chemical (toll booth extract), 0.5 mL of the S9-mix and 0.1 mL of solution.
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