DOCSLIB.ORG

Mining, Metallurgy and the Metal Industry

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Mining, Metallurgy and the Metal Industry CHAPTER SIX MINING, METALLURGY AND THE METAL INDUSTRY Mining comprises the extraction and refining of ore; metallurgy involves the smelting of metal from ores; the processing of metal includes the casting and forging of metal objects. Numerous deposits of ores of copper, gold, and cassiterite, from which tin is acquired, are known across the territory of the Andronovo culture. At some mines there is evidence for ancient workings but only a few of them can be confidently assigned to the Andronovo culture. Deposits suitable for exploitation in the Bronze Age must display two features: they must involve mineral sources that outcrop onto the surface to allow easy prospection and discovery; they must also consist of oxidized ores that were not too difficult to smelt. The mining of sulphurous ores was originally impossible as it presupposes a smelting temperature of 1300 degrees which was above the thermal potential achieved by Andronovans and became possible only in the Final Bronze Age. We attribute a mine to the Andronovo culture on the basis of Andronovo ceramics or tools in an ancient quarry or dump. There are also indirect but reasonable arguments for establishing the Andronovo age of a mine on the basis of its ore composition and the presence of ore and smelted metal on an Andronovo settlement. Descriptions of ancient mines have been made by travellers and geologists from the 18th century. Reports of ancient mines were compiled by M. P. Gryaznov (1935) for the Altai, M. E. Masson (1930; 1930b; 1934; 1936; 1953), B. A. Litvinsky (1950) and O. I. Islamov (1955) for Central Asia, V. T. Surgay (1951) for Kirgizia. A new stage in the study of ancient mining was the work of the geologists V. A. Pazukhin (1926), B. M. Chudinov (1936), K. I. Satpaev (1941), L. P. Levitsky (1941), F. V. Chukhrov (1950), D. Khayrutdinov (1955) and especially N. V. Valukinsky (1948; 1950) in Kazakhstan. They not only described mines and collected chance finds but they also examined the settle- ments of neighboring miners. Their data are summarized by A. Kh. Margulan (1970: 3-30; 1973: 3-24). S. S. Chernikov conducted important research into Andronovo mining in 1935 and 1937 in eastern Kazakhstan, and then again in 1938 in northern Kaz- akhstan (Chernikov 1948: 13-33; 1949; 1960: 118-136). He studied prehistoric workings and discovered the settlements of neighboring metallurgists. The large material recovered from the sites permitted him to date some of the deposits and reconstruct the process of ore extraction and processing; for the first time there were comparisons between the chemical analysis of the ores and metal artifacts. N. P. Kiparisova (Sal’nikov 1967: 275-277, fig. 41) examined several ancient mines in the Urals in 1950-1954. In 1949 A. A. Formozov (1951a: 118-119) examined the mines at Elenovka and Ushkatta which had been discovered by geologists and the nearby miners’ settlements of the Elenovka microdistrict. 86 CHAPTER SIX From 1959 to 1967 this metallurgical center was under systematic study (Kuz’mina 1962a; 1962b; 1963a; 1963b; 1964a; 1964b; 1965a; AO 1966: 113- 114) and settlements and related burials were excavated; numerous traces of metallurgical and metal processing were revealed. The work of E. N. Chernykh (1970) marks a new stage in the study of Andronovo metallurgy. In 1967-1968 he examined the ancient ore sources of the Urals and studied the composition of ancient metal artifacts in comparison with ores from known deposits, defining metal groups according to their chemistry, and connecting some of them with ancient mines. I. V. Bogdanova-Berezovskaya began the study of the chemical composition of metals from Central Asia. Metallurgical and metal processing centers in Central Asia were established on the basis of typological classification of the metal objects and the composition of their metal (Kuz’mina 1966; 1967; Kuz’mina 1991). The discovery of the Sintashta settlements of metallurgists in the Urals was a major event in Andronovo research. Two ancient mines have been found so far: Vorovskaya Yama, which provided the ore for the settlement at Kuysak (Zaykov 1993: 151; Zaykov et al. 1995) and Kisenet which is connected with the settle- ment at Ust’e (Vinogradov 1995: 18). It is likely that ore from sandstones of Tash-Kazgan was used; this contained an arsenic admixture characteristic of some of the metal objects from Sintashta. It is not clear how the Sintashta population exploited the rich deposit at Kargaly (Chernykh 1996; 1997). The unprecedented number of copper objects in burials and evidence of metal processing in every house in the settlement reveals the development of metallur- gy and metal processing. Several types of hearths were used for smelting ore: a grooved hearth, paved with stone; a two-chambered hearth and domed oven with flue connected with a pit for the disposal of ash. These constructions reveal an important advance in metallurgical development in comparison with the earlier Pit-grave period, because they raised the thermal potential of society. L. White regarded the development of thermal potential as a decisive factor in cultural history. The miners exploited the rich oxidized ore from the upper parts of serpentine deposits (Grigor’ev S. A. 1988, 1994; Zaykov et al. 1999). Slag containing increased amounts of arsenic suggests not only the exploitation of the Tash- Kazgan ore deposit but also artificial copper alloying, i.e., the creation of arsenical bronze, an important innovation in comparison with the Pit-grave period. Metal-working at Sintashta preserved its community character; there was no evidence for specialized skilled craft production. A larger portion of the metal objects from Arkaim were made of pure copper, some were made of copper with arsenic. In Sintashta 48% of the artifacts were made from copper with an artificial arsenic admixture, 34% was of copper with a natural arsenic admixture. In Kuysak two objects were made of pure copper, and one knife of tin bronze (Zaykov et al. 1999: 194-195). East European Abashevo metallurgy stimulated the formation of Sintashta metallurgy. Sintashta metallurgy is of a domestic nature, which is indicated by its traces in every settlement and house and the lack of any features of craft specialization. However, the volume of production was such that the Sintashta community as a whole (and not through specialized craft production), exported metal to the regions of the Volga and Don, areas poor in natural resources. Petrovka and .
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Some Results of the Application of a Complex Approach to the Research of the Late Bronze Age Muradymovo Settlement in the Volgo-Ural Region
    Volume I ● Issue 1–2/2010 ● Pages 29–36 INTERDISCIPLINARIA ARCHAEOLOGICA NATURAL SCIENCES IN ARCHAEOLOGY homepage: http://www.iansa.eu Some Results of the Application of a Complex Approach to the Research of the Late Bronze Age Muradymovo Settlement in the Volgo-Ural Region Nickolay Sherbakova*, Iia Shutelevaa, Gulnara Obydennovaa, Marina Balonovaa, Olga Khohlovab, Alexandra Golyevac aArchaeological Laboratory of Bashkir State Pedagogical University, Ufa, Russia bInstitute of Physicochemical and Biological Problems of Soil Science (Pushchino Scientific Centre), Russia cInstitute of geography Russian Academy of Science, Moscow, Russia ARtICle Info ABStRACt Article history: Research at the Late Bronze Age Muradymovo settlement site located in the Volga-Urals (Figure 1) is the Received: 6 December 2010 first experience of a comprehensive study of archaeological materials with the help of natural sciences Accepted: 21 February 2011 and techniques, such as paleopedology and radiocarbon dating (Chernykh et al. 2002; Chernykh et al. 2004). Radiocarbon dating of the Muradymovo settlement materials provided satisfactory results for Keywords: ceramic samples. It also demonstrated the necessity of careful selection of cultural layer soils for dating palaeopedology purposes. microbiomorphic analysis radiocarbon dating settlement, late Bronze Age Volgo-Ural region Srubno-Alakul’ culture 1. Introduction researched sites in the central Volgo-Urals region (Figures 1 and 2). The Muradymovo settlement was discovered in 1990 by However, radiocarbon dating has never been used in members of the expedition of the Bashkir Scientific Center studies of the Bronze Age settlements in the Bashkortostan of the Russian Academy of Science (Ufa), headed by territory (Hanks et al. 2007). The goal of resuming A.
    [Show full text]
  • Andronovo Problem: Studies of Cultural Genesis in the Eurasian Bronze Age
    Open Archaeology 2021; 7: 3–36 Review Stanislav Grigoriev* Andronovo Problem: Studies of Cultural Genesis in the Eurasian Bronze Age https://doi.org/10.1515/opar-2020-0123 received June 8, 2020; accepted November 28, 2020. Abstract: Andronovo culture is the largest Eurasian formation in the Bronze Age, and it had a significant impact on neighboring regions. It is the important culture for understanding many historical processes, in particular, the origins and migration of Indo-Europeans. However, in most works there is a very simplified understanding of the scientific problems associated with this culture. The history of its study is full of opposing opinions, and all these opinions were based on reliable grounds. For a long time, the existence of the Andronovo problem was caused by the fact that researchers supposed they might explain general processes by local situations. In fact, the term “Andronovo culture” is incorrect. Another term “Andronovo cultural-historical commonality” also has no signs of scientific terminology. Under these terms a large number of cultures are combined, many of which were not related to each other. In the most simplified form, they can be combined into two blocks that existed during the Bronze Age: the steppe (Sintashta, Petrovka, Alakul, Sargari) and the forest-steppe (Fyodorovka, Cherkaskul, Mezhovka). Often these cultures are placed in vertical lines with genetic continuity. However, the problems of their chronology and interaction are very complicated. By Andronovo cultures we may understand only Fyodorovka and Alakul cultures (except for its early stage); however, it is better to avoid the use of this term. Keywords: Andronovo culture, history of study, Eurasia 1 Introduction The Andronovo culture of the Bronze Age is the largest archaeological formation in the world, except for the cultures of the Scytho-Sarmatian world of the Early Iron Age.
    [Show full text]
  • Fantastic Beasts of the Eurasian Steppes: Toward a Revisionist Approach to Animal-Style Art
    University of Pennsylvania ScholarlyCommons Publicly Accessible Penn Dissertations 2018 Fantastic Beasts Of The Eurasian Steppes: Toward A Revisionist Approach To Animal-Style Art Petya Andreeva University of Pennsylvania, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://repository.upenn.edu/edissertations Part of the Asian Studies Commons, and the History of Art, Architecture, and Archaeology Commons Recommended Citation Andreeva, Petya, "Fantastic Beasts Of The Eurasian Steppes: Toward A Revisionist Approach To Animal- Style Art" (2018). Publicly Accessible Penn Dissertations. 2963. https://repository.upenn.edu/edissertations/2963 This paper is posted at ScholarlyCommons. https://repository.upenn.edu/edissertations/2963 For more information, please contact [email protected]. Fantastic Beasts Of The Eurasian Steppes: Toward A Revisionist Approach To Animal-Style Art Abstract Animal style is a centuries-old approach to decoration characteristic of the various cultures which flourished along the urE asian steppe belt in the later half of the first millennium BCE. This astv territory stretching from the Mongolian Plateau to the Hungarian Plain, has yielded hundreds of archaeological finds associated with the early Iron Age. Among these discoveries, high-end metalwork, textiles and tomb furniture, intricately embellished with idiosyncratic zoomorphic motifs, stand out as a recurrent element. While scholarship has labeled animal-style imagery as scenes of combat, this dissertation argues against this overly simplified classification model which ignores the variety of visual tools employed in the abstraction of fantastic hybrids. I identify five primary categories in the arrangement and portrayal of zoomorphic designs: these traits, frequently occurring in clusters, constitute the first comprehensive definition of animal-style art.
    [Show full text]
  • The Extractive Metallurgy of Copper at Iron Age Madikwe
    Research Letters South African Journal of Science 103, September/October 2007 403 Separate smelting and refining furnaces are supported by a The extractive metallurgy of tradition related to Boshier5 by a Kgatla man, named Moroki, while they were investigating the Dwarsberg mines. copper at Iron Age Madikwe The ore was not smelted near the mines for fear of offending the spirits. Instead it was carried a considerable distance to the Mike Grant* and T.N. Huffman* first place of smelting. It was then taken to a second site to be refined and wrought. The refined copper was usually made into another ingot, or wire, which was later forged (‘wrought’ as Moroki says) into various articles, such as earrings, beads and bangles. SEM/EDX analysis of ores and slag showed that, with the possible With the Madikwe material, we were particularly interested in exception of the Wonderboom site, copper was probably smelted the smelting technology and the role of SEM/EDX (scanning from Dwarsberg ore at Madikwe, North West province, in the electron microscopy / energy dispersive X-ray analysis) in elucidat- mid-seventeenth century, either with high iron content or with lower ing whether the ore came from the nearby Dwarsberg mines. iron content plus an added iron oxide flux. Our analytical technique Due to limitations inherent with SEM/EDX (see Analytical was adequate as a survey technique here, but low instrument method), this is not a classic sourcing study where marker elements sensitivity limited our ability to be more specific about ore sources. are used to source ores. Here we can say only whether or not we believe that results point to a different source from the Dwars- berg ores.
    [Show full text]
  • Earsel Symposium Proceedings Template
    View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by Digital.CSIC Remote Sensing and Geoinformation Lena Halounová, Editor not only for Scientific Cooperation EARSeL, 2011 Bronze Age Economies and Landscape Resources in the Kargaly Steppe (Orenburg, Russia). Remote Sensing and Palynological Data for Ancient Landscape Resources Modeling Carlos Fernández Freire1, Antonio Uriarte González2, Juan Manuel Vicent García3 and Mª Isabel Martínez Navarrete3. Unidad de SIG, CCHS – CSIC, Madrid, Spain; [email protected] Laboratorio de Arqueología del Paisaje y Teledetección, Instituto de Historia, CCHS – CSIC, Madrid, Spain; [email protected] Research Group Prehistoria Social y Económica, CCHS - CSIC, Madrid, Spain; {juan.vicent, isabel.martinez}@cchs.csic.es Abstract. We present the methodological and technical issues of a research on ancient vegetation modeling in the Russian steppes combining remote sensing and palynological data. This research is framed in an international project developed by Russian and Spanish archaeologists from the Russian Academy of Sciences and Spanish National Research Council (CSIC) and centered on the study of the Bronze Age mining complex of Kargaly (Orenburg, Russia). One of the research guidelines focused on potential landscape resources for copper metallurgy and subsistence activities, such as the availability of wood fuel or pasture and arable land. A palaeobo- tanical research has been carried out in order to explore such questions, including the use of re- mote sensing data for providing environmental calibrative criteria that help interpreting palynolog- ical data. Combining current pollen rain data and remote sensing products (obtained by digital processing of Landsat and ASTER imagery), we have developed a model to improve our under- standing of the paleopalynological record.
    [Show full text]
  • A Key Approach for Our Understanding of Ancient Copper Smelting Processes
    EMU Notes in Mineralogy, Vol. 20 (2019), Chapter 5, 203–231 Mineralogy of slags: a key approach for our understanding of ancient copper smelting processes David BOURGARIT Centre de Recherche et de Restauration des Muse´es de France, Palais du Louvre, 14 quai Franc¸ois Mitterrand, 75001 Paris, France and CNRS-UMR 7055 Pre´histoire et Technologie, maison Arche´ologie and ethnologie, Rene´-Ginouve`s (MAE), 21 Alle´e de l’Universite´ - 92 023, Nanterre cedex, France e-mail: [email protected] Copper was the first metal to have been smelted (extracted from its ore) some seven thousands year ago in the ancient Near East. For most pre-industrial periods, the documentation of copper smelting chaine operatoire relies mainly on investigations by archaeometallurgists of the metallurgical waste recovered during archaeological excavations, namely the copper slags. Copper slags are mostly an assemblage of crystals of oxides (iron, manganese, etc.), olivine (fayalite, etc.) and/or pyroxenes embedded in a polymetallic more-or-less glassy matrix. The mineralogy of the slags is directly related to the initial charge and the working conditions prevailing in the pyrometallurgical reactor. This chapter aims to give an overview of how copper slag mineralogy is investigated and the type of information it yields in order to help our understanding of past metallurgies and societies. 1. Introduction 1.1. A short history of copper metallurgy Copper and its alloys were among the earliest valuable and strategic metals used by humans together with gold and silver (Tylecote, 1992; Mille and Carozza, 2009). Copper alloys such as arsenical copper and then tin-copper À also called bronzes Àgradually replaced lithic tools and weapons during the Bronze Age (~2000 to 800 BC in Europe), before being replaced in turn by iron and steel during the Iron Age (Tylecote, 1992).
    [Show full text]
  • Environmental and Social Impact Assessment
    SFG1011 REV REPUBLIC OF KAZAKHSTAN MINISTRY OF INVESTMENT AND DEVELOPMENT COMMITTEE FOR ROADS Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized SOUTH WEST ROADS PROJECT: WESTERN EUROPE – WESTERN CHINA INTERNATIONAL TRANSIT CORRIDOR’S KURTY – BURYBAILTAL ROAD SECTION (KM 2295 – KM 2380) OF THE CENTER SOUTH ROAD DRAFT “ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL IMPACT Public Disclosure Authorized DRAFTASSESSMENT” MARCH 2015 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The Project The Project involves the rehabilitation, upgrading and new construction of about 85 kilometers of 4 – lanes Road of South West Road Project: Western Europe – Western China International Transit Corridor’s Kurty – Burybaital Road Section of the Centre South Road. The road section passes through the various environments and landscapes.The Project has all the physical characteristics of a large linear infrastructure project, with insignificant spatial extension, visible impact on landscape, biosphere and land use patterns as well as insignificant impacts on topography, climate, natural conditions and human activity. The alignment crosses of a variety of land forms, land use types, and micro- climatic zones. The project is being structured and designed in two different Sections of 40km and 45km of length. These Sections are described below, including features and information relevant for safeguards classification and the design of safeguards instruments. Road Section 1: (km 2295-km2335). The project road section km 2295- km 2335is included in the Centre-South Corridor, “Astana – Karaganda – Balkhash – Kapshagay – Almaty” Road. On administrative division the projected road section passes across the territory of Aydarly and Sartaukum rural areas of Zhambyl district of Almaty Oblast. Most of the road section will follow the existing road alignment.
    [Show full text]
  • Madrasahs As Vocational Educational Institutions in the Regions of Pre-Revolutionary Russia
    International Journal of Environmental & Science Education, 2016, 11(3), 195-205 Madrasahs as Vocational Educational Institutions in the Regions of Pre-Revolutionary Russia Anvar N. Khuziakhmetov Kazan (Volga region) Federal University, RUSSIA Takhir M. Aminov Bashkir State Pedagogical University named after М. Аkmulla, RUSSIA. Ulzhalgas A. Yesnazarova Al-Farabi Kazakh National University, KAZAKHSTAN Received 14 May 2015 Revised 11 October 2015 Accepted 07 February 2016 The importance is determined by insufficient knowledge of the problem while undergoing serious changes in the system of Muslim education not only in Russia but all over the world. Hence, the purpose of this article is to identify the experience of madrasahs – professional Muslim educational institutions of pre-revolutionary Russia, as its reflection, critical analysis and possible extrapolating will contribute to further improvement of the system of Islamic education and science. A leading approach to solving this problem is the author's concept of historical and pedagogical research, which was based on the logic and structure of pedagogical process in its modern sense. Following the named concept allows a logical and consistent way to identify, analyze, synthesize, and extrapolate historical and pedagogical experience in modern educational theory and practice. The results of the study illustrate that the madrasah of pre- revolutionary Russia were prominent professional institutions. The organization of their pedagogical process in general contributed to the preparation of competent professionals. The article can be useful to teachers – the teachers of not only religious but also secular educational institutions, historians and culture experts. Keywords: vocational education, Islamic schools, madrasah INTRODUCTION In recent decades we have seen the intensive growth of adherents of the Muslim religion worldwide.
    [Show full text]
  • Archaeology of the Eurasian Steppes and Mongolia
    AN39CH28-Hanks ARI 8 September 2010 14:54 Archaeology of the Eurasian Steppes and Mongolia Bryan Hanks Department of Anthropology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15260; email: [email protected] Annu. Rev. Anthropol. 2010. 39:469–86 Key Words First published online as a Review in Advance on pastoralism, horse domestication, warfare, steppe empires, complex June 21, 2010 societies The Annual Review of Anthropology is online at anthro.annualreviews.org Abstract This article’s doi: by University of Sheffield on 04/28/11. For personal use only. International interest in the prehistory and archaeology of the Eurasian 10.1146/annurev.anthro.012809.105110 steppes and Mongolia has increased dramatically since the collapse of Copyright c 2010 by Annual Reviews. the Soviet Union in 1991. This article surveys important new evi- All rights reserved dence and interpretations that have emerged from several collaborative Annu. Rev. Anthropol. 2010.39:469-486. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org 0084-6570/10/1021-0469$20.00 projects in the past two decades. A particular emphasis is placed on is- sues that are crucial to regional studies in the steppe ecological zone; however, it also is suggested that steppe prehistory must come to play a more significant role in developing more comprehensive understand- ings of world prehistory. Key developments connected with the steppe include the diffusion of anatomically modern humans, horse domestica- tion, spoke-wheeled chariot and cavalry warfare, early metal production and trade, Indo-European languages, and the rise of nomadic states and empires. In addition to these important issues, thoughts are offered on some of the current challenges that face archaeological scholarship in this region of the world.
    [Show full text]
  • 1286 Chronology and Periodization of the Pit
    CHRONOLOGY AND PERIODIZATION OF THE PIT-GRAVE CULTURE IN THE REGION BETWEEN THE VOLGA AND URAL RIVERS BASED ON RADIOCARBON DATING AND PALEOPEDOLOGICAL RESEARCH N L Morgunova Orenburg Pedagogical State University, Laboratory of Archaeology, Ulitsa Sovetskaya, 19, Orenburg 460014, Russia. Email: [email protected]. O S Khokhlova Institute of Physical, Chemical and Biological Problems in Soil Science, Russian Academy of Sciences, Pushchino, Moscow region 142290, Russia. Email: [email protected]. ABSTRACT. We studied the chronology and periodization of the Pit-Grave (Yamnaya) culture at the Volga and Ural inter- fluve. Establishing the chronology of the Pit-Grave culture by archaeological methods is difficult due to the lack of artifacts in the burials. Therefore, we excavated 3 kurgan groups in the Orenburg region of Russia during the last decade. Eighteen kur- gans of the Pit-Grave culture were studied using archaeological and paleopedological methods and radiocarbon dating. The funeral complexes studied were divided into 3 stages. A variety of carbon-containing materials from the same complexes were dated by different laboratories to increase the accuracy of the obtained dates. In addition, from the excavations of the last years some monuments of the Repino stage, the earliest period of the Pit-Grave culture, were dated using ceramics. Together with archaeological and paleopedological data, 14C dating helped to clarify and, in general, to confirm the 3-stage periodiza- tion of the Pit-Grave culture in the Volga-Ural interfluve: the early (Repino) stage, 4000–3300 BC; the advanced (classical) stage, 3300–2600 BC, which is divided into substages A and B at 3300–2900 and 2900–2600 BC, respectively; and the late (Poltavkinsky) stage, 2600–2300 BC.
    [Show full text]
  • Investigating Social Complexity Through Centralization and Differentiation in Bronze Age Pastoral Societies of the Southern Urals, Russian Federation, 2100 – 900 Bc
    COMMUNITY MATTERS? INVESTIGATING SOCIAL COMPLEXITY THROUGH CENTRALIZATION AND DIFFERENTIATION IN BRONZE AGE PASTORAL SOCIETIES OF THE SOUTHERN URALS, RUSSIAN FEDERATION, 2100 – 900 BC by James Alan Johnson B.A. English/History, University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point, 1996 M.Sc. Anthropology, University of Wisconsin – Milwaukee, 2006 Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of the Kenneth P. Dietrich School of Arts and Sciences in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy University of Pittsburgh 2014 UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH DIETRICH SCHOOL OF ARTS AND SCIENCES This dissertation was presented by James Alan Johnson It was defended on November 13, 2013 and approved by Dr. Kathleen Allen, Senior Lecturer, Department of Anthropology, University of Pittsburgh Dr. Marc Bermann, Associate Professor, Department of Anthropology, University of Pittsburgh Dr. Katheryn Linduff, Professor, Department of History of Art and Architecture, University of Pittsburgh Dr. David Anthony, Professor, Department of Anthropology, Hartwick College Dr. Robert Drennan, Professor, Department of Anthropology, University of Pittsburgh Dr. Bryan Hanks, Associate Professor, Department of Anthropology, University of Pittsburgh Committee Chairperson ii Copyright © by James Alan Johnson 2014 iii COMMUNITY MATTERS? INVESTIGATING SOCIAL COMPLEXITY THROUGH CENTRALIZATION AND DIFFERENTIATION IN BRONZE AGE PASTORAL SOCIETIES OF THE SOUTHERN URALS, RUSSIAN FEDERATION, 2100 – 900 BC James A. Johnson, PhD University of Pittsburgh, 2014 In the past ten years or more, social complexity has taken center stage as the focus of archaeologists working on the Eurasian steppe. The Middle Bronze Age Sintashta period, ca. 2100 - 1700 BC, is often assumed to represent the apex of social complexity for the Bronze Age in the southern Urals region.
    [Show full text]
  • Metallurgical Provinces of Eurasia in the Early Metal Age: Problems of Interrelation
    ISIJ International, Vol. 54 (2014), No. 5, pp. 1002–1009 Review Metallurgical Provinces of Eurasia in the Early Metal Age: Problems of Interrelation Evgenij Nikolayevich CHERNYKH* Institute of Archaeology of Russian Academy of Sciences, 117036 Moscow, Dm. Ulianova 19. (Received on November 30, 2013; accepted on March 3, 2014) General chronological frame of the Early Metal Age (EMA) in Eurasia limited from IX/VIII up to turn II/I mill. BCE. The chronological scale of this investigation founded on the systematized date base of more than 3.5 thousand calibrated 14C analyses. EMA can be subdivided into five unequal in chronological sense periods. The Early Metal Age was the epoch clear domination of the western metallurgical centers – particularly up to III mill. BCE. In all probabilities the apogee of the western predominance was incar- nated in the immense of the famous Scythian world, in the limits of the first millennium BCE – i.e. beyond the EMA. The eastern centers take up the initiative of westward pressing after collapse of the Scythian world. KEY WORDS: metallurgical provinces; Early Metal Age; Eurasia. General chronological frame of the Early Metal Age The second period of EMA – the Copper Age dated (EMA) in Eurasia limited from IX/VIII up to turn II/I mill. from V mill. BCE (Fig. 1(B)). The most impressive and BCE. I have to note that the chronological scale of this remarkable peculiarities of this stage were: 1) the great min- investigation founded on the systematized date base of more ing and metallurgical revolution that was occurred a big dis- than 3.5 thousand calibrated 14C analyses.
    [Show full text]