Metallurgical Provinces of Eurasia in the Early Metal Age: Problems of Interrelation

ISIJ International, Vol. 54 (2014), No. 5, pp. 1002–1009 Review Metallurgical Provinces of Eurasia in the Early Metal Age: Problems of Interrelation

Evgenij Nikolayevich CHERNYKH*

Institute of Archaeology of Russian Academy of Sciences, 117036 Moscow, Dm. Ulianova 19. (Received on November 30, 2013; accepted on March 3, 2014)

General chronological frame of the Early Metal Age (EMA) in Eurasia limited from IX/VIII up to turn II/I mill. BCE. The chronological scale of this investigation founded on the systematized date base of more than 3.5 thousand calibrated 14C analyses. EMA can be subdivided into five unequal in chronological sense periods. The Early Metal Age was the epoch clear domination of the western metallurgical centers – particularly up to III mill. BCE. In all probabilities the apogee of the western predominance was incarnated in the immense of the famous Scythian world, in the limits of the first millennium BCE – i.e. beyond the EMA. The eastern centers take up the initiative of westward pressing after collapse of the Scythian world.

KEY WORDS: metallurgical provinces; Early Metal Age; Eurasia.

General chronological frame of the Early Metal Age The second period of EMA – the Copper Age dated (EMA) in Eurasia limited from IX/VIII up to turn II/I mill. from V mill. BCE (Fig. 1(B)). The most impressive and BCE. I have to note that the chronological scale of this remarkable peculiarities of this stage were: 1) the great min- investigation founded on the systematized date base of more ing and metallurgical revolution that was occurred a big dis- than 3.5 thousand calibrated 14C analyses. tance away from area of Proto-Metal – in the Northern Balkan ЕМА can be subdivided into five unequal in chronologi- and Carpathian basin; 2) formation of the Carpatho-Balkan cal sense periods (Fig. 1). metallurgical province (CBMP) as the several closed related The first period – s.c. Proto-Metal (PrM). This period metallurgical and metalworking center (Fig. 3, map). Gen- was characterized by very extent chronological length: from eral area of CBMP was equaled approximate 1, 5 million sq. IX/VIII up to V mill. BCE (Fig. 1(A)). Two basic peculiar- km spread from Danubian basin in the Western flank to the ities of this period distinguish it from the subsequent ones. Mid and Low Volga basin in the Eastern flank of this prov- The first feature: the people used only native but not metal- ince. The most characteristic features of CBMP are 1) cast- lurgical (not melted from mineral) copper and lead (Fig. 2). ing and hammering of various heavy tools and weapons Not very numerous ornaments and decorations were made made from chemical pure copper; 2) big number of gold by cold hammering methods. The small tools (awls) were decorations and ornaments (Fig. 3). Metallurgical revolution extremely rare. The second feature: localization of connect- and CBMP formation emerged independently from the cen- ed with this period sites and cultures related mainly with the ters of Proto-Metal area where in V mill. BCE continued Central and Eastern Anatolia, Mesopotamia and Levant limited production of primitive handmade copper goods. (Fig. 2, map) – the general space – up to 1 million sq. km. Specific and symbolic sites of CBMP are the s. c. “gold” Some big settlements with the copper and lead artifacts Varna necropolis in Eastern Bulgaria and Ai bunar – copper characterized by magnificent stone (Çaoynü-tepesi) or clay (polymetallic) mine in Southern Bulgaria. (Çatal-höyük) architecture. Some metal ornaments were Three different blocks of chalcolithic cultures of CBMP used also at funeral ceremonies (Tell-Halula etc.). were spread in various regions of this province (Fig. 3, The PrM can be divided in two main phases: s.c. Pre- map). The central and most significant cultural block occu- pottery Neolithic (IX/VIII–VII mill. BCE) and s.c. Pottery- pied the rich with different copper and others mineral depos- Neolithic or Chalcolithic (VI–V mill. BCE) connected with its areas in the North-Balkan and Carpathian (Karanovo VI- Ubaid, Hassuna, Halaf and other archaeological cultures Gumeltiţa, Varna, Vinca C-D, Tiszapolgar and others distributed in the mentioned region (Fig. 2). In all probabil- archaeological cultures). This block was the main producer ity, the most remarkable and distinguishing feature of this of copper that was distributed eastward to the neighbouring late phase was the practice absence of metalworking tech- settled farming cultures (Cucuteni-Tripolie culture) and nological progress. more distant pastoral steppe communities (Dniepro-Donets, Sredni Stog, Khvalynsk cultures). Final centuries of the fifth * Corresponding author: E-mail: [email protected] and early fourth mill. BCE was the time of disintegration DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.2355/isijinternational.54.1002 and disappearance of the earliest metallurgical province in

Fig. 1. Dynamics of territorial “leaps” in the distribution of metal-using cultures of the Early Metal Age at different stages of historical development (schematic maps).

Eurasia. One very paradoxical fact: the inheritance of lively regions occupied by cultures of the former PrM period: CBMP was scarcely clear reflected in the production of fol- Anatolia, Mesopotamia, Levant (Fig. 4, map). The exclusive lowing and more late metallurgical systems. importance of the space expansion of this former area was In place of the CBMP appeared extremely powerful owing to the Caucasus inclusion - and not only the South Circumpontic metallurgical province (CMP) i.e. surround- Caucasus, but also the North Caucasus. To the north of the ing Black Sea (or Pontos Euxeinos in old Greek). About two main Caucasus range – in the foothills and steppe – pastoral thousand years (IV–III mill. BCE) this province became the cultures developed, and these communities were extremely central production metallurgical system in Eurasia. With dissimilar to the southern ones where the domination of set- CMP were linked two important historical periods in the tled farming cultures was evidently. The listed regions were history of the Eurasian peoples – Early and Middle Bronze the main space for formation of so-called Proto-Circumpontic Age. metallurgical province (Proto-CMP). Total area of Proto- The third period of EMA – the Early Bronze Age dat- CMP was equaled approximately 1.7–1.9 million sq. km. Its ed in general from IV mill. BCE (Fig. 1(C)). This time the cultures adjoined to the Black Sea just to the south and east great explosion of metallurgical producing took place in the shores (therefore the early phase of CMP was named Proto).

Fig. 2. The Proto-Metal period, IX/VIII–V mill. BCE: area of the main sites and cultures. The black and grey points mark the sites of Pre-Pottery Neolithic period (the grey points – the sites with metal). Area of more late Neolithic and Chalcolithic cultures is marked by grey shade. Copper and lead artifacts from Tell Halula (left); also from Çayönü- tepesi and As¸ikli-höyük. The fundaments of the stone architecture – Çayönü-tepesi.

Emergence of high quality metal producing was very sim- mainly in the graves of stock-breeding steppe communities. ilar to technological explosion. At the same time all Proto- The Proto-CMP period has highlighted very brightly a CMP production was absolutely dissimilar the previous – new situation with mutual interrelations of different cultural Carpatho-Balkan metallurgy – both from technological and models. On the basis of the emerged geo-ecological struc- morphological point of view. Firstly: absolute domination of ture three general independent long-lasting subsistence arsenical bronzes – Cu+As and Cu+As+Ni. Secondly: big strategies of Eurasian archeological communities were number of gold and especially silver ornaments and sacral formed at the turn of the forth and third millennium BCE on products (the silver was not used in the centers of Carpatho- the vast territories of Eurasian continent: 1) hunting, fishing Balkan MP). and gathering, located mainly in the forest zone: 2) mobile One very paradoxical situation was close connected with (nomadic or semi nomadic) stock-breeding in the giant Proto-CMP. In practice all mining, metallurgical and metal- Eurasian Steppe Belt stretched from Black Sea area to the working focuses were located in the southern zone of prov- Yellow Sea and 3) sedentary agriculture dominated in the ince occupied by settle farming communities: the Late Uruk more southern areas of continent. The problems of interre- and its synchronous cultures and sites in Anatolia, Kura- lation’ character between the main productive centers of Arax and some others cultures in the Southern Caucasus metallurgical provinces were complicated by interaction (Fig. 4, map). But in addition to that we must note that the between the population of three mentioned general subsis- lion share of different metals artifacts was concentrated in tence strategies. It became especially obviously at process of the famous and rich elite’ graves of the northern pastoral transformation Proto-CMP into reality of Circumpontic culture kurgan cemeteries – so called Maykop kurgan com- metallurgical province. munity (Fig. 4). In general collection of the metals in the The fourth period of EMA – the Middle Bronze Age kurgans of the northern Proto-CMP’ zone exceeded the dated in general from III mill. BCE (Fig. 1(D)). This period southern one more than 15 times! Especially it was reflected was characterized by variety of very important changes on the precious metals – Au and Ag. We have to note else which have captured large blocks of various cultures on one very remarkable distinction from previous, more earlier wide spaces surrounded of Black Sea (Fig. 5, map). The Carpatho-Balkan system: in the CBMP mass of metals in major changes were reflected in structure of the mining, the sites of central producing cultural block surpassed in metallurgical and metalworking centers which have gener- tens times the copper artifacts in peripheral blocks and ated the Circumpontic metallurgical province (CMP).

Fig. 3. The Copper Age, V mill. BCE. Areas of the main cultural blocks of Carpatho-Balkan metallurgical province: CB – the central block; PB – peripheral block (Cucuteni-Tripolye culture); SB –steppe stock-breeding communities (schematic map). Bottom and left – the Varna “gold” necropolis: the chief’ s burial; the gold ornaments and decorations; copper tools and weapons; the big clay plate designed by the gold dust traceries. On the right: the copper mine Ai bunar – cleaning of the ancient open cast and big copper tools from Ai bunar.

Undoubtedly that CMP was the producing system in Eurasia their general subsistence strategies, both blocks have in the third mill. BCE. appeared very closely interconnected, and it was most Firstly: there was a sharp expansion of territory brightly reflected in metal. CMP from 1.7–1.9 million sq. km to 4.5–5.0 million. This Thirdly: there were observed processes of rather smooth expansion has captured spaces former CBMP – that is Balkan transformation of technological and morphological canons peninsula and Carpathian basin, and also the wide steppe of the former ProtoCMP on which base has arisen real CMP and forest-steppe areas from Low Danube up to South Urals. (Fig. 5). The arsenical bronzes (Cu+As) served as the basic In this period the total space of copper/bronze-bearing cul- type produced in the province. However quite new Sn- tures in Eurasia was equaled approximately 10–11 mill. sq. bronzes began to play the leading role in the southern block km. (Fig. 1(D)). of the cultures and metallurgical centers. Metallurgy and Secondly: formation of two blocks practically equal on metalworking in the northern steppe block were based on spatial coverage cultures. Southern block – the domination the As-bronzes and chemical pure copper. of different settled farming populations. Northern block – Fourthly: the sharp distinctions in metallurgy and metal- the full supremacy of mobile pastoral horse-riding kurgan working for the northern steppe block from the former communities – first of all s. c. Yamnaya (pit-grave) and cat- Proto-CMP stage clear reflected in the presence of consid- acombnay (catacomb-grave). Despite of contrast character erable number of casting clay moulds in the graves of mas-

Fig. 4. The Early Metal Age, IV mill. BCE. Areas of the main cultures and communities of the Proto-Circumpontic metallurgical province: L-Ur – Late Uruk; K-Ar – Kura-Arax; MK – Maykop big kurgans community; MSK – Maykop steppe kurgan culture (schematic map). From above: the giant steppe kurgan and stone funeral construction under the kurgan’s earthfills. Maykop big kurgans community: the silver pots and gold decorations; the bronze weapons. Bottom: collection of bronze weapons from Arslantepe (Eastern Anatolia). ters-molders (Fig. 5). More impressive evidences of start of Urals’ steppe (Fig. 5, the copper founder burial). The Kargaly mining and metallurgy was connected with the huge copper complex was the source of big mass of chemical pure cop- mining and metallurgical center Kargaly located in South per for the giant Yamnay community. The main source of

Fig. 5. The Middle Metal Age, III mill. BCE. Areas of two major cultural blocks of Circumpontic metallurgical province (schematic map). The general types of the clay casting moulds for the shaft-hole axes – the major weapons kind in the CMP. Bottom and left – southern block: the main types of bronze tools and weapons in different areas; gold and silver artifacts. On the right – northern block of stock-breeding community: the copper-founder grave in Kargaly center with the casting mould for shaft-hole axe; copper tools and weapons.

different type of As-bronzes for Catacomb-community was The fifth period of EMA – the Late Bronze Age, dated used South-Caucasian and Anatolian centers. In this respect mainly in the frame of the II mill. BCE to the turn of II/I the Caucasus was the regular bridge between South and mill. BCE. Beyond doubt the major event of this period was North zones of CMP. the phenomenal giant space leap of distribution of the metal- And finally the fifth point: the bridge between South and bearing cultures (Fig. 1(E)). The total space of these high- North of CMP operated also during the Proto-CMP period. technological cultures and communities increased approxi- However the picture of distribution of the mass of the major mately in four times and covered about 40–43 mill. sq. km. metals – Cu (bronzes), Au and Ag – between South and Other main event was the fast disintegration of Circumpontic North of CMP assumed s. c. “normal” aspect. In CMP’ sys- metallurgical province – undoubtedly the central Eurasian tem the lion share of copper and bronzes concentrated in the system during the previous millennium. We can now possi- CMP’ southern area. And at the same time the gold and sil- bility discern up to eight more or less different or even ver ornaments were found in complexes of the northern extreme dissimilar metallurgical provinces spreading out stock-breeding zone extremely rare. from Atlantic to the Pacific (Fig. 6). In the fifth period the

Fig. 6. The Late Metal Age, II mill. BCE. Schematic map of the Metallurgical Provinces in Eurasia: 1. European, 2. West- Asian, 3. East-Asian, 4. Caucasian, 5. Irano-Anatolian, 6. Old Chinese (Shang & Western Chou), 7. Indo-Chinese, 8. Eastern Mediterranean (Aegean). Question marks indicate the territories with an uncertain relation of regional metal products to a particular province (schematic map).

Fig. 7. Eurasian Steppe Belt (1) and the dividing border (2) between the East and the West. The arrows point to the Dzun- garian Gate between Altay and Tien-Shan mounts systems.

© 2014 ISIJ 1008 ISIJ International, Vol. 54 (2014), No. 5 metal-bearing cultures and communities occupied all two The Early Metal Age was the epoch clear domination of main geo-ecological Eurasian zones including the Great the western metallurgical centers – particularly up to III Steppe Belt. The cultures of the forest (taiga) zone were mill. BCE. In all probabilities the apogee of the western pre- mostly still in the Neolithic. dominance was incarnated in the immense of the famous The problems of interrelation’ character between the Scythian world, in the limits of the first millennium BCE – main productive centers of metallurgical provinces were i.e. beyond the EMA. The eastern centers take up the initia- complicated by interaction between the population and cul- tive of westward pressing after collapse of the Scythian tures of two general parts of Eurasia, – and it has become world. distinctly clear only in the fifth period of EMA. Reliance on the basic position of modern anthropology, linguistics, and Notes: also different ideological systems allow to plan the water- In this limited paper it would be impossible to cite the shed line between East and West. The dividing line between huge number of literature sources: the touched problematic East-West parts passes on the Yenisei value, crossing so is extreme wide. I mention only some general author’s called Dzungarian Gate between Altay and Tien Shan mount publications in the western languages and two big books in systems, and surrounding Pamir and Himalaya aimed down Russian: up to the Indian sub-continent (Fig. 7). The metallurgical contacts and character of interrelations between eastern and 1) E. Chernykh: Proc. of the 6th Int. Conf. on the Beginnings of the Use of the Metals and Alloys (BUMA VI), ed. by J. Mei and T. Rehren, western parts we can observe in the Xinjiang among the Archetype Publications Ltd, London, (2009), 3. materials of eastern focuses of the Circumpontic metallur- 2) E. Chernykh: Anatolian Metal, V (Hsgb. Ünsal Yalçin). Der Anschnitt, gical province and later in the rich metal collections of the Bochum, (2011), 151. 3) E. Chernykh: Unbekanntes Kasachstan. Archäologie im Herzen West-Asian and East-Asian steppe provinces. In this sphere Asiens, Band I, Hrgb. T. Stöllner und Z. Samašev, Deutsches Bergbau- extreme interest presents so called Seima-Turbino transcul- Museum, Bochum, (2013), S. 185. 4) E. Chernykh: Eurasian Steppe Belt: the Phenomenon of the Nomadic tural phenomenon: their impressive metal forms of eastern Cultures, Rukopisnye pamiatniki Drevney Rusi, Moscow, (2009), 624 sources spreaded from the Western China up to Baltic Sea (in Russian). at the turn of the III and II millennium and in the early cen- 5) Nomadic Cultures in the Mega-structure of Eurasian World, Yazyki slavjanskoy cultury, Moscow, (2013), vol. 1, p. 368; vol. 2, p. 429. (in turies of the II mill. BCE. Russian).