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Bilingualism, Code-Switching, Language Mixing, Transfer and Borrowing; Clarifying Terminologies in the Literature

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Bilingualism, Code-Switching, Language Mixing, Transfer and Borrowing; Clarifying Terminologies in the Literature DOCUMENT RESUME ED 413 784 FL 024 915 AUTHOR Yumoto, Kazuko TITLE Bilingualism, Code-Switching, Language Mixing, Transfer and Borrowing; Clarifying Terminologies in the Literature. PUB DATE 1996-03-00 NOTE 14p.; In: Kanagawa Prefectural College of Foreign Studies, Working Papers, Volume 17, March 1996, p.49-60. PUB TYPE Journal Articles (080)-- Reports Descriptive (141) EDRS PRICE MF01/PC01 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS *Bilingualism; *Code Switching (Language); Definitions; Foreign Countries; *Interference (Language); Interlanguage; Language Research; *Linguistic Borrowing; Linguistic Theory; Second Language Learning; *Transfer of Training IDENTIFIERS Japanese People; *Language Contact ABSTRACT A study of second language acquisition in two Japanese children, and corresponding examination of research literature, led to this effort to clarify terminology related to cross-linguistic influence in language contact situations. Terms include: bilingualism, code-switching, language mixing, language transfer, and borrowing. Two forms of transfer are distinguished: borrowing (the influence of a second language on a previously acquired language) and substratum (the influence of a native language or some other previously learned language on acquisition of another language). Borrowing refers to lexical borrowing, usually confined to single-item terms but sometimes extended to phrase- and sentence-level constructions. Code-switching is the alternation of languages within a single discourse, sentence, or constituent, and is rule-governed and characterized by social functions. Several theorists distinguish between kinds of code-switching: situational vs. conversational; emblematic vs. intimate; and matrix language vs. embedded language. Three distinct models of bilingualism are identified: (1) one positing two monolingual grammars and a separate grammar of code-switching;(2) two monolingual grammars combined in code-switching; and (3) two monolingual grammars used by a processor with a separated code-switching mechanism. Contains 39 references.(MSE) ******************************************************************************** Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made from the original document. ******************************************************************************** Bilingualism, Code-switching, Language Mixing, Transfer and Borrowing; Clarifying Terminologies in the Literature U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION PERMISSION TO REPRODUCEAND Office of Educational Research and Improvement EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION DISSEMINATE THIS MATERIAL CENTER (ERIC) HAS BEEN GRANTED BY This document has been reproduced as eceived from the person or organization originating it. \4-c) Minor changes have been made to improve reproduction quality. -AkNi)%V-0 Points of view or opinions stated in this TO THE EDUCATIONALRESOURCES document do not necessarily represent INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC) official OERI position or policy. 1-41M1rfaA314§1011JvNeWJ Z17 7h-17 4311R,17 2 BEST COPY AVAILABLE Bilingualism, Code-switching, Language Mixing, Transfer and Borrowing: Clarifying Terminologies in the Literature' Kazuko Yumoto 1.Introduction Bilingualism and multilingualism are reported to be quite common in language contact situations. Such linguistic phenomenon is widespread in Europe (Switzer- land, Luxembourg, Belgium), Asia (India, Philippines, Indonesia) and Africa. In the Balkans, for instance, there is "considerable overlap in lexicon, phonology, morphology, and syntax among local varieties of Slavic and adjoining dialects of Greek, Rumanian and Alba- nian" (Gumperz 1967:49); and the overlaps are said to be between historically unrelated lan- guages. Language contacts pose interesting issues from sociolinguistic point of view, such as language mixing, borrowings from other languages into the native language, transfer of the native language to a second language; code-switching, or the alterna- tion of two languages within a single discourse. Bilingualism and multilingualism pose linguistic questions of the model of bi/multilingualism; language mixingand code-switch- ing raise questions of what model of grammar would produce juxtaposition of utterances of different codes. The present paper is a byproduct of a study on child bilingualism, language mixing and code-switching. A study on child second language acquisition aroused my personal interests on the issues: Japanese children whom I had observed offered quite different initial processes of second language acquisition (discussed in the next section). The study led me to a labyrinth of overlapping terminologies in the literature. To understand basic concepts of the issues re- 1.The earlier version of this paper was handed in as a term paper for Second Language Learning offered by Prof. G. Yull at the Department of ESL, University of Hawai'i at Manoa during the fall semester of 1993. Special thanks go to Dr. Yull for his thorough reading and comments. However, any possible mistakes are of course mine. Appreciation goes to the Japanese Ministry of Education, Kanagawa Board of Education and Kanagawa Prefectural College for Foreign Studies for the oppotunity given to me to do a research at University of Hawai'i. Special thanks also go to Ms Michiyo Maeda, Academic Committee Chair of Kanagawa Prefectural College for her support and encouragement. 49 Bilingualism, Code-switching. Language Mixing. Transfer and Borrowing quires first a clarification of conflicting terms. Accordingly, the objective of thepaper is to clarify some of the terminologies related to cross-linguistic influences. 2.Background of The Study The process of acquiring a second language (L2) varies according to various factors such as age, attitude, personality, language learning strategies, the degree of 12 exposure, formal or natural context, linguistic distance from Ll to 12, to mention a few. In child 12 acquisition the level of IA competence and the stage of cognitive development in Piagetian termspose impor- tant factors. The core factor that integrates these various factors in child 12 acquisition is the age of onset. It plays a crucial role in the way a child processes incoming 12 data. There seem to exist qualitative differences in linguistic processing of children between the pre-operative stage and the concrete stage of congnitve development. A child at the concrete operations stage or above that stage seems to acquire 12 in top-down cognitive processing while a child at or below the pre-operative stage, in bottom-up processing starting from a one-word utterance (Yumoto 1990). This assumption is made on the basis of my observation of two Japanese children of differ- ent ages, 8 years old (M) and 4 years old (N), in natural second language acquisition. The observation has led to a hypothesis that an older child with his IA background mustpossess a schematic concept of language in general; and that it enables the child to resort to the basic universal rule, S > NP VP as his supreme command. This hypothesis, in return, has been derived from the different processing of 12 manifested by the children: the 8year old child processed L2 top-down, and nearly after 6 month of silent period, produced "I donow change clothes" as his first L2 utterance, while the 4 year old acquired English inan accumulative manner starting with one-word utterance. They also differ in sorting out two languages. The older sorted out two languages well and/thus very rarely mixed languages, while theyounger one mixed languages so frequently on word, phrase and sentence levels. As a matter of fact, language mixing was his principal initial strategy of L2 acquisition and it remainedso even after he acquired English syntax comfortably enough to communicate in the language. When he did not have an appropriate English word in his repertoire on hand, he simply borroweda Japanese word and slotted it in the English structural frame. Using a native device, he would Anglicize it in terms of pronunciation, stress and rhythm to go with the English sound system. This Angli- cizing phenomenon is referred to as "relexifications", in which a native word is "activated in the learner's mind and then 'relexified' i.e., modified phonologically to make it better conform to 50 4 Bilingualism. Code-switching. Language Mixing. Transfer and Borrowing what is perceived as English norms" (Ringbom 1985:48). Miss Headley wa close to Bronxvill School ni sunde-runda yo. So she lives closer to my house. (Miss Headley <N's teacher> lives close to Bronxville School which means she lives close to my house.) I wish I could fly! Fly shi-tai na. Mommy, fly shi-tai na. Moshi boku ga karukatta-ra fly dekiru yo. (I wish I could fly. Mommy, I wish I could fly. If I were lighter, I would be able to fly). Language mixing was so spontaneous with the child (N) that it seemed to be free from any constraints whatsoever. What struck me about his language mixing performance was that items from the native stock was embedded well to the phonological system as well as to the syntactic system of the target language; this was possible by conforming the embedded con- stituent to the stress, vowel lengthening, rhythm and intonation patterns of the English lan- guage, and by manipulating morphological devices, modifiers and the syntacticposition appropropriate to the 12. The incorporation of the constituents of the Ll into the 12 was so smooth and natural that two languages seemed to be as if merged into one single system. He was successful enough to make his speech sound like the target language by
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