Code-Switching 589

Total Page:16

File Type:pdf, Size:1020Kb

Code-Switching 589 Sociolinguistics Soziolinguistik An International Handbook of the Science of Language and Society Ein internationales Handbuch zur Wissenschaft von Sprache und Gesellschaft 2nd completely revised and extended edition 2., vollstandig neu bearbeitete und erweiterte Auflage Edited by / Herausgegeben von Ulrich Ammon . Norbert Dittmar Klaus 1. Mattheier . Peter Trudgill Volume 1 / 1. Teilband Offprint I Sonderdruck Walter de Gruyter . Berlin· New York 70. Code-Switching 589 70. Code-Switching/Sprachwechsel 1. Linguistic manifestations of language conjunctions and their conjuncts), but these contact were soon met with a host of counter- 2. Theories of CS examples. 3. Fitting theory to data The first general account of the distribu- 4. The data of cs tion of stemmed from the observation 5. Community strategies for CS es 6. Summary that es is favored at the kinds of syntactic 7. Literature (selected) boundaries which occur in both languages. The Equivalence Constraint (Poplack 1980) states that switched sentences are made up 1. Linguistic manifestations of of concatenated fragments of alternating language contact languages, each of which is grammatical in the language of its provenance (see also Code-switching (eS) is but one of a number Lipski 1978; Muysken 2000; Pfaff 1979). of the linguistic manifestations of language The boundary between adjacent fragments contact and mixing, which variously include occurs between two constituents that are borrowing on the lexical and syntactic levels, ordered in the same way in both languages, language transfer, linguistic convergence, ensuring the linear coherence of sentence interference, language attrition, language structure without omitting or duplicating death, pidginization and creolization, among lexical content. others. There is little consensus in the litera- That general principles, rather than atom- ture over which aspects should be subsumed istic constraints, govern es is now widely under the label code-switching. In this ar- accepted, though there is little consensus as ticle, es refers to the utterance-internal jux- to what they are or how they should be rep- taposition, in unintegrated form, of overt resented. Many theories assume that the linguistic elements from two or more lan- mechanisms for language switching are di- guages, with no necessary change of inter- rectly predictable from general principles of locutor or topic. (monolingual) grammar. As extensions of Mixing may take place at any level of lin- the formal linguistic theories successively in guistic structure, and a long research tradi- vogue, these tend to appeal to such abstract tion has grown up around questions of lan- grammatical properties as inter-constituent guage choice and language negotiation relationships (e.g., government, case assign- among interlocutors in bilingual contexts ment) andlor language-specific features of (Gumperz 1976/1982; Heller 1982). But the lexical categories (i.e., subcategorization of combination of languages within the con- grammatical arguments, inherent morpho- fines of a single sentence, constituent or logical features). even word, has proved most intriguing to Di Sciullo et al. (1986), for example, ident- linguists. This article surveys the treatment ified the relevant relations as C-command in the literature, linguistic and social, of and governme;nt: es cannot occur where a such intra-sentential es. government relation holds. Replacement of the function of government in standard the- 2. Theories of CS ory by the notion of feature agreement led to a parallel focus on feature matching in es First dismissed as random and deviant (e.g., studies. The Functional Head Constraint Weinreich 1953/1968) intra-sentential es (Belazi et al. 1994) adds language choice t6 is now known to be grammatically con- the features instantiated in functional and strained. The basis for this is the empirical lexical categories, prohibiting es where a observation that bilinguals tend to switch mismatch occurs. MacSwan's (1999) C:ldap- intra-sententially at certain (morpho )syn- tation of the Minimalist proposal restricts tactic boundaries and not at others. Early CS at structural sites showing cross-lan- efforts to describe these tendencies (e.g., guage differences in monolingual features. Gumperz 197611982; Timm 1975) offered The distinction between lexical and func- taxonomies of sites in the sentence where es tional categories is a hallmark oftheories in- could and could not occur (e.g., between voking the complement structure of individ- pronominal subjects and verbs or between ual1exica1 items to characterize permissible 590 IV. The Social Implications of Levels of Linguistic Analysis CS sites (e.g., Joshi 1985 and its sequel, the predictions of the theory with the data of the Null Theory of CS (SantorinilMahootian actual bilingual behavior. 1995); see also BentahilalDavies' Subcat- egorisation Constraint (1983)). Perhaps the 3.1. CS vs. borrowing most detailed mo-del involving the contrast It is uncontroversial that CS differs from the between lexical properties and functional other major manifestation of language con- (or "system") morphemes is the Matrix tact: lexical borrowing. Despite etymological Language Frame model (Azuma 1993; identity with the donor language, estab- Myers-Scotton 1993). Here, structural con- lished loanwords assume the morphological, straints on CS result from a complex inter- syntactic, and often, phonological, identity action between a dominant matrix language of the recipient language. They tend to be -and the prohibition against embedding "sys- recurrent in the speech of the individual and tem" morphemes from the "embedded" lan- widespread across the community. ,The stock guage in matrix language structure. of established loanwords is available to The assumption that bilingual syntax can monolingual speakers of the recipient lan- be explained by general principles of mono- guage, along with the remainder of the re- lingual grammar has not been substantiated. cipient-language lexicon. Loanwords further While such formal theories at grammar may differ from CS in that there is no involve- account well for monolingual language ment of the morphology, syntax or phonol- structure (including that of the monolingual ogy of the donor language. fragments in CS discourse), there is no evi- dence that the juxtaposition of two lan- 3.2. Borrowing vs. nonce borrowing guages can be explained in the same way. As Recent research on borrowing as a syn- described in ensuing sections, bilingual chronic process (e.g., the papers in Poplackl communities exhibit widely different pat- Meechan 1998a; Poplack et al. 1988) has terns of adapting monolingual resources in shown it to be far more productive than its their code-mixing strategies, and these are result (established loanwords) would imply. nQt predictable through purely linguistic Crucially, the social characteristics of recur- considerations. The equivaltmce constraint, rence and diffusion need not be satisfied, re- as formalized by Sankoff (1998a; 1998b; sulting in what has been called, after Wein- Sankoff/Mainville 1986; Sankoff/Poplack reich (195311968), nonce borrowing (Sankoff 1981), is a production-based explanation of et al. 1990). Like its established counterpart, the facts of CS, which incorporates the no- the nonce borrowing tends to involve lone tions of structural hierarchy and linear lexical items, generally major-class content order, and accounts for a number of empiri- words, and to assume the morphological, cal observations in addition to the equival- syntactic, and optionally, phonological iden- ent word order characterizing most actual tity of the recipient language. Like CS, on switch sites. These include the well-formed- the other hand, particular nonce borrowings ness of the monolingual fragments, the con- are neither recurrent nor widespread, and servation of constituent structure, and the nonce borrowing necessarily requires a cer- essential unpredictability of CS at any po- tain level of bilingual competence. Distin- tential CS site. guishing a nonce borrowing from CS of a lone lexical item is conceptually easy but 3. Fitting theory to data methodologically difficult, especially when this item surfaces bare (i.e., morphologically Which of these competing (and often con- uninflected, or in a syntactic slot shared by flicting) models offers the best account of both languages), giving no apparent indi- bilingual CS? Testing the fit of theory with cation of language membership. the data of CS should be a straightforward The classification of such lone other-lan- matter; however, disparate assumptions, guage items is at the heart of a fundamental goals and domains of application have thus disagreement among CS researchers over 1) far hindered such efforts. Assessment of the whether the distinction between CS and bor- descriptive adequacy of a theory of CS rowing should be formally recognized in a requires that at least two methodological is- theory of CS, 2) whether these and other sues be resolved. One Involves identification manifestations of language contact can be and principled classification of language identified in bilingual discourse, and 3) mixing phenomena, the other, confronting criteria for determining whether a given 70. Code-Switching 591 item was switched or borrowed. Researchers parallels to those of their counterparts in the who classify lone other-language items as recipient language, while at the same time CS tend to posit an asymmetrical relation- differing from relevant patterns in the
Recommended publications
  • A Study on Positive Transfer of Native Language and Second Language Teaching Methods
    CORE Metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk Provided by Academy Publication Online ISSN 1799-2591 Theory and Practice in Language Studies, Vol. 10, No. 3, pp. 306-312, March 2020 DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.17507/tpls.1003.06 A Study on Positive Transfer of Native Language and Second Language Teaching Methods Chen Chen School of Foreign Languages, Shanxi Normal University, Linfen, China Abstract—Native language is one of the important factors that affect second language acquisition (SLA). However, compared with the heated discussion about the negative transfer of native language, the positive transfer of native language lacks due attention. Taking Chinese and English as a case study, this paper first reveals the similarities between the two languages, then discusses the positive effects of native language on SLA, and finally explores English teaching methods so as to promote the positive transfer of native language and reduce the negative transfer. Index Terms—native language, second language acquisition, positive transfer, teaching methods I. INTRODUCTION Native language transfer is a complex phenomenon. It has already attracted many scholars’ attention in the study of SLA. Since the 1950s, scholars began to study the impact of native language on SLA. With the development of transfer theory, more and more linguists begin to pay great attention to the relationship between native language and SLA. The influence of native language on SLA can be divided into two kinds: positive effects and negative effects. The positive effects, namely, positive transfer, promote second language acquisition, while the negative effects, namely, negative transfer, refer to the interference and obstruction of native language to SLA.
    [Show full text]
  • Question Formation in Québec* Martin Elsig and Shana Poplack 1
    Transplanted dialects and language change: question formation in Québec* Martin Elsig and Shana Poplack 1 Introduction Variability in question formation is a well-documented feature of French syntax. In yes/no questions, five distinct variant forms have been competing for centuries: inversion of (clitic) subject and verb (INV), as in (1), complex inversion (C-INV) (2), rising intonation (INT) (3), phrase-initial interroga- tive particle est-ce-que (ECQ) (4), and its post-verbal counterpart tu (TU) (5). (1) As-tu (INV) déjà parlé avec un vrai Français de France là? (XX.105.2768)1 ‘Have you ever spoken to a real Frenchman from France?’ (2) Et le roi est-il (C-INV) icitte? (XIX.036.3932) ‘And the king, is he here?’ (3) Ah, toi tu restes pas (INT) avec tes parents? (XX.112.1819) ‘Oh, you don’t live with your parents?’ (4) Mes bombes est-ce que (ECQ) je les largue ici? (XX.078.1502) ‘My bombs, do I throw them here?’ (5) Tu vas-tu (TU) être plus marié oubedonc moins marié? (XX.079.1471) ‘Are you gonna be more married or less married?’ Empirical studies of European varieties report that the variability illus- trated in (1-5) has resolved itself in favor of INT (3), with ECQ persisting as a minor contender. INV, once the quintessential interrogative marker, is now * The research reported here is part of a larger project entitled Confronting pre- scription and praxis in the evolution of grammar. We gratefully acknowledge the support of the Sonderforschungsbereich Mehrsprachigkeit to Elsig, and that of the SSHRC and the Killam Foundation to Poplack.
    [Show full text]
  • A Linguistic Perspective on the Acquisition of German As an L2
    i A Linguistic Perspective on the Acquisition of German as an L2 A thesis submitted to the Miami University Honors Program in partial fulfillment of the requirements for University Honors with Distinction by Nicholas D. Stoller (December 2006) Oxford, Ohio ii ABSTRACT A LINGUISTIC PERSPECTIVE ON THE ACQUISITION OF GERMAN AS AN L2 by Nicholas D. Stoller It is obvious that the setting of acquisition, the amount and type of input, and the motivation of learners play a large role in adult second language (L2) acquisition. Many of the theories of L2 acquisition unfortunately fail to adequately take these variables into account. This thesis gives an overview of the current and past theories, including evidence for and against each theory. This is supplemented by an error analysis of second year Miami University students to see if this can give support to any of the current theories. Once that is completed, I examine the relation between input and the possibility of a language learning device such as UG and then move on to pedagogical application of my findings. iii Contents Chapter Page 1 Introduction 1 2 2 The Basis of the Study of L2 Acquisition 2 3 Linguistic Theories of L2 Acquisition 7 3.1 Theories without UG 7 3.1.1 Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis 7 3.1.2 Markedness Difference Hypothesis 8 3.1.3 Fundamental Difference Hypothesis 9 3.1.4 Information Processing Approach 10 3.2 Theories with Partial UG 13 3.2.1 Transfer Hypothesis 13 3.2.2 Krashen’s Comprehension Hypothesis 14 3.3 Theories with Full UG use 19 3.3.1 Identity Hypothesis 19 3.3.2 Full Transfer/Full Access Hypothesis 20 3.4 Overview of the Theories 21 4 Error Analysis and Miami University 2nd 22 Year Students 4.1 Errors of Cases Following Verbs 23 4.2 Errors of Gender of Nouns 25 4.3 Errors of Verb Form 26 4.4 Errors of Umlaut Usage 29 5 Relation of UG and Input 30 6.1 Problems with Input in Classroom Instruction 33 6.2 Pedagogy and L2 Acquisition 35 7 Conclusion 40 Bibliography 42 iv 1 A Linguistic Perspective on the Acquisition of German as an L2 1.
    [Show full text]
  • A Literature Review on Code-Switching
    1 Code-switching as a Result of Language Acquisition: A Case Study of a 1.5 Generation Child from China1 Yalun Zhou, Ph.D.2 Michael Wei, Ph.D.3 Abstract Despite individual differences, all bilinguals share the ability to act in their native language, in their second language, and to switch back and forth between the two languages they know (Van Hell, 1998). Chinese is the largest Asian American ethnic group in the United States. Their use of code-switching is an increasingly important issue in understanding their language choice and language development. This study on code-switching between a 1.5 generation Chinese child and her parents will add perspectives on the growing literature of Chinese American families, their language interaction and language development. Introduction There are several definitions for code-switching. Gumperz (1982 b) defined code-switching as “the juxtaposition within the same speech exchange of passages of speech belonging to two different grammatical systems or subsystems” (p. 59). The emphasis is on the two grammatical systems of one language, although most people refer to code-switching as the mixed use of 1 This paper was presented at the 2007 Annual Conference of Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL), Seattle, Washington. 2 Yalun Zhou, Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Director of Chinese Minor Program, Dept. of Communication and Media, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, [email protected] 3 Michael Wei, Ph.D., Associate Professor, TESOL Program Director, School of Education, University of Missouri-Kansas City, [email protected] 2 languages. Milroy and Muysken (1995) stated that code-switching is “the alternative use by bilinguals of two or more languages in the same conversation” (p.7).
    [Show full text]
  • How Multilinguals Perceive Linguistic Interference
    Minnesota State University, Mankato Cornerstone: A Collection of Scholarly and Creative Works for Minnesota State University, Mankato All Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Other Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Other Capstone Projects Capstone Projects 2016 How Multilinguals Perceive Linguistic Interference Amanda Ruskin Minnesota State University Mankato Follow this and additional works at: https://cornerstone.lib.mnsu.edu/etds Part of the Bilingual, Multilingual, and Multicultural Education Commons Recommended Citation Ruskin, A. (2016). How Multilinguals Perceive Linguistic Interference [Master’s thesis, Minnesota State University, Mankato]. Cornerstone: A Collection of Scholarly and Creative Works for Minnesota State University, Mankato. https://cornerstone.lib.mnsu.edu/etds/609/ This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Other Capstone Projects at Cornerstone: A Collection of Scholarly and Creative Works for Minnesota State University, Mankato. It has been accepted for inclusion in All Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Other Capstone Projects by an authorized administrator of Cornerstone: A Collection of Scholarly and Creative Works for Minnesota State University, Mankato. 1 How Multilinguals Perceive Linguistic Interference By Amanda Ruskin A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of M.S. In French Minnesota State University, Mankato Mankato, Minnesota March 2016 2 March 31, 2016 How Multilinguals Perceive Linguistic Interference Amanda Ruskin This thesis has been examined and approved by the following members of the student’s committee. ________________________________ Dr. Evan Bibbee, Co-Chair ________________________________ Dr. Karen Lybeck, Co-Chair ________________________________ Dr. Gregory Taylor, Committee Member 3 ABSTRACT When someone begins a third (or nth) language they often struggle to inhibit previously learned languages, something that established multilinguals do without much difficulty.
    [Show full text]
  • The Critical Period in the Acquisition of L2 Syntax the Critical Period in the Acquisition of L2 Syntax: a Partial Replication of Johnson and Newport (1989)
    Teachers College, Columbia University Working Papers in TESOL & Applied Linguistics, 2005, Vol. 5, No. 2 The Critical Period in the Acquisition of L2 Syntax The Critical Period in the Acquisition of L2 Syntax: A Partial Replication of Johnson and Newport (1989) Heekyung Seol1 Teachers College, Columbia University ABSTRACT The present study was conducted as an attempt to partially replicate the Johnson and Newport (1989) study (JN89). Given that JN89 yielded the most clear-cut evidence demonstrating the presence of the Critical Period (CP) in the domain of L2 syntax, it has been regarded as one of the landmark CP investigations. This study sought to ascertain whether the evidence provided in JN89 is replicable with a different population of 34 Korean native speakers of English. The results, although not in complete agreement with those of JN89, provide some modest support for the existence of the CP. INTRODUCTION Since Lenneberg (1967) put forth the Critical Period Hypothesis that brain maturation constrains human language acquisition, the Critical Period (CP) has been an issue of primary attention in the field of both first language acquisition (FLA) and second language acquisition (SLA). In FLA, research has reached a general consensus as to the existence of the CP on the basis of the observations of abnormal linguistic contexts in which language learners were deprived of the chance to acquire their first language (L1) within the CP (e.g., Genie [Curtiss, 1977]; Chelsea [Curtiss, 1988]; and deaf children using American Sign Language (ASL) [Newport, 1984; Newport & Supalla, 1987]). Despite this consensus in FLA research, there is still plenty of controversy in the field of SLA.
    [Show full text]
  • Shana Poplack and Marjory Meechan 1 Introduction
    10 PATTERNS OF LANGUAGE MIXTURE: NOMINAL STRUCTURE IN WOLOF-FRENCH AND FONGBE• FRENCH BILINGUAL DISCOURSE Shana Poplack and Marjory Meechan 1 Introduction A primary goal of any study of language mixture is to determine the properties of the internal grammars of bilinguals. Specifically, what grammar is utilised at the point where languages meet? Do speakers operate with a single base grammar which is on occasion overlaid with lexical items from another language or are different grammars activated at different times? If the latter is the case, what structural principles govern their juxtaposition? In this chapter, we demonstrate how the variationist method yields straightforward answers to these questions and further, assert that it is the only method which can irrefutably do so. Empirical studies of bilingual performance data have revealed that the utter• ance-internal combination of elements from more than one grammar may surface in a number of different forms, some of which are illustrated in (I), where French• origin items (italicised) alternate with Wolof items. (I) amoon naa fi nak benn copine koo xam ni daf ma have+PAST I LOC CON] IND friend that+you know that she me attacherwoon debut d' annee mais sarna idees yooyoo attach+PAST beginning of year but POSS ideas DEM tax ba leegi mu jappantewoon ak man, c'est que moom cause that now she dispute+past with me it's that she feministe la quoi ta man je defendais des idees yoo feminist it's what so me I defend+PAST IND ideas that+you xamenta ni g;}m mu ma ko sax.
    [Show full text]
  • (Romanian) on L2/L3 Learning (Catalan/Spanish) Simona Popa
    Nom/Logotip de la Universitat on s’ha llegit la tesi Language transfer in second language acquisition. Some effects of L1 instruction (Romanian) on L2/L3 learning (Catalan/Spanish) Simona Popa http://hdl.handle.net/10803/380548 ADVERTIMENT. L'accés als continguts d'aquesta tesi doctoral i la seva utilització ha de respectar els drets de la persona autora. Pot ser utilitzada per a consulta o estudi personal, així com en activitats o materials d'investigació i docència en els termes establerts a l'art. 32 del Text Refós de la Llei de Propietat Intel·lectual (RDL 1/1996). Per altres utilitzacions es requereix l'autorització prèvia i expressa de la persona autora. En qualsevol cas, en la utilització dels seus continguts caldrà indicar de forma clara el nom i cognoms de la persona autora i el títol de la tesi doctoral. No s'autoritza la seva reproducció o altres formes d'explotació efectuades amb finalitats de lucre ni la seva comunicació pública des d'un lloc aliè al servei TDX. Tampoc s'autoritza la presentació del seu contingut en una finestra o marc aliè a TDX (framing). Aquesta reserva de drets afecta tant als continguts de la tesi com als seus resums i índexs. ADVERTENCIA. El acceso a los contenidos de esta tesis doctoral y su utilización debe respetar los derechos de la persona autora. Puede ser utilizada para consulta o estudio personal, así como en actividades o materiales de investigación y docencia en los términos establecidos en el art. 32 del Texto Refundido de la Ley de Propiedad Intelectual (RDL 1/1996).
    [Show full text]
  • Code-Switching and Translanguaging Inside and Outside the Classroom: Bi-/Multilingual Practices of High School Learners in a Rural Afrikaans-Setting
    Code-switching and translanguaging inside and outside the classroom: bi-/multilingual practices of high school learners in a rural Afrikaans-setting by Stuart Strauss Thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree MA in Second Language Studies at the University of Stellenbosch Supervisor: Dr Kate Huddlestone Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences Department of General Linguistics December 2016 Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za DECLARATION By submitting this thesis electronically, I declare that the entirety of the work contained therein is my original work, that I am the sole author thereof (save to the extent explicitly otherwise stated), that reproduction and publication thereof by Stellenbosch University will not infringe any third party rights and that I have not previously, in its entirety or in part, submitted it for obtaining any qualification. December 2016 Copyright © 2016 Stellenbosch University All rights reserved i Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za ABSTRACT The dominance of Afrikaans as medium of communication in the rural town of Upington in the Northern Cape, South Africa, is reflected in the day-to-day communication practices by the vast majority of its inhabitants. Confirmation of this statement is revealed in the fact that all formal educational practices in Upington and surrounding areas use Afrikaans as language of learning and teaching, both during classes and during extra-mural activities provided for by the institution itself. However, it is when those learning and teaching at these schools and colleges engage with English as a first additional language, that the opportunities for cross-language transfer, especially in the forms of code-switching and translanguaging, usually arise.
    [Show full text]
  • (L2) on Learning of Arabic Literacy (L1) in the Primary School
    International Education Studies; Vol. 7, No. 3; 2014 ISSN 1913-9020 E-ISSN 1913-9039 Published by Canadian Center of Science and Education The Effect of Learning English (L2) on Learning of Arabic Literacy (L1) in the Primary School Abdelaziz M. Hussien1 1 Department of Curriculum & Instruction, Faculty of Education, Suez Canal University, Ismailia, Egypt Correspondence: Abdelaziz M. Hussien, Department of Curriculum & Instruction, Faculty of Education, Suez Canal University, Ismailia, Egypt. E-mail: [email protected] Received: January 7, 2014 Accepted: February 8, 2014 Online Published: February 25, 2014 doi:10.5539/ies.v7n3p88 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/ies.v7n3p88 Abstract This study investigated the effect of learning English (L2) on learning to read and spell connected texts accurately in Arabic (L1). The author selected a sample of 83 (38 males and 45 females; 45 bilinguals and 38 monolinguals) native Arabic-speaking fourth-graders in Egypt. Students completed the author-developed Oral Reading Accuracy Measure and Spelling Accuracy Measure. Interestingly, results revealed that the bilingual (Arabic-English) students performed better than their monolingual (Arabic) counterparts on the two literacy variables: oral reading accuracy (ORA) and spelling accuracy (SA). The discussion concludes that learning English (L2) has a positive effect on students’ oral reading accuracy and spelling accuracy in Arabic (L1). Keywords: multi-competence, bilingual education, Arabic literacy, oral reading accuracy, spelling accuracy 1. Introduction Learning a second language is an indispensible aspect of the present life and thus, becomes a prevailing focus of many education systems worldwide. The bilingual education, the context of the current study, raises key questions that address bidirectional influences between two languages: the first language (L1) and the second language (L2).
    [Show full text]
  • Language Transfer and Universal Grammatical Relations
    LANGUAGE TRANSFER AND UNIVERSAL GRAMMATICAL RELATIONS Susan Gas’ The University of Michigan It is generally accepted by both theoreticians and language teachers that when attempting to communicate in a second lan- guage, learners often “transfer” elements of their native larguage onto the speech patterns of the target language. Despite the wide recognition of this phenomenon and the iniportant role it has had in language learning and pedagogical march, its true nature has not been adequately established. In oder to better determine the nature of language transfer, a study investigating the acquisi- tion of relative clauses by adult second language learners was con- ducted. The purposes of ths study were to determine what language transfer consists of, what language phenomena are and are not transferred, what constitutes evidence for the existence of transfer and what the role in language transfer of language uni- versals is. It was found that an adequate description of language transfer cannot be given without a consideration of target lan- guage facts and language universals. On the basis of these results a model of language transfer is proposed that predicts under which conditions transfer is most likely to occur. The niodel sug- gested herein includes notions of language universals, language distance and surface language phenomena. 1. Introduction It is generally recognized by both theoreticians and language teachers that when attempting to communicate in a second lan- guage, second language learners often “transfer” elements of their native language (NL) onto the speech patterns of the target lan- guage (TL). Despite the wide &cognition of this phenomenon and the important role it has had in language learning and pedagogical research, its true nature has not been adequately established.
    [Show full text]
  • Source Language of Lexical Transfer in Multilingual Learners Interesting, As the Number of Potential Sources Increases with the Number of Languages a Person Knows
    Transfer refers to the influence of one language on another resulting Hannah Neuser from the presence of multiple languages in the mind. It is such an Source Language of Lexical all-pervasive phenomenon that every bi- or multilingual speaker and Transfer in Multilingual Learners language learner will have experienced it, whether they are aware of it or not. In language production, the phenomenon is especially A Mixed Methods Approach prominent at early stages of acquisition, with learners producing utterances such as “The boy lost his frosh” (from German “Frosch”, Hannah Neuser meaning frog). In the case of multilinguals, transfer is particularly in Multilingual Learners Transfer of Lexical Source Language interesting, as the number of potential sources increases with the number of languages a person knows. This thesis explores how, when, and why one language is chosen over another as source for transfer of lexical items. A number of different factors are considered and a mixed-methods approach is used in order to best serve the particularities of each of the factors under investigation. Research on transfer and its underlying mechanisms engages with questions of how languages are organised in the multilingual mind, how we access them, and how prior knowledge affects the acquisition of a new language. The present thesis aims to contribute to this line of enquiry. Hannah Neuser holds a degree in English linguistics from UCL (UK). Her main research interests are multilingual language learning and crosslinguistic influence in the acquisition of English. She likes travelling and discovering new cultures. ISBN 978-91-7649-795-1 Department of English Doctoral Thesis in English at Stockholm University, Sweden 2017 !"#$%& %'($$ ) &* * +%$( , ( - *.
    [Show full text]