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Reproductionreview REPRODUCTIONREVIEW Focus on TGF-b Signalling The structural basis of TGF-b, bone morphogenetic protein, and activin ligand binding S Jack Lin1, Thomas F Lerch2, Robert W Cook1, Theodore S Jardetzky2 and Teresa K Woodruff1,3 1Department of Neurobiology and Physiology, 2Department of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology and Cell Biology, 3Department of Medicine, Northwestern University, 2205 Tech Drive, Evanston, IL 60208, USA Correspondence should be addressed to T K Woodruff; Email: [email protected] Abstract The transforming growth factor-b (TGF-b) superfamily is a large group of structurally related growth factors that play prominent roles in a variety of cellular processes. The importance and prevalence of TGF-b signaling are also reflected by the complex network of check points that exist along the signaling pathway, including a number of extracellular antagonists and membrane- level signaling modulators. Recently, a number of important TGF-b crystal structures have emerged and given us an unprecedented clarity on several aspects of the signal transduction process. This review will highlight these latest advances and present our current understanding on the mechanisms of specificity and regulation on TGF-b signaling outside the cell. Reproduction (2006) 132 179–190 Introduction expressed in tissue-specific patterns and can function in an endocrine, paracrine, and autocrine manner. The transforming growth factor-b (TGF-b) superfamily is Receptor specificity, tissue distribution, and expression a large group of structurally related ligands that regulate levels may all affect the resultant cellular responses. a variety of cellular processes, including cell-cycle Cellular responses to most TGF-b ligands are progression, cell differentiation, reproductive function, transduced through interactions with two single mem- development, motility, adhesion, neuronal growth, bone brane-spanning serine–threonine kinase receptors, morphogenesis, wound healing, and immune surveil- lance (reviewed in Kingsley 1994, Hogan 1996, called type I and type II receptors (Derynck 1994). Massague 2000, Attisano & Wrana 2002, Chang et al. Type I and type II receptors are glycoproteins of 2002). The evolutionary significance of the family is approximately 55 and 70 kDa respectively, which highlighted by the conserved nature of the ligands across interact upon ligand binding. One unique feature of all species. TGF-b orthologs are found from Caenorhabditis type I receptors is the presence of a highly conserved elegans through humans with equally conserved cell- TTSGSGSG motif in their cytoplasmic region, termed the surface receptors and signaling co-receptors. In mam- GS domain, which plays a key role in regulating type I mals, the TGF-b superfamily can be further divided into receptor kinase activity. The first identified receptor in three major subfamilies: TGF-b, activin/inhibin/nodal, the superfamily was the activin type II receptor (ActRII; and bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) (Dennler et al. Mathews & Vale 1991). Shortly later, a large class of 2002, Shi & Massague 2003). Each subfamily is serine–threonine receptors has been identified, with composed of several isoforms that are associated with structural characteristics similar to the activin receptor. similar but non-overlapping physiological functions. To date, four other mammalian type II receptors have Ligand members of the TGF-b superfamily consist of been identified: ActRIIB (Attisano et al. 1992), AMHR-II both homodimers and heterodimers, containing an (Baarends et al. 1994, di Clemente et al. 1994), TbRII ordered set of seven cysteine residues. Six cysteine (Lin et al. 1992), and BMPRII (Kawabata et al. 1995, Liu residues form three intrasubunit disulfide bonds import- et al. 1995, Nohno et al. 1995, Rosenzweig et al. 1995). ant for structural integrity, whereas the remaining In addition, seven type I receptors termed activin cysteine residues form a disulfide bond with the other receptor-like kinase (ALK)-1 to ALK-7 have also been subunit to stabilize the dimer interface. Ligands are cloned (Franzen et al. 1993, ten Dijke et al. 1993, 1994, q 2006 Society for Reproduction and Fertility DOI: 10.1530/rep.1.01072 ISSN 1470–1626 (paper) 1741–7899 (online) Online version via www.reproduction-online.org Downloaded from Bioscientifica.com at 09/27/2021 08:17:52PM via free access 180 S J Lin and others Tsuchida et al. 1993, 1996, Yamaji et al. 1994). Finger 4 Nonetheless, receptors within type I and type II classes Finger 3 differ in affinity and specificity, and may be expressed differentially to allow triggering of different components C-term Finger 2 of the intracellular-signaling cascade. A major area of Finger 1 Wrist helix investigation is the structural basis of ligand–receptor interaction and cellular signaling. A TGF-b ligand initiates signaling by binding to and N-term bringing together type I and type II receptors on the cell surface to form a ternary holo-complex (Wells et al. Concave surface Fingertip 1999, Gilboa et al. 2000). The assembly dynamics Wrist helix leading to the holo-complex may differ between ligands. Some members of the BMP subfamily, the largest within Convex surface Knuckle the TGF-b ligands, can bind to either type I or type II Pre-helix loop receptor to stimulate the formation of holo-complex. Other TGF-b members, including TGF-b and activin, Figure 1 The TGF-b fold. A typical TGF-b monometer consists a must bind to type II receptors, before type I receptors are cysteine knot motif with two pairs of antiparallel b-strands (fingers) recruited. Once the holo-complex is formed, the extending from an a-helix (‘wrist’ region). The b-strands are curved to form both a concave and convex surface for receptor interaction. constitutively active kinase domain from the type II receptor transphosphorylates the GS domain of type I Grutter 1992, Fig. 1). The general structure of the receptor, which in turn phosphorylates a number of monomeric TGF-b ligand involves two pairs of antiparallel intracellular mediator proteins known as Smads. There b-strands forming a flattened surface, projecting away from are eight distinct Smad proteins, constituting three alonga-helix. Interestingly, one of the disulfide bonds of functional classes: the receptor-regulated Smad the core traverses through a ring formed by two other (R-Smad), the co-mediator Smad (co-Smad), and the disulfide bonds generating what has been termed a inhibitory Smad (I-Smad) (Massague et al. 2005). ‘cysteine knot’ motif. The monomer has been described R-Smads (Smad1, Smad5, and Smad8 for BMP; and as a four-digit hand, with each b-strand being likened to a Smad2 and Smad3 for other TGF-b ligands) are directly finger. At the N terminus, fingers 1 and 2 are antiparallel, phosphorylated and activated by type I receptor kinases. These R-Smads then undergo homotrimerization and with finger 2 leading to a general helix ‘wrist’ region, form heterometric complexes with the co-Smad, Smad4. followed by antiparallel fingers 3 and 4 and the C terminus. b The activated Smad complexes are translocated into the Since then, the structures of several other TGF- ligands nucleus and, in conjunction with other nuclear co- have been elucidated, including TGF-b1 (Hinck et al. factors, regulate the transcription of target genes. The 1996), TGF-b3 (Mittl et al. 1996, Hart et al. 2002), BMP-2 I-Smads, Smad6 and Smad7, negatively regulate TGF-b (Scheufler et al. 1999, Kirsch et al. 2000b, Allendorph et al. signaling by competing with R-Smads for receptor or 2006), BMP-7 (Griffith et al. 1996, Greenwald et al. 2003), co-Smad interaction and by targeting the receptors for BMP-9 (Brown et al. 2005), GDF-5 (Nickel et al. 2005, degradation. A number of additional intracellular Schreuder et al. 2005), and activin (Thompson et al. 2003, proteins regulate multiple steps within the intracellular 2005, Greenwald et al. 2004, Harrington et al. 2006), signal transduction pathway. further confirming the identity of the TGF-b fold. Recently, a number of important TGF-b structures The active form of TGF-b is a dimer stabilized by have been solved and have significantly advanced our hydrophobic interactions and usually further strength- understanding on the mechanism of specificity and ened by an intersubunit disulfide bridge. Notable regulation within the TGF-b-signaling cascade. In exceptions are BMP-15 and GDF-9, two structurally addition, a number of biochemical studies utilizing similar growth factors implicated in both oocyte matu- site-directed mutagenesis and domain-swap experi- ration and follicular development (Shimasaki et al. 2004). ments have also delineated the role of specific amino These two ligands lack the cysteine, normally used to acid residues in the structure-function dependencies for form the intersubunit disulfide bridge and may form as many of these TGF-b ligands and how they interact with non-covalent homodimers or heterodimers with each their receptors. In this review, we will focus on the other. Activin, inhibin, and a few BMP subunits have also structural data pertaining to TGF-b signaling and been shown to form heterodimers. In fact, accumulating regulation at the extracellular and cell-surface level. evidence suggests that several heterodimers, such as BMP-2/7 (Nishimatsu & Thomsen 1998) and BMP-4/7 (Aono et al. 1995, Suzuki et al. 1997) have more potent b Structure of TGF- superfamily ligands and receptors biological activity than the corresponding homodimers In 1992, the crystal structure of TGF-b2 revealed a (Israel et al. 1996, Shimmi et al. 2005). Activin AB, a unique protein fold (Daopin et al. 1992, Schlunegger & heterodimer of activin bA- and bB-subunits, has been Reproduction (2006) 132 179–190 www.reproduction-online.org Downloaded from Bioscientifica.com at 09/27/2021 08:17:52PM via free access Structural basis of TGF-b, BMP and activin ligand binding 181 shown to signal through ALK7 in addition to ALK4, which its receptors and may be mimicked in related ligands such is the type I receptor shared by all activin isoforms as activin.
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