THE UNIVERSITY OF HULL New Lives in the Ancestral Homeland: Return migration from South America to mainland Japan and Okinawa being a Thesis submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the University of Hull by Naoko Horikawa MSc January 2012 New Lives in the Ancestral Homeland: Return migration from South America to mainland Japan and Okinawa Naoko Horikawa MSc January 2012 Thesis Abstract This work presents a study of identity formation in migrants of Japanese and Okinawan descent who relocate from countries of South America to mainland Japan and to the island prefecture of Okinawa, initially to seek economic advantage. The migrants, called Nikkeijin, are predominantly progeny of earlier migrants from Japan to South America. In a cross-generational sense, they are return migrants. The ethnographic study, based on field research conducted in two sites on the mainland and in Okinawa, compares Nikkeijin experience and attitudes as they interact with native Japanese. Because of their Japanese background, Nikkeijin benefit from privileged visa status; nonetheless, in Japan they are treated as foreigners, and their identity diversifies. Nikkeijin are found to construct simultaneous social fields in both the country of departure and the new environment. This situation may be recognized through the concept of transnationalism. I argue that Nikkeijin self-identity can be multiple and flexible, and does not necessarily coincide with social identity. An increasing and officially promoted diasporic consciousness among migrants of Okinawan descent would seem to produce a different ethnic response to any on the mainland and a greater potential for integration. My thesis should contribute to the understanding of identity in Nikkeijin return migration. Acknowledgements I am indebted to many individuals in the completion of this thesis. First of all, I must thank Dr Mark Johnson at the Department of Social Sciences, University of Hull, who has been more than generous in his time and academic skills. It is through his attention that I have been able to develop my academic knowledge and properly analyze my materials. I am grateful to Dr. Meike Fechter at the University of Sussex and to Judith Okely, Emeritus Professor at the University of Hull, for the inspiration from their work. During field research in Japan, I met many to whom I owe gratitude. Emeritus Professor Ishikawa at Ryukyu University was responsible for supplying material on Okinawan migration history. I value the guidance of Assistant Professor Kumada at Okinawa Prefectural University of Arts and that of Professor Takasaka at Konan University. My informants have made this work possible. Special thanks are extended to Shigeru Saito in Oizumi, to Marta in Tsurumi, and to Tomoko Endo and Shinichi Maehara in Okinawa for introducing me to other informants. Anni, Megumi, Siti, Tomoko and Minae, thank you for your moral support and discussion. My sisters in Japan were there for me when my father passed away during the early stage of this project. Thanks go to Maria and Sue for correcting my awkward English. Also to Brian, my partner: I am deeply appreciative of his energies in helping transfer ideas to solid expression, and for patiently editing the draft of my thesis. Any errors that remain are entirely my own. List of maps Map 1 Research sites in Japan 21 Map 2 Kanagawa Prefecture 176 Map 3 Yokohama by wards 176 Map 4 Okinawa Island 206 List of tables Table 1 Nikkeijin living in South America 1997 65 Table 2 Migrants from Okinawa living abroad 73 Table 3 Foreigners registered in Japan by nationality 107 Table 4 Legally registered foreigners in Okinawa 207 Table 5 Classifications from Japanese to non-Japanese 261 Contents List of maps and tables Abstract Acknowledgements Introduction 1 Subject matter 2 Research questions and methodology 6 Fieldwork in detail 8 Ethnography 11 Interviews 12 Accessing interviewees 14 Positionality 16 Structure 18 Translation 20 Note 21 Chapter One – Theoretical considerations 22 Introduction 22 1.1 Migration 22 Economic theory 24 The historical-structural approach 25 Migration systems theory 26 Macro-, micro-, and mesostructures 27 1.2 Transnationalism and transmigration 30 Circumspection 33 A personal view 36 1.3 Literature on Nikkeijin 38 1. Person-centred ethnography 39 Transnational scenes 41 National character and human warmth 42 ‘The identity path’ 43 Transnationalism from the person-centred approach 44 A personal view 45 A Linger postscript 47 2. Analytical ethnography 47 Types of Nikkeijin 48 Transnational communities 49 Issues of identity and ethnicity 51 i 3. The socio-economic historical approach 52 Dekasegi Nikkeijin 54 Nikkeijin ethnicity 55 ‘Japaneseness’ 57 4. The literature summarized 57 5. Literature on Okinawan migrants 59 Chapter Two – Japanese migration to South America 62 Introduction 62 2.1 Imin 63 2.2 Issei, nisei, sansei, yonsei, gosei… 64 Populations 65 2.3 Japanese migration in the modern period 66 Regional characteristics of migrants 68 2.4 Migration from Okinawa before the Second World War 69 2.5 Migration from Okinawa after the Second World War 71 Reasons for emigration 73 2.6 South America as destination 74 1. Argentina 75 2. Bolivia 78 3. Brazil 81 Okinawan migrants to Brazil 84 Intermarriage in Brazil 86 4. Peru 87 Okinawan migrants to Peru 88 Identity within the generations 89 Peruvian or not? 90 Intermarriage in Peru 92 Concluding remarks 92 Notes 96 Chapter Three – Nikkeijin in Japan 97 Introduction 97 3.1 The discourse of Nikkeijin 99 Defining Nikkeijin 99 Self-definition of Japanese migrants in host countries 100 From Nikkei colono to Nikkeijin 102 3.2 Nikkeijin in Japan from the 1980s 103 The discourse of dekasegi 103 3.3 Nikkeijin and foreign workers in Japan 106 ‘Oldcomers’ 108 ‘Newcomers’ 109 ii Categories of foreign workers 109 The framework of the trainee system and shugakusei 110 3.4 Changing the status by law 111 The impact of the 1990 Revision of the Immigration Control Act 111 3.5 Settlement patterns of Nikkeijin 114 Sojourner to settler? 114 Forming a Nikkeijin community in Japan 115 3.6 Perception of Nikkeijin by Japanese society 115 National policy 115 Local government level 116 Chiiki kyosei 117 Education 117 Social security 117 Alien registration 118 Local residents level 119 3.7 Nikkeijin of Okinawan descent 120 Concluding remarks 121 Notes 123 Chapter Four – Nikkeijin in Oizumi 124 Introduction 124 4.1 Oizumi town 127 Location and population 127 The changing industrial structure of Oizumi 128 Foreign workers in Oizumi 129 Increasing the Nikkeijin population 130 Local government policy 131 4.2 Local perceptions of Nikkeijin 135 On the future 141 4.3 Self-identity 142 Lives of Nikkeijin in Oizumi 143 Forming Brazilian cultural space 144 A sports centre owned by Nikkeijin 147 A karaoke bar owned by Nikkeijin 148 Two Brazilian schools 149 At a religious service 151 Presentation of the samba parade 153 How Nikkeijin talked about local residents 156 A sense of discrimination 158 How Nikkeijin talked about themselves 159 I think I am half-Japanese and half-Brazilian 159 I am Brazilian 161 Brazilian means Nikkeijin 162 iii Nikkeijin is neither Brazilian nor Japanese 163 I want to be Japanese 163 Summary 165 4.4 A reflection of Okinawan ethnic identity 167 Brazilian first, Okinawan second, Japanese third 168 Half-Brazilian, half-Japanese, not Okinawan 168 Brazilian 169 Japanese 169 Concluding remarks 170 Postscript 171 Notes 173 Chapter Five – Nikkeijin in Tsurumi ward, Yokohama 174 Introduction 174 5.1 Tsurumi ward 175 Location and population 175 Internal migration: Okinawa to mainland Japan 177 5.2 Okinawan community and Latin American colour 181 Recruiting Okinawan Nikkeijin from Brazil 181 5.3 Local perceptions of Nikkeijin 182 5.4 Self-identity 185 I am Okinawan in Argentina and in Japan 185 I am always Argentinian 186 I am Brazilian in Japan 188 I am Nikkeijin, neither Japanese nor Brazilian 190 I am Nikkei Braziljin 192 Fujisawa city 195 Relations with Okinawa 196 The concept of ‘home’ 199 Concluding remarks 201 Notes 203 Chapter Six – Okinawan Nikkeijin in Okinawa 204 Introduction 204 6.1 Okinawa 206 Location and population 206 Employment 207 6.2 Okinawan government policy towards Nikkeijin 208 Worldwide Uchinanchu Festival 2001 209 Official expectations 210 Involvement of the young 211 Welcoming parties as municipal events 211 iv 6.3 Local perceptions of Nikkeijin 213 6.4 Nikkeijin and Okinawa 214 1. Ethnic restaurants and bars in Okinawa 215 A Brazilian restaurant and Latin bars in Naha city 215 A Latin American restaurant in Nishihara town 216 Brazilian bars in Okinawa city 218 2. Reasons for return to Okinawa 219 As a family decision 219 From an experience in youth 220 For keeping Totome 221 Music 222 6.5 Ethnic minority status and self-identity in the host country 224 Ethnic minority status in Argentina 224 Ethnic minority status in Peru 227 ‘Otro japonés’ or the other Japanese 227 6.6 The diversified self-identity 229 Experiences of discrimination 230 Diversified self-identity in Okinawa 233 I am Peruvian 233 I am Brazilian 234 I am an Argentinian who speaks Japanese 235 I am half-Japanese and half-Peruvian 237 I am Japanese while being Argentinian 238 My identity is ambiguous 240 My identity changes according to time and place 242 Okinawan consciousness 244 6.7 What ‘homeland’ means to Okinawan Nikkeijin 248 Concluding remarks 251 Chapter Seven – Nikkeijin identity, transnationalism, and diaspora in mainland Japan and Okinawa 255 Introduction 255 7.1 How Nikkeijin identify themselves