Appendix 1 The Influence of Bushido: Why Japanese officers drove PoWs to work unreasonably hard

Bushido, developed in feudal , still had a strong influence on Japanese officers during World War II. Bushido demanded absolute loyalty and exacted the penalty of suicide (by self-immolation or disembowelment) for a dishonourable result. All the railway officers realised how important the Burma–Thailand Railway was for the survival of the Japanese army in Burma. So they knew if the completion of the railway were delayed and put the Burma army in danger, their regimental commander was sure to commit suicide for the dishonour, and the officer who did not do his part on time and caused the delay should also commit suicide, according to Bushido. This is the main factor which drove the officers to force PoWs to complete the daily quota of their work by all means, as the daily quota was based on the minimum required to complete the railway on time. Thus PoWs were forced to work over the standard work time even in miserable conditions. In the Japanese army, orders are seen as absolute. Lower-ranking officers were not allowed to refuse the order to attack an enemy position. However the orders on engineering projects were flexible because of the nature of the work. The officer who did not complete the work on time might be demoted or at worst fired, never put to death. As an example, the railway commanders did not accept the order to bring forward the completion of the Burma–Thailand Railway by two months, though this could cause demerit in their career. The Japanese soldiers also understood the spirit of Bushido and co-operated with their officers in the construction work. Bushido in its origin was based on Buddhism. However from the era Buddhism gradually lost its influence on the Japanese people, though they were registered as the flock of a Buddhist temple just for the sake of their funeral service. This had worsened the default of Bushido, as seen in the treatment of PoWs. During the war with Russia (1904–5), Japanese army had about eight war Buddhist priests in a . However in World War II, there was no religious position in the Japanese army which was comparable to the pastors (chaplains) in British or American armies. Thus teachings of Buddhism such as benevo- lence to the weak or the vanquished were being lost from the practice of Bushido. Japan had been renowned for the good treatment of PoWs until . What caused the change was the declining influence of Buddhism on the Japanese people, together with the notorious army instruction of 1941, ‘Die rather than be captured’, which caused contempt towards PoWs among the Japanese.

273 274 Appendix 1

There was another side to the overtime work. PoWs tried to do as little work as possible, as they also realised the importance of the railway to Japan. In accord- ance with the code of soldiers when they were captured, they were unwilling to work on the construction which was beneficial to enemy. However this resulted in the unsatisfactory progress of the task for which Japanese officers forced them to do overtime work. PoWs tried bravely and patiently to resist the Japanese despite the torture of being forced to do hard overtime work. The following extract is from Bushido by Nitobe Inazo, a well-known educator/ scholar/internationalist who later served as Under-Secretary General of the League of Nations. The book was written in English and published in 1900 by the Leeds & Biddle Co., Philadelphia, USA.

Bu-shi-do means literally Military-Knight-Ways – the way that fighting nobles should observe in their daily life as well as in their vocation; in a word ‘Precept of Knighthood,’ or the noblesse oblige of the warrior class. It was an organic growth of decades and centuries of military career. It, perhaps, fills the same position in the history of ethics that the English Con- stitution does in political history. Buddhism furnished a sense of calm trust in Fate, a quiet submission to the inevitable, the stoic composure in sight of danger or calamity, that disdain of life and friendliness with death. Such loyalty to the sovereign, such reverence for ancestral memory, and such filial piety as are not taught by any other creed, were inculcated by the Shinto doctrines, imparting passivity to the otherwise arrogant character of the Samurai. The high estimate placed upon honour was ample excuse with many for taking one’s own life. How many acquiesced in the sentiment expressed by Garth, ‘When honour is lost, it’s a relief to die; Death’s but a sure retreat from infamy,’ The physical endurance, fortitude, and bravery that ‘the little Jap’ possesses, were sufficiently proved in the Chino–Japanese war. ‘Is there any nation more loyal and patriotic?’ is a question asked by many; and for the proud answer, ‘There is not,’ we must thank the Precept of Knighthood.

On the other hand, it is fair to recognise that for the very faults and defects of our character, Bushido is largely responsible. Unformulated, Bushido is still the animating spirit, the motor force of our country. Appendix 2 Treatment of Japanese Surrendered Personnel (JSP)

The Japanese army and navy had never experienced national surrender, hence they had little idea what its outcome would be. They initially felt relieved to be made JSP rather than dishonourable and shameful prisoners of war (PoWs). This system was convenient and economical for the South East Asia Command, consisting mostly of British forces, in controlling the large number of surren- dered Japanese soldiers and civilians – 783,000 men in Southeast Asia. Though Japan had not ratified the Geneva Convention of 1929, the Japanese should have been treated as PoWs under the Hague Regulations of 1907, and should have had the basic human rights conferred upon PoWs. In Europe, German troops had been treated as ‘surrendered enemy personnel’ (SEP), who were similar to JSP. But the situation was different, as the German capitulation was both political, involving the dissolution of the government, and military, whereas the Japanese capitulation was only military. Moreover, disarmed Japanese were permitted to return to their homes under the Potsdam Proclamation, dated 28 July, issued by USA, Great Britain and China. The disadvantages of having been JSP compared with the privilege of PoWs were as follows:

1. The JSP camps were located mostly in jungles or remote areas where there were no water and electricity services. The inadequate facilities were responsible for ruining the health of the Japanese. The occurrence of infectious diseases such as malaria, tuberculosis and amoebic dysentery was 21 per cent among JSP, double that in the Japanese army during the war. The death toll of JSP was more than 8,931. A total of 141,500 JSP were sent to the barren Rempang Island and about 60,000 of them were in a critical condition due to starvation as food was not sent to them in the initial two months. 2. JSP were fed 1,600 calories per day despite being forced to do hard work, whereas the British field ration was 3,300 calories (the amount which should have been fed to PoWs), and that of the Japanese army had been 3,600 calories. 3. JSP were forced to do unhealthy and dangerous work. At first many JSP worked without any time off. 4. Officers received no pay and other ranks, although compelled to do hard work, received no pay either, until May 1947. After that date, a token wage was paid in Japan. 5. JSP were rearmed and most were put on peace-keeping duties, mainly sup- pressing the independence activities of the local people. Approximately 167 JSPs died in combat in Indo-China, 627 in Java and 244 in while on peace-keeping duties.

275 276 Appendix 2

6. JSP had their personal property impounded without any receipt being given. Their money was also impounded. 7. No clothing and daily necessaries were given to JSP until May 1946. 8. Though JSP were promised an early return to Japan under the Potsdam Proclam- ation, 106,000 men were retained as working parties after June 1946, to carry out miscellaneous hard labour tasks. They were sent home by December 1947.

The Japanese felt that they were confined as JSP for the sake of revenge and as punishment for what they had done to Allied PoWs during the war. Japanese soldiers who surrendered to US armed forces by 1 September 1945, by contrast, were treated as PoWs and were repatriated earlier than the JSP under British control.

References This appendix and the references given below were based on the survey carried out by the JSP Research Group, . Yoshito Kita, ‘Koufuku-tekikokugunjin no Houteki-ichi wo meguru Shomondai’ (‘Problems concerning the legal status of Surrendered Enemy Personnel’) in Buryoku Funnsou no Kokusaihou (International Law in Armed Conflict) (Toshindo, Tokyo, 2004). Sadao Oba (ex-JSP), ‘JSP wo tsuikyu site’ (‘Investing in JSP’), in Yu Yu, no.11, (Kigyou OB Pen Club, Tokyo, 2004). Index

NB Asian place-names have been given in the English form used during the Second World War, with modern forms in brackets where appropriate. Illustrations are indexed in italic type. aerial attacks, 11, 12, 24, 49, 66, 77, 111, 112, 120, 132, 136, 191, 195–6, 200, 201, 202, 138–9, 151, 155, 156, 222 209, 213, 216, 217, 219, 226, administration of, 139 268 efficiency, 139 see also bombers numbers of, 9, 17n6, 142 aerial reconnaissance, 12, 77 recruitment of, 161 air raids see aerial attacks Assam–Bengal Railway, 18, 200 Aleutian islands, 73 atomic bombs, 227 Allied forces, 12, 13, 14, 172 airborne, 177, 184, 189, 200, Ban Kao, Thailand, 138, 241 206, 227 Ban Pong, Thailand, 63, 77, 79, aircraft, 177: see also aerial 91, 129 attacks; aerial Bangkok, 6, 7, 11, 49, 61, 131, reconnaissance; bombers 157, 238 bombardment by, 74, 89, Bangan jail, 238–9, 240, 241, 175–6, 186, 202, 268: see 243, 254 also aerial attacks railway line to , 220 bombers Banno, Lt-Colonel Hiroki, 128, Chindits, 177–81 131, 162 field rations, 235, 240 barracks, construction of, after Japanese surrender, 221, 114, 115 231, 238, 239, 240, 248, 254 Bassankaru incident, 232 as PoWs see under prisoners of Bassein, Burma, 76 war Batu Pahat, Malaya, 233, 236 South East Asia Command, 275 Bay of Bengal, 7 women in, 176 beriberi deficiency disease, 31, see also aerial attacks; aerial 108, 167, 169, 224 reconnaissance; British XIV Bilauk Taung mountains, Army Thai–Burma border, 10, 61 Anakuin, Burma, 221 Birmingham, UK, 153 anti-aircraft guns, 186, 191, 209 bomb disposal, 174–5 see also machine-guns bombers, 202, 205, 209 Antung (Andong) railway, xii, 1 B24s, 11, 228 Aomura, Colonel Tsunejiro 3 B25s, 66, 175–6, 186, 202 Aparon, Burma, 125, 238 Mosquitos, 221 armoured trains, 2 Bossard, Dr Leon, 170–1 Asian local workers (coolies, , 1900, 1 roumusha), xii–xiii, 9, 14, 63, Brankassi, Thailand, 155

277 278 Index bridges Prison, Singapore xiii, railway see railway bridges 236, 240–4, 252, 254, 255, road, 65, 132 257 British XIV Army, 226 Buddhist chaplain, 260–5 air supply of, 226–7 dinner for condemned Commonwealth troops in, prisoners, 256, 262–3, 264 226–8, 235, 236, 249 division into halls, 241, 242–3, see also Allied forces 262 British troops see British XIV Army executions at, 256–7, 260, 279 Buddhism, 120, 126, 273, 274 exercise regime, 241, 255 Nicheren sect, 260 food at, 240–1, 255 priests, 256, 260–5, 273 guards, 240, 242–3, 248, 252 enlightenment, 262, 264 ‘martyrs’, 265 Burma (Myanmar), xiii, 5, 7 military court, 256 under the British, 37–9 raids on condemned cells, 242–3 under the Chinese, 39 solitary confinement, 252, 263 importance to Japan, 4, 141 torture at, 243–4, 252 invasion by Japan, 1941–2, 38, Chiang Kai-Shek, 4, 236 60–1 Chiang Mai, Thailand, 7 pre-war railway system, 74 Chiba, xii, 1, 6, 26 road to Thailand, 67 Kuriyama field barracks, 6 Burma State Railways, 38, 74 as training post, 2, 3, 4 see also Burma–Thailand China, 1, 2, 5, 30 Railway war with Japan, 3–5, 30, 70, Burma–Thailand Railway, xii–xiii, 181, 274 7–12, 14–17, 17–25, 22–3, 73, see also Chinese army; and 218–21, 223–4, 273 individual provinces and completion of, 12, 110, 147–8, towns 149, 151 Chindwin River, 13, 202, 226 construction of, 10–12, 34, 35, Chinese army, 189, 192, 236 74, 77–173, 247, 266: see cholera, 11, 12, 119–20, 132, 141, also railway bridges 147, 169 mentioned in war crimes Chumphon, Thailand, 9 indictments, 244, 246 Chungkai, Thailand, 91, 94, 106, operation of, 7, 12–13 108, 138, 139, 140, 147, 224, possible routes for, 7–9 247, 250 use after the war, 15–17, 24, 90, cutting, 95, 107 151, 221 Chungking (Chongqing), 4 see also prisoners of war ‘Colonel Bogey’ (River Kwai) Burmese Labour Service Corps, 11, march, 81, 84 126 conscription, xii, 26, 36, 38, 40 Burmese local workers, xii–xiii, 132, 136, 214–15 dengue fever, 121 see also Burmese Labour Service derailments, 52, 70–1, 72, 215–16, Corps 218, 226, 268 Bushido, 273–4 doctors, 120, 132, 141, 180, 184, 198, 247, 253, 265–6, 268 Canton, 30 Donaldson, Lieutenant Colonel chain of command, 251 Donald H., 170 Index 279 drunkenness, 143 Great East Asia War dysentery, 132, 136, 169 entry of Japan into, 49 Guadalcanal, 169–70 Edinburgh university, 86 Gulf of Siam, 5 elephants, 126, 132, 134, 143 Gurkha battalions, 203, 204, 231 equipment, supply of, 95, 107, 110, 113, 116, 122, 154, Hague Regulations 1907, 275 165–6, 197, 204, 228–9 island, 6, 41 Haiphon, Indo-China, 6, 41 Featherston PoW camp see Hasegawa, Captain (later Major) Featherston Incident Saburo, 124–31, 147–51, Featherston Incident, 163, 169–73 174–6, 179, 196, 204–8, food (supplies), 41, 64, 104, 108, 209–13 113, 157, 158–9, 165, 183, ‘Hellfire Pass’, 111, 117 196–7, 218, 219, 222, 225, Henu, Burma, 203 226, 236 Henu River, 179 at Changi Prison, 240–1 Henzada (Hinthada), Burma, 75, difficulties in obtaining, 64, 76 104, 127, 136, 158–9, 163, Higuchi, Medical Captain Tomizo, 267, 272 251, 252, 254, 266–9 fresh, 64, 127, 152, 196 Hikari organisation, 239 high price of, 159 Hintok, Thailand, 12, 110, 157, issue to PoWs, 104, 122, 224–5, 159 234, 235, 239, 239–40 cutting, 111, 119, 121–4 local specialities, 198 Hiroike, Lt Colonel Toshio, 7 powdered miso, 127, 151 Hirota, Lieutenant (later Captain) rice, 31, 41, 64, 151, 188, 192, Eiji, xiii, 45–6, 111, 123–4, 216, 217, 218, 219, 224, 157, 158, 163, 222, 232, 236, 235–6, 237, 240; and Allied 257 PoWs, 104, 140, 158, 164 Holland, 5 theft of, 152–3 Hong Kong, 4, 256 French Indo-China, 4, 38, 205 Star prison, 256 Furutaka, Japanese cruiser, 169 horses, 183 hospitals, 165–6, 167, 197, 231, Gamonzeik, Burma, 75 268 garlic, as cure for night blindness, see also doctors; and specific 196 diseases gauges, of railway track, 2, 21, 68 Hsuchow, China, 4 adaptation, 68 Hukuawng valley, Burma, 185 see also narrow-gauge railways; hygiene, importance of, 269 wide-gauge railways see also cholera; dysentery Gemas bridge, 54, 55 Geneva Convention 1929, xiii, Imai, Colonel Itaru, 79, 148, 149, 163, 172, 236, 275 162 gliders, 177 Imperial Guard, 11 God Save the King (British (IJA), national anthem), 92 141–2, 160, 161 Great Asia Co-prosperity Sphere, 15th Army see Japanese 15th 86, 200 Army 280 Index

Imperial Japanese Army – continued Janjamama players, 200 18th Army see Japanese 18th Japanese 15th Army, xiii, 13, 178 Army Japanese 18th (Thailand) Army, 25th Army see Japanese 25th 225 Army Japanese 25th Army, 230, 231 2nd Railway Command Group, Japanese airforce see under 2, 7, 94, 161 Imperial Japanese Army 114th Regiment, Japanese army divisions 189–90, 193 2 Division, 207 air force, 13, 186, 190–1, 207, 5 Division, 43 260 15 Division, 178, 207 demoralisation of, 187–8, 206 18 Division, 13, 69, 71, 185, Engineers, 167–8: see also 190, 204, 207 Railway 31 Division, 178 Railway Regiments see Railway 33 Division, 68, 72, 216 Regiments 53 (Yasu, An) Division, 190, 201 Southern Army see Japanese 55 Division, 7, 61, 64, 68, 73 Southern Army 56 Division, 68, 69 see also Japanese army divisions Japanese government, 171–2 Imphal, xiii, 18, 24n9 Japanese National Railways (JNR), battle of, 195, 206, 226 xii, 6, 36, 219 Inazo, Nitobe, 274 Ooi factory, Shinagawa, 36, 37 incendiaries, 177 special units, xii, xiii, 6, 11, 12, Indaigon, Burma, 210 13, 16, 36–7, 77–81,112, Inderagiri River, 232 199, 210, 214–21, 222 India, 7, 17n4, 38, 39 Japanese navy, 4, 7, 49, 230 independence movement, 239, Japanese Control 240 Bureau, Tokyo, 172 Indian Army (British), 38 Japanese prisoners of war, 25n10, Indian National Army (INA), 163, 169–70, 172, 194, 233 240 Allied guards and, 170, 240 Indonesian independence, 230, food issued to, 224–5, 239, 240 231–2 work demanded of, 170, 233, Insein railway workshop, 235, 236 Rangoon, 7, 67, 68, 75, 214 US treatment of, 276 International Committee of the see also Featherstone Incident; Red Cross (ICRC), 170 Japanese Surrendered interpreters, 166, 199, 200, Personnel 225, 242, 247, 250, 252, 264, Japanese Southern Army, 9, 16, 271 17n4, 25n12, 266 Ipoh, Malaya, 58, 63 Japanese Special Service Unit, 61 Irrawaddy Flotilla Company, 38 Japanese surrender, 1945, 14–15, Irrawaddy River, 13, 68, 74, 75, 220–1, 227, 229, 275 75–6, 205, 226 Japanese Surrendered Personnel Ava bridge over, 76, 201, 206 (JSP), xiii, 14–15, 24n10, beach, 177 233–72, 275–6 Ishida, Lt-General Eiguma, 148, British treatment of, 15, 149, 151, 162, 270–1 233–4 Iwasaki, Colonel, 36 camps, 15, 236 Index 281

compared with prisoners of war, training of, 156–7, 159 275–6 and war crimes, 254–7 death toll, 275 Kotabaru, Sumatra, 222 food supplied to, 275 Kotanpo, Burma, 174, 175, 183, numbers of, 275 184, 187, 198 work given to, 233, 275 Kra railway, 13, 221 see also Japanese prisoners of Kuala Lumpur, Malaya, 220–1, war 240, 253 Jaarmarkt PoW camp, Java, 173n9 jail, 240 Johore Baharu, Malaya, 6, 45, 56, Kuantan, Malaya, 235 60 Kun River jungle, 91, 95, 129, 137, 151, 176, bridge over, 69 196, 219, 221, 257, 275 Kusunoki Masashige, Japanese Juron prisoner-of-war camp, 256 warrior, 112 Kwai River see River Kwai Kalemyo, Burma, 226 Kwantung Army, 1–2, 16 Kalewa, Burma, 226 Kyando, Burma, 125, 147 Kamaing, Burma, 190 Kyaukpadaung, Burma, 76 Kanbalu, Burma, 174, 185, 196 Kyaukse, Burma, 209 Kanchanaburi (Kanburi), Kyoto university, 78, 262 Thailand, 6, 9, 10, 12, 17, 63, 79, 81, 91, 108, 128, 131, 154, Lancashire Fusiliers, 203 155 Lashio line, 205, 207 railway workshop, 22 League of Nations, 274 tool and supply depot, 154 Letpadan, Burma, 215 Kanikuin, Burma, 210 limekilns, 147–8 Kansai-maru troopship, 42 Kanyu Hill, 112 Mac Khlong River, 10, 19, 81, 154 Kaopon, Thailand, 91 bridges over, 12, 81–3, Kekka, Burma, 200, 201 87–9, 90 Kemasik, Malaya, 235 machine-guns, 176, 178–9, 181, Kimura, Hisao, 260–1, 262 182, 186, 188, 192, 200, 201, Kinsaiyok, Thailand, 80, 110, 119, 228 132, 138, 140 Malacca Strait, 221 Kluang, Malaya, 234, 235, 236, malaria, 81, 116, 121, 132, 142, 237 143, 153, 159, 167, 169, 187, Konkoita, Thailand, 132, 146, 148 210, 233, 262 Konyu, Thailand, 110, 112, 113, mosquitoes, 195 118, 119 Malay peninsula, 10, 220 cutting, 111–16, 117: see also see also Malaya; Thailand ‘Hellfire Pass’ Malaya (Malaysia), xii, 6, 13, 38, Hintok see Hintok 250, 270 Malayan Hamlet (Village), 112, PoW Accommodation, 162 113, 119 see also individual towns Korea, 10, 156 Malayan Hamlet, Konyu see under Japanisation of, 156 Konyu Korean PoW camp guards, xiii, 15, , 5 25n12, 131, 132, 152, 156–61, see also Manchuria 172, 246, 254, 264 Manchuria, xii, 1, 2 282 Index

Mandalay, Burma, xiii, 6, 14, 38, Myitkyina railway line, xiii, 6, 12, 71, 73, 197, 198, 205, 207 14, 24n8, 71, 72, 174–204, defence of, 208–9 205, 206 railway line, 10, 76, 202, 209, post-war repair, 199 210 retreat from, 195–9 Martaban, Burma, 64, 65, 71, 75, skirmishes on, 178–183, 188–90 218 Myittha valley, 226 Masugi, Colonel Kazuo, 263–5 Matoma, Thailand, 137, 138, 141, Naba, Burma, 71, 72, 74, 174, 178, 146 179, 181 Mawlu, Burma, 177, 178, 185, 200 railway station, 181 railway station, 179, 185 Nagahashi, Lt-Colonel Tugiroku, Maymyo, Burma, 207 180 medical officers see doctors Nahmoi, battle of, 44 medical supplies, 108, 267 Nakamura, Lt-General Akito, 148 Meiktila, 13, 207–8, 209, 226 Namchong, Thailand, 128, 131 Menam River, 9 Namukan, Burma, 187 Mergui (Beik), Burma, 9 Namkuin, Burma, 185 Merriman-Wiggin standard, 24 Namtok, Thailand, 17 Meza River, 177, 182, 183 Nanking (Nanjing), 4 bridge over, 177, 186, 197 Nansiaung, Burma, 203 Meza, Burma, 177, 178, 179, 180, narrow-gauge railways, xii 187, 196, 197 Nazi Germany, 5, 26 Mezali, Burma, 125 Netherlands see Holland Midway, battle of, 9–10, 160 New Zealand government, 171–2 military courts, 256, 271 Nicobar Islands, 262 see also war crimes tribunals Nikhe, Thailand, 12, 17, 119, 124, military police, 189, 239 130, 132 Miyazaki, Captain Rohei, 15 Nong Pladuk, Thailand, 10, 11, Mogaung, Burma, 185 19, 77, 160 Mohan, Burma, 200 Nyuyapin, 200 Mohinyin, Burma, 203 monsoons see rainy season oil supplies, 5, 37–8 Moulmein (Mawlammyine), Operation Hsuchow, 4 Burma, 5, 6, 7, 10, 11, 61–2, Osaka, 4, 6, 26–7, 37 64, 65, 74, 125, 180, 218, 219 supply depot, 267 , Sumatra, 230 Muara, 222, 223, 229, 231, 232 railway factory, 230 railway line to , 222, Pagoda Hill, Henu, Burma, 223, 226, 231 203–4 Mudon bridge, Thailand, 62–3 Pajakunbuh, Burma, 232 Mukden (Shenyang), xii Panzadaung Creek, tributary of Myanmar see Burma the Rangoon River, 67, 75 Myitnge, Burma, 71, 209 Pearl Harbor, Japanese attack on Myitnge River, 71, 208 1941, xii, 5, 49 bridge over, 71, 76, 207, 209, Pegu (Bago), Burma, 64, 66, 67, 213 69, 70, 209–10, 213, 216 Myitkyina, Burma, 188, 189 Pekanbaru, Sumatra, 13, 14, battle for, 192–3, 200, 201 221–2, 223, 231, 232 Index 283

railway line to Muara, 222–3, transportation of, 127–8, 129, 226, 229 130, 235, 267–8 Penang, 240 workload, 104–5, 108, 113, 117, Perak River, Malaya, 6, 60 122, 136, 154, 158, 163, bridge over, 6, 50, 51, 53, 60 168, 224, 250, 274 Pfai, Malaya, 240 see also Japanese Surrendered Phitsanok, Thailand, 7 Personnel; War Crimes Phnom Penh, 6, 48 Tribunals poetry, 258–9, 260, 264–5 prisoner-of-war camps, 25n12, 81, Poland, 26 89, 93, 131, 137, 157–8, 165, Ponchan, Burma, 181 223, 225, 228, 268 popular songs, 81, 85, 86, 136, administration of, 93, 122, 160, 236, 237 268 as work-songs, 85, 86 guards at, 15, 241 Port of Rangoon Authority, 38 medical provision, 120, 268 Potsdam Proclamation, 229, 275, relations with railwaymen, 108, 276 131, 136, 247 prisoners of war (PoWs), 275 shops, 158–9, 236 administration, 157, 225, 267: see also Japanese prisoners of see also Thailand PoW war; Korean PoW camp Administration guards; Thailand PoW Allied, xii–xiii, 9, 14, 25n12, 81, Administration 82–6, 124, 128, 140, 148, Prome, Burma, 68, 75, 227 151, 152, 157, 172, 235, Pusan, Korea, 156, 158, 159 276 Pyambwe, Burma, 227 camps see prisoner-of-war Pyu, Thailand, 210 camps Pyu River, 210 deaths among, xiii, 136, 147, bridge over, 69 159, 226n, 244, 246, 248, Pyuntaza, Thailand, 69, 70, 76 257, 269 food supplied to see under food Rahaeng (Tak), Burma, 7 supplies Rahat railway factory, Sumatra, guarding, 110–11 230 hardship caused to, xiii, 104, rail-destroyers, 209–10, 211, 136, 140–1, 158, 163, 244 212 Japanese see Japanese prisoners rail-tractors, 2, 58, 218, 224 of war railway bridges, 11, 21, 24, 35, 45, literature on, 164–5 54, 55, 63, 65, 67, 79, 184, numbers of, 17, 172 186 punishment of, 106, 159–60, construction of, 74, 86, 138, 168, 247 141, 142, 146, 175, 186, railway construction by, 24, 197, 210 85–6, 90–1, 92–3, 94–5, diversionary, 186, 197 102, 104, 110, 112, 121, destruction of, 54, 55, 66, 67, 124–5, 139, 151, 154, 172, 73, 74–6, 111, 142, 174, 224, 257–8, 266 178, 181, 197, 201, 209, special skills of, 109, 155, 167, 216, 219, 220 236 repair of, 213–14, 219, 223 theft by, 151–3, 159 see also individual bridges 284 Index railway locomotives (engines), 7, 9, Rangoon (Yangon), Burma, 4, 5, 6, 43–4, 49, 52, 56, 62, 67–8, 70 7, 10, 13, 19, 60, 67, 69, 74, capture of, 74 215, 227, 267 destruction of, 71, 75 evacuation, 214–18, 227 repair of, 68, 70, 71–2, 201–2 harbour, 68 type C56 see Type C56 Insein railway workshop, 7, 67, locomotives 68, 75, 214 type KS, 148 Japanese capture of, 66 type MC tender engines, 68, 69, Kamayo workshop, 214 215 Maragon marshalling yard, 66, type YC engines, 200; YC167, 201 67 type YD engines, 68, 200, 215, port authority, 38 216 Prison, xiii, 14, 241 Railway Regiments (IJA), xii, xiii, railway school, 199 1–2, 16, 25n12 Rangoon River, 67 1st, 1, 2, 3, 70 Rempang Island, 231 2nd, 1, 2, 3 Rinteng, Thailand, 137, 141 3rd, 3 River Kwai , 10, 19, 79, 91, 109, 4th, 3 112, 116, 120, 132, 142 5th, xii, 2, 3, 5–6, 7, 10–11, bridge over, 219 12–13, 14, 15, 18, 28–9, River Unyou, 124 48–74, 124–37, 146, rivers, 125, 142, 221 147–51, 174–202, 205–14, bridges over, 142: see also 218, 219 railway bridges; and 6th, 2 individual bridges 7th, 181, 205, 206 transport, 133, 135, 137, 217, 9th, xii, 5, 6, 7, 9, 11–12, 14, 15, 218–19, 221 40–7, 77, 79, 81–124, 127, see also individual rivers 137–47, 146, 148, 151–6, Rogas, Sumatra, 230 199, 221–6, 228–37, 238–9, coal mine, 14, 222: branch line 244 serving, 14, 222–3 honour of, 195 railway factory, 228, 229 relations with Allied PoWs, 85, Ronsi, Burma, 124, 221 94, 136, 154, 160–3, 172, Royal State Railway of Thailand, 225–6, 228; see also 11, 17 prisoners of war Russia, 2, 227 relations with local people, Russo-Japanese war 1904–5, 1 198–200, 222 structure of, 3–4, 17nn1–3 Sagaing, Burma, 174, 200, 202, training, 26–39, 78, 111, 177 203 see also Burma–Thailand Saigon (Vietnam), French Railway; Myitkyina railway Indo-China, 4, 5, 7, 48 line Salween River, 9, 75 railway stations, 22 Sasa, Major-General Makoto, xii, deserted, 216 162 railway tunnels, 9, 112, 214 Sasaki, Colonel Man-nosuke, 148, rainy season, 132, 139–40, 146, 149, 162 147, 163, 168, 169, 187, 193, Sasebo, Japan, 237 195, 202, 218, 227, 233, 248 Schmid, Dr Walter, 170, 171 Index 285

Sekihai, China, 30 Sumatra, 6, 13, 221–3 Shan State, Burma, 76 see also Trans-Sumatra Railway; Shantung (Shandong) province, and individual towns China, 4 Suwa bridge, Pyinmana, Burma, Shenyang see Mukden 213 Shimizu, Lt-General Noritsune, 148 Shimoda, Major-General Senriki, Taipin, Malaya, 6 151 Takasaki, Major-General Shoei-in Temple, Tokyo, 265 Sukemasa, 151 Shwebo, Burma, 186, 196, 226 Takunun, Thailand, 81, 135, 147 airfield, 174 Tamarkan, 104, 107 Siam see Thailand bridge, 11, 17, 90 Singapore (Shonan), 6, 14, 45, 57, Tamojo, Thailand, 128 60, 237, 240, 248, 259 Tampi, Thailand, 22, 110, 112, 151 Autram jail, 248, 249, 252, 257 Tamuron Part, 128, 130 Changi Prison see Changi Prison tanks, 208 railway line to Bangkok, 220 Tapui, Sumatra, 222 surrender of, 6, 56, 181 Tararua mountains, New Zealand, Singora (Songkhla), Thailand 6, 170 42–5 Tarumoto, Juji, 91–107, 137–46, Sino-Japanese war 1894–5, xii, 1 162, 163, 238–53 Sittang, Burma, 210, 217 Taungdwingyi, Burma, 76 Sittang mountain, 217 Tavoy (Dawai), Burma, 6, 9, 61, Sittang River, xiii, 11, 13, 67, 69, 63–4 215, 217, 218, 227 Tenasserim, Burma, 227 bridges over, 11, 59, 66, 75 Terauchi, Field Marshal Hisaichi, British defeat at, 38, 66 162, 148 skin diseases, 140 Thai army, 44 smallpox, 11, 132 Thailand , 6, 7, 14 solitary confinement, 242, 252, railway system, 10, 17, 38, 220: 263 see also Burma–Thailand Sonkrai, Thailand, 136, 168 Railway; Royal State South China Railway, 124 Railway of Thailand South Staffords battalion, 203, see also individual towns 204 Thailand PoW Administration Southeast Asia, 4–5 (Accommodation), 25n12, JSP in, 275 160–1, 254, 257 rail networks, 38: see also Thanbyuzayat, Burma, 9, 10, 11, individual railways 19, 61, 124, 131, 147, 160 war crime executions in, 270, Thazi, Burma, 213 272 Three Pagodas Pass, 10, 19, 21 see also French Indo-China Tokyo Imperial University, 79, 250 Southern Army see Japanese Tombo bridge, 208–9 Southern Army torture, 262 Southern Cross, 229 at Changi Prison see under steel production, 5 Changi Prison Stillwell, General Joseph, 204 Toungoo, Burma, 7, 69, 75, 76, Sugamo prison, Japan, 257, 266 210, 227 suicide, 136, 180, 273 battle of, 70 286 Index

Trans-Sumatra Railway, 13–14, 15, prosecutions, 244–54 223–6, 229 sentences passed by, 253, 254, compared with Burma–Thailand 256, 257, 262, 263, 264, Railway, 222, 223–4 269, 270–2 completion of, 229 Waw, Burma, 215, 216 post-war maintenance, 231 White City fortifications, Burma, Tsudanuma railway centre, 111 203–4 Type C56 locomotives, 7, 9, 17, wide-gauge railways, 2 21, 68, 69, 129, 150, 213–14, Women’s National Defence 215–16 Society, 27 C5631, 148, 150 Xuzhou see Hsuchow United States, 5 see also Pearl Harbour Yae-maru freighter, 37 Usuki, Lieutenant, 158, 162, Yamamoto, General Kiyoe, 184, 255–6, 257–9 185, 208 Yamashita, General Tomoyuki , viaducts, 118, 144, 145 271–2 Vichy government, France, 5 Yamethin, 213 Volga boat-song, 81, 85, 86 Yanagida, Lt-Colonel Shouichi, 93, 104, 138, 161, 162, 247, Wakamatsu, Captain Shizuo, 263, 251, 252, 254, 270 265 , Tokyo, 151 Wan Tao Kien, Thailand, 108 Ye (Yay), Burma, 9, 10, 61, 63 Wanetchaung, Burma, 68n, 75 railway line to Moulmein, 10, Wang Lan, Thailand, 106, 247 61, 199 Wang Po, Thailand, 64, 132 Yellow River, China, 4 Wang Yai, Thailand, 12, 116, 129, bridge over, 4 153, 155, 160 Yenangyaung, Burma, 227 war crimes tribunals (courts), Ywataung locomotive depot, 199, xiii, 15, 25n11,12,13, 237, 200, 201–2 249–54, 256, 258, 261, 269, 272 Zami River, 125, 126 defence of accused, 244, 245–6, ‘zero mile post’, Burma–Thailand 248, 249, 250–2, 253, 256, Railway 264, 271 at Thanbyuzayat,10 doubts about justice of, 270–2 at Nong Pladuk, 77 numbers convicted, 272 Zeyawaddi, Thailand, 69