Appendix 1 The Influence of Bushido: Why Japanese officers drove PoWs to work unreasonably hard Bushido, developed in feudal Japan, still had a strong influence on Japanese officers during World War II. Bushido demanded absolute loyalty and exacted the penalty of suicide (by self-immolation or disembowelment) for a dishonourable result. All the railway officers realised how important the Burma–Thailand Railway was for the survival of the Japanese army in Burma. So they knew if the completion of the railway were delayed and put the Burma army in danger, their regimental commander was sure to commit suicide for the dishonour, and the officer who did not do his part on time and caused the delay should also commit suicide, according to Bushido. This is the main factor which drove the officers to force PoWs to complete the daily quota of their work by all means, as the daily quota was based on the minimum required to complete the railway on time. Thus PoWs were forced to work over the standard work time even in miserable conditions. In the Japanese army, orders are seen as absolute. Lower-ranking officers were not allowed to refuse the order to attack an enemy position. However the orders on engineering projects were flexible because of the nature of the work. The officer who did not complete the work on time might be demoted or at worst fired, never put to death. As an example, the railway regiment commanders did not accept the order to bring forward the completion of the Burma–Thailand Railway by two months, though this could cause demerit in their career. The Japanese soldiers also understood the spirit of Bushido and co-operated with their officers in the construction work. Bushido in its origin was based on Buddhism. However from the Meiji era Buddhism gradually lost its influence on the Japanese people, though they were registered as the flock of a Buddhist temple just for the sake of their funeral service. This had worsened the default of Bushido, as seen in the treatment of PoWs. During the war with Russia (1904–5), Japanese army had about eight war Buddhist priests in a Division. However in World War II, there was no religious position in the Japanese army which was comparable to the pastors (chaplains) in British or American armies. Thus teachings of Buddhism such as benevo- lence to the weak or the vanquished were being lost from the practice of Bushido. Japan had been renowned for the good treatment of PoWs until World War I. What caused the change was the declining influence of Buddhism on the Japanese people, together with the notorious army instruction of 1941, ‘Die rather than be captured’, which caused contempt towards PoWs among the Japanese. 273 274 Appendix 1 There was another side to the overtime work. PoWs tried to do as little work as possible, as they also realised the importance of the railway to Japan. In accord- ance with the code of soldiers when they were captured, they were unwilling to work on the construction which was beneficial to enemy. However this resulted in the unsatisfactory progress of the task for which Japanese officers forced them to do overtime work. PoWs tried bravely and patiently to resist the Japanese despite the torture of being forced to do hard overtime work. The following extract is from Bushido by Nitobe Inazo, a well-known educator/ scholar/internationalist who later served as Under-Secretary General of the League of Nations. The book was written in English and published in 1900 by the Leeds & Biddle Co., Philadelphia, USA. Bu-shi-do means literally Military-Knight-Ways – the way that fighting nobles should observe in their daily life as well as in their vocation; in a word ‘Precept of Knighthood,’ or the noblesse oblige of the warrior class. It was an organic growth of decades and centuries of military career. It, perhaps, fills the same position in the history of ethics that the English Con- stitution does in political history. Buddhism furnished a sense of calm trust in Fate, a quiet submission to the inevitable, the stoic composure in sight of danger or calamity, that disdain of life and friendliness with death. Such loyalty to the sovereign, such reverence for ancestral memory, and such filial piety as are not taught by any other creed, were inculcated by the Shinto doctrines, imparting passivity to the otherwise arrogant character of the Samurai. The high estimate placed upon honour was ample excuse with many for taking one’s own life. How many acquiesced in the sentiment expressed by Garth, ‘When honour is lost, it’s a relief to die; Death’s but a sure retreat from infamy,’ The physical endurance, fortitude, and bravery that ‘the little Jap’ possesses, were sufficiently proved in the Chino–Japanese war. ‘Is there any nation more loyal and patriotic?’ is a question asked by many; and for the proud answer, ‘There is not,’ we must thank the Precept of Knighthood. On the other hand, it is fair to recognise that for the very faults and defects of our character, Bushido is largely responsible. Unformulated, Bushido is still the animating spirit, the motor force of our country. Appendix 2 Treatment of Japanese Surrendered Personnel (JSP) The Japanese army and navy had never experienced national surrender, hence they had little idea what its outcome would be. They initially felt relieved to be made JSP rather than dishonourable and shameful prisoners of war (PoWs). This system was convenient and economical for the South East Asia Command, consisting mostly of British forces, in controlling the large number of surren- dered Japanese soldiers and civilians – 783,000 men in Southeast Asia. Though Japan had not ratified the Geneva Convention of 1929, the Japanese should have been treated as PoWs under the Hague Regulations of 1907, and should have had the basic human rights conferred upon PoWs. In Europe, German troops had been treated as ‘surrendered enemy personnel’ (SEP), who were similar to JSP. But the situation was different, as the German capitulation was both political, involving the dissolution of the government, and military, whereas the Japanese capitulation was only military. Moreover, disarmed Japanese were permitted to return to their homes under the Potsdam Proclamation, dated 28 July, issued by USA, Great Britain and China. The disadvantages of having been JSP compared with the privilege of PoWs were as follows: 1. The JSP camps were located mostly in jungles or remote areas where there were no water and electricity services. The inadequate facilities were responsible for ruining the health of the Japanese. The occurrence of infectious diseases such as malaria, tuberculosis and amoebic dysentery was 21 per cent among JSP, double that in the Japanese army during the war. The death toll of JSP was more than 8,931. A total of 141,500 JSP were sent to the barren Rempang Island and about 60,000 of them were in a critical condition due to starvation as food was not sent to them in the initial two months. 2. JSP were fed 1,600 calories per day despite being forced to do hard work, whereas the British field ration was 3,300 calories (the amount which should have been fed to PoWs), and that of the Japanese army had been 3,600 calories. 3. JSP were forced to do unhealthy and dangerous work. At first many JSP worked without any time off. 4. Officers received no pay and other ranks, although compelled to do hard work, received no pay either, until May 1947. After that date, a token wage was paid in Japan. 5. JSP were rearmed and most were put on peace-keeping duties, mainly sup- pressing the independence activities of the local people. Approximately 167 JSPs died in combat in Indo-China, 627 in Java and 244 in Sumatra while on peace-keeping duties. 275 276 Appendix 2 6. JSP had their personal property impounded without any receipt being given. Their money was also impounded. 7. No clothing and daily necessaries were given to JSP until May 1946. 8. Though JSP were promised an early return to Japan under the Potsdam Proclam- ation, 106,000 men were retained as working parties after June 1946, to carry out miscellaneous hard labour tasks. They were sent home by December 1947. The Japanese felt that they were confined as JSP for the sake of revenge and as punishment for what they had done to Allied PoWs during the war. Japanese soldiers who surrendered to US armed forces by 1 September 1945, by contrast, were treated as PoWs and were repatriated earlier than the JSP under British control. References This appendix and the references given below were based on the survey carried out by the JSP Research Group, Tokyo. Yoshito Kita, ‘Koufuku-tekikokugunjin no Houteki-ichi wo meguru Shomondai’ (‘Problems concerning the legal status of Surrendered Enemy Personnel’) in Buryoku Funnsou no Kokusaihou (International Law in Armed Conflict) (Toshindo, Tokyo, 2004). Sadao Oba (ex-JSP), ‘JSP wo tsuikyu site’ (‘Investing in JSP’), in Yu Yu, no.11, (Kigyou OB Pen Club, Tokyo, 2004). Index NB Asian place-names have been given in the English form used during the Second World War, with modern forms in brackets where appropriate. Illustrations are indexed in italic type. aerial attacks, 11, 12, 24, 49, 66, 77, 111, 112, 120, 132, 136, 191, 195–6, 200, 201, 202, 138–9, 151, 155, 156, 222 209, 213, 216, 217, 219, 226, administration of, 139 268 efficiency, 139 see also bombers numbers of, 9, 17n6, 142 aerial reconnaissance, 12, 77 recruitment of, 161 air raids see aerial attacks Assam–Bengal Railway, 18, 200 Aleutian islands, 73 atomic bombs, 227 Allied forces, 12, 13, 14, 172 airborne, 177, 184,