Using a Policy of ‘Gross National ’ 5

Using a Policy of ‘Gross National Happiness’ to Guide the Development of Sustainable Early Learning Programs in the Kingdom of : Aspirations and Challenges

Jessica Ball of Victoria

Karma Chimi Wangchuk Royal University of Bhutan

Abstract A national study on demand for early childhood care and development programs in Bhutan found strong support for development of a new early childhood care and development (ECCD) sector. A wide range of stakeholders participating in the study, including ministries of and health, post-secondary institutions, private providers, community management committees, parents and children, emphasized the goal of preschool to promote success in English-medium formal education. Promoting cultural traditions was also a priority, while developing children’s proficiency in home languages was hardly mentioned. The study highlighted the changing needs of Bhutanese families in the current context of increasing urbanization, dual career parents, and a shift from extended to nuclear family homes. Recommendations derived from the study encouraged a made in Bhutan approach to ECCD policy, programs, and professional education. Subsequent to the study, the national included plans for implementation of ECCD covering children from birth to 8 years old. To ensure the sustainability and cultural congruence of new programs and investments with the Kingdom’s Gross National Happiness Policy, a Gross National Happiness Commission screened and approved the new National Education Policy, which the Ministry of Education is charged with implementing. The emergence of an ECCD sector in Bhutan points to the role that national aspirations and value-driven policies and review processes could play in maintaining language diversity and transmitting culturally based knowledge.

Keywords Bhutan, Gross National Happiness Policy, early childhood care and education, preschool, culture, linguistic diversity, local funds of knowledge, language of instruction

Introduction ______First steps towards a system of public and Corresponding Author Jessica Ball, School of Child and Youth Care, PO Box 1700 private early childhood care and development STN CSC, University of Victoria, BC. V8W 2Y2, (ECCD) programs in Bhutan are poised to Email: [email protected]

Global Education Review is a publication of The School of Education at Mercy College, New York. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 3.0 Unported License, permitting all non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Citation: Ball, Jessica & Wangchuk, Karma Chimi. (2015). Using a policy of ‘gross national happiness’ to guide the development of sustainable early learning programs in the Kingdom of Bhutan: aspirations and challenges. Global Education Review, 2(1), 5-22.

6 Global Education Review 2(1) provide a boost to young children taking their yet to be endorsed by the government. Drawing first steps towards structured learning and social upon the example of Bhutan, where approaches engagement outside their homes. Preschool and to early childhood programs are only now being lower primary education that is child-oriented conceptualized and delivered on a pilot basis, and parent-involving is a new approach for this article highlights the potential for national, teachers in Bhutan that goes hand in hand with value-driven policies and associated project the country’s shift to in 2008. Other review processes to inspire and guide the social changes, including the growth of nuclear development of professional education courses family households, urbanization, and and programs in order to sustain and protect the recognition of the importance of the early years country’s rich environmental, cultural and for securing the country’s future with a linguistic resources. generation of young people who have been supported from birth to achieve their full Context potential through education, have also given Demographics impetus to increased role of out-of-home early The Kingdom of Bhutan is a land-locked, wholly learning and child development programs. mountainous country tucked into the Eastern As with every new initiative in Bhutan, Himalayan Mountains. According to the proposed expansion of early childhood government National Statistics Bureau, based on provisions must be considered from the point of the population and housing census of 2005, the view of the government’s efforts to preserve projected population for 2014 is 741,822 people traditional values. These include an emphasis (Royal Government of Bhutan, 2007). Until on culturally-based practices that protect and very recently, Bhutan was one of the most promote the central role of the family in child isolated countries in the world, with a ban on rearing, which is one of the four pillars of internet and television until 1999 and limitations Bhutan’s unique Gross National Happiness on foreign tourism. Historically Bhutan’s Policy. closest links have been with Tibet in terms of This article describes the emerging ECCD trade, culture, language, and religion. The sector in Bhutan, and the influence of the country has now turned more toward for country’s Gross National Happiness Policy upon trade, and there is an influx of immigrants and decision-making about migrant workers, as well cultural, economic and of programs for young children. This article is material influences from South Asia. Bhutan based on a recent national scoping study of was never colonized by Britain, but after it lost ECCD in Bhutan led by the authors and carried the Duar War in 1865, Bhutan was forced to sign out with the participation of key partners in a treaty giving British India control of its foreign Bhutan involved in an emerging ECCD sector. relations until 2007.1 These relations resulted in The study confirmed the need for a made in considerable British and British Indian influence. Bhutan approach to professional development For example, when public school was introduced for ECCD practitioners and to the design of in the 1960s,2 the education system was modeled ECCD programs, in order to support the cultural on the British system, and English was and linguistically diverse population of young introduced as one of two languages of children and their families. However, the instruction (along with ). practical details of how this training and program delivery will be done have yet to be Cultural Diversity formulated. To date, the Ministry of Education There is a general understanding within Bhutan has a draft policy governing ECCD, which has that the country is fairly homogeneous in terms

Using a Policy of ‘Gross National Happiness’ 7 of culture. This is an intriguing perception According to a study by van Driem given that the population is demographically commissioned by the Royal Government of very diverse in terms of ethnicity, religion, and Bhutan (1993), in the early 1990s the most language. frequent home languages of the population is the state religion. Buddhist were: Dzongkha (24.5%), spoken mainly in the 8 texts, written in ‘Ucen3, are sacred. Reportedly, western ; Lhotshampka (24%), approximately two-thirds of the population spoken mainly in southern Bhutan, Tshangla practice Drukpa Kagyupa or Nyingmapa (21.2%), spoken mainly in eastern Bhutan, and Buddhism, both of which are disciplines of Bumthapkha, Khengkah, and Kurtop languages Mahayana Buddhism. The remainder is mostly (12.3%), spoken mainly in central Bhutan. An Lhotshampa4 and practice Hinduism. Bon, the independent survey by SIL International (2006) country’s animist and shamanistic belief system suggests recent shifts in the distribution of home revolves around the worship of nature and is languages including: Lhotshampka (35.7%), rarely practiced exclusively, but permeates many Dzongkha (21.5%), Tshangla (18.6%), and people’s belief systems and daily practices. Bumthapkha, Khengkha, and Kurtop languages The nation has a strong sense of identity (10.8%). Reasons for Dzongkha being declared that has flourished due in part to its high the national language even though it is spoken altitude, landlocked isolation, and, historically, by a fraction of the population are historical and fears of invasion by Tibet and colonization by pragmatic: Dzongkha was the language of people Britain. There is a common need to create who held political and religious power when the livelihood and provide mutual support in a state was founded and, unlike other Indigenous uniformly rugged and harsh mountainous languages in Bhutan, it has a writing system. environment where most people live in small The primary medium of instruction in isolated villages, often with no road access. primary schools is English, but all children are Inter-ethnic marriage is common, and many expected to learn to speak, read and write families have family members who speak Dzongkha. As a result of the language-in- different languages and dialects, and perhaps education policy, many people in Bhutan are the national language Dzongkha. Communities bilingual or multilingual at a conversational level, typically have members who are from different as they are immersed in a variety of languages ethnic groups. The country is also strongly and dialects from a young age. As well, due to unified by its support for the national inter-ethnic marriage, many families have of Gross National Happiness and by diverse language speakers within the extended its adoration of the monarchy. family and the hamlet in which they reside, including parents and grandparents who speak Linguistic Diversity different languages with their children. There is no majority language in Bhutan. Dzongkha was declared the national language of Gross National Happiness Policy5 Bhutan in 1961, and one of the criteria for Bhutan gained international attention in 1974 naturalization is that a person can speak and when the fourth King, Jigme Singye Wangchuk, write Dzongkha (Royal Government of Bhutan, in his coronation address declared that Gross 1969). It is estimated that there are between 19 National Happiness (GNH) and 24 (van Driem, 2007). (gyalyonggakidpelzom) was more All are members of the Tibeto-Burman language important than as a family, except for Nepali (Lhotshampka), which measure of the nation’s well-being. The is Indo-Aryan, and English (van Driem, 2007). Kingdom gained even more attention for

8 Global Education Review 2(1) including this unique philosophy in the (3) Cultural promotion; and (4) Good Constitution of the Kingdom of Bhutan: Article 9, governance. GNH policy includes nine domains: Principle of State Policy, section 2 states: “the Psychological well-being; Standard of living; State shall strive to promote those conditions Good governance; Health; Education; that will enable the pursuit of Gross National Community vitality; Cultural diversity and Happiness.” GNH holds that happiness is the resilience; Time use; and Ecological diversity. ultimate purpose of human progress and These domains are elaborated in terms of 72 development. While the policy asserts that each measurable GNH Indicators (Gross National person must cultivate happiness within Happiness Commission, 2008). themselves, the Royal Government of Bhutan The GNH policy is very much a centre- sees its role as creating conditions that will piece of deliberations from community-level enable individuals to achieve happiness. management committees, to district-level Overwhelmingly, the government and the planning and priorities, to national policy people of Bhutan are united by an intense decision-making, strategic planning, and valuing of their pursuit of happiness. A meta- investments. A GNH Commission uses various analytic study of over 100 studies of happiness screening tools to deliberate about proposed around the world, encompassing 80,000 reforms or new projects in every sector (Gross participants, found that the population of National Happiness Commission, 2008). The Bhutan is the happiest country in Asia, and the GNH Commission has oversight of the education eighth happiest in the world, despite widespread sector, and has recently engaged in a series of poverty and illiteracy (White, 2006). The survey reviews of proposed developments of the early pointed to the landlocked Himalayan kingdom’s childhood care and development sector. beautiful mountain scenery, isolated culture and strong sense of national identity as reasons for Education in Bhutan the contentment of its citizens. By comparison, Education is referred to as the Noble Sector in its neighbour, India, ranked 125th. The United Bhutan and has always been a state States ranked 23rd and Canada ranked 10th. responsibility, with the royal government According to the Centre for Bhutan providing all the services and resources from Studies in Bhutan (n.d.), the emphasis on pre-primary () through 12 years of happiness as a foundation for social policy is formal schooling (after which scholarship is deeply rooted in Bhutanese history. Bhutan was provided on merit up to the university level). unified and fortified in 1637, and a social The country has its own national curriculum contract, declared in Bhutan in 1675 stated that from kindergarten through class 12. With the happiness of all sentient beings and the increased enrolment and schools, the system is teachings of the Buddha are mutually dependent hard-pressed to ensure quality in the provision and that laws must advance the happiness of all of education services. For this reason, in 2010 sentient beings. The legal code of 1729 further the Ministry of Education launched a massive required that laws must promote the happiness nation-wide education reform initiative called of all sentient beings (Thinley, 2005). The Educating for Gross National Happiness, to be current King has stated that “GNH is more realized through building Green Schools for important that GNP and is the guide for state’s Green Bhutan: “The initiative is expected to primary role in society.” restore much-needed integrity and honour to the The GNH policy is structured by four education system while at the same time helping pillars, including: (1) Sustainable and equitable internalize and advance the country’s unique development; (2): Environmental conservation;

Using a Policy of ‘Gross National Happiness’ 9 vision of gyalyonggakidpelzom” (Ministry of introduction of ECCD to provide youngsters with Education, p. 1). a transition to formal school and to promote school readiness. Monastic Education System The official language, Dzongkha, and Monastic education is the oldest system of English, are the languages of instruction in pre- education in Bhutan and plays a very important primary and primary 1, with English being the role in Bhutanese society. Compared to medium of instruction for the rest of formal monastic education, the system of modern, schooling. The majority of curricula and text secular education, governed by the Ministry of materials are written and taught in English, Education, has experienced more prominence while Dzongkha is a subject of study, with the since it was introduced in the 1960’s as part of exception that environmental studies is taught in the country’s plan for socioeconomic Dzongkha in the first three primary grades. development. Monastic education is According to an eminent scholar in education administered by the Ministry of Home and (Namgyel, 2014), English has been the main Cultural Affairs and looked after by a Central language of instruction since the beginning of Monastic Body (Zhung Dratshang). In 2013, modern education in Bhutan in the 1960s, to there were 388 monastic education institutions suit the country’s aspirations for socio-economic with 12,389 novices (Ministry of Education, development and international business. 2013). There is no stringent admission age for Transitioning from home languages to Dzongkha children to enter monastic schools and some are and English poses a significant challenge for admitted as young as five years of age. The children who have different home languages, language of instruction in the monastic and many students perform poorly in academic institutions is Choeked6 (Sanskrit) and studies because of their inability to cope with a Dzongkha. Recently, basic English, mathematics language of instruction that they have difficulty and information technology are taught in mastering. Home dialects and languages may be monastic schools. Similar to the modern used by teachers initially to help children education system, monastic schools (Lobdra) decipher text material provided in Dzongkha are organized into primary, middle and higher and English, but children are expected to secondary, each divided into grades with transition to the official languages quickly. different subjects according to grade level and Many primary and secondary schools have a examinations at the end of each grade (Dargye, language policy requiring students to converse n.d.; Dorji, 1991). There are also monastic only in Dzongkha and English during school colleges (Shedra). hours. The unique cultural traditions and Modern Education System philosophy of Bhutan are very evident in school Children enter the formal school system at six settings, activities, and forms of interaction. For years of age, when they commence pre-primary, example, every school day begins with a whole- which is somewhat akin to kindergarten. school assembly up to 30 minutes long, during According to the Gross National Happiness which children stand to sing the national Commission (2013), nearly all (98.5%) of anthem and to recite and listen to prayers led by children enroll in primary school; 78% complete the school principal. Children learn about local Grade 6, and 60% complete Grade 10. The flora and fauna and how to take care of the youth rate (15-24 years) is 86%, while environment. Every school has a garden tended the adult literacy rate (15 years and older) is 55%. by children and often by parent volunteers as The Ministry of Education is promoting the well. Children bring country foods from home in

10 Global Education Review 2(1) traditional containers and sit in small groups to and farms, resulting in a need for alternative share lunches and conversation; many children child care provisions. One exception to these are joined during lunch by parents or national trends is the very small population of grandparents. The concept of being a green children of yak herders who live with their school and living sustainably is taught and often extended families as nomads. reinforced with slogans and sayings painted on Along with the overall growth of nuclear exterior walls. Children wear uniforms designed family households and urbanization, there is in the traditional Bhutanese styles for males and growing recognition of the importance of the females. Most children with disabilities remain early years for securing the country’s future with with their families and are welcomed at school if a generation of young people who have been they can get there. Most communities do not supported from birth with health care, early provide transportation for school (many stimulation, and preschool education to achieve children walk to school on paths through fields their full potential. These shifts have pointed to and forests). Children with significant sensory, the potential for an increased role of out-of- physical or mental impairments are taught in home early learning and child development special schools for some time before programs. transitioning to mainstream classrooms in their hometowns and villages. Inception of ECCD ECCD Policy Rapid Social Change Under the 11th Five Year Plan for the country Bhutan is undergoing rapid social change: it is (2014-2018), the Ministry of Education one of the newest in the world; it is established a national education policy which rapidly urbanizing with an anticipated also includes a policy on ECCD. The national quadrupling of the urban population over the education policy passed the Gross National next decade, along with the associated increase Happiness Commission’s policy screening test in urban poor. Until very recently, nearly all and is awaiting the Cabinet’s approval. As with children lived a pastoral existence with their every new initiative in Bhutan, proposed extended families in rural and remote settings expansion of early childhood provisions must be where they had been steeped in Buddhist considered from the point of view of the religion, Indigenous knowledge about how to government’s efforts to preserve traditional live on the land, and the culture and language of values and must also be congruent with GNH their particular ethnic group. Many families are values and principles. These include an shifting from extended family units and emphasis on culturally based practices that collective farming to nuclear families, and to protect and promote the central role of the work beyond the village, which involves moving family in child rearing, which is one of the four or commuting to towns and the capital city of pillars of Bhutan’s unique Gross National . Traditional lifestyles and associated Happiness Policy. The goal of protecting and early socialization experiences are radically sustaining the central roles of local cultural changing, as the country opens up to globalizing teaching and learning and family-based care for influences through widespread access to the children may appear to be incongruent with the internet, increased exposure to foreign tourists, concept of out-of-home care for young children. and expanded trade relations with India and Like many countries around the world, in other technologically advanced countries. As Bhutan, the government and families face well, there is steady growth in women’s difficult choices arising from the movement of participation in the workforce beyond the home many families away from extended family

Using a Policy of ‘Gross National Happiness’ 11 homesteads and into towns and cities, and an program guidelines, created advocacy materials increase in dual-earner families. These social and resource packages to support ECCD changes have increased the acceptability of out- implementation. As well, in 2010, this unit of-home care as an alternative to traditional convened a group of in-country advisors to childhoods. review, adapt, and ultimately adopt the U.S. The ECCD policy supports a four-pronged based Early Learning and Development strategy to: (1) promote sound parenting and Standards (ELDS) with its standard domains, child care practices for young children through including: language and communication, home and family based interventions using the cognitive/intellectual, approaches toward mass media and non-formal education centres; learning, physical health and motor (2) promote early stimulation of infants and development, social and emotional development. toddlers through health care centres; (3) The Bhutan group added a country-specific promote and support early childhood care and domain: moral, spiritual and cultural development centres (i.e., ) run by the development. Although the ELDS has not yet private sector, civil society organizations, been implemented, the Ministry of Education corporate bodies, and the Ministry of Education hopes that they will serve as aspirational with assistance from UNICEF and Save the principles to guide development of the sector, Children, in order to enhance early learning including new professional development courses opportunities for children aged 3 to 5 years, and (Choden, 2013). (4) support interventions in schools to improve teaching and learning practices, particularly in ECCD Programs the first two years of primary school, to help The ECCD policy supports the introduction of children aged 6 to 8 years to maintain and centre-based ECCD programs. By the end of increase gains made through ECCD programs 2013, 7% of boys and girls in Bhutan were and services, and also to enhance the readiness enrolled in an ECCD program (Gross National of schools for young children (Choden, 2013). Happiness Commission, 2013). Nearly all Under the government’s 10th Five Year children’s first exposure to group settings for Plan (2009-2013), the Ministry of Education learning occurs when they enter formal established an ECCD unit within its Department schooling at six years of age. The government’s of School Education as a nodal agency for all 11th Five Year Plan has set 10% access to matters related to ECCD, with the mandate to preschool as a target for 2014-2018. The plan, coordinate, and implement ECCD plans quantity and categories of current programs are and programs. This unit has established ECCD shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Centre-based Preschools in Bhutan in 2013 Type of ECCD No Teachers

Boys Girls Total Male Female Total Community 82 1064 1024 2088 1 115 116 NGO Funded 27 71 77 148 0 9 9 Workplace 9 126 148 274 0 20 20 Private 47 697 628 1325 11 174 185 Total 165 1958 1877 3835 12 318 330 (Annual Education Statistics 2013, Ministry of Education, Thimphu)

Using a Policy of ‘Gross National Happiness’ 15

These programs are overseen by the graduate degree in ECCD. These are aspirations: district (Dzongkhag) education officers, pre- there are currently no accredited courses or primary teachers trained in a Step by Step ECCD certificate, diploma or degree programs in ECCD approach and by three ECCD program officers in Bhutan. However, the Royal University of within the Ministry of Education. As shown, Bhutan has agreed in principle to introduce programs include roughly 82 community based accredited ECCD programs if funding can be preschools in rural settings, nine workplace found to develop and deliver them. Currently, based ECCD centres, 47 private ECCD centres, UNICEF provides financial and technical and 27 ECCD centres across the country that are support to lecturers at Paro College of Education, run by non-government organizations. To date, which is part of the Royal University of Bhutan, none of these programs are regulated, although to develop courses for a two-year post-secondary the physical infrastructure (facilities including diploma program in ECCD. building, toilets, outdoor play space) must be Some community-based ECCD licensed by the Ministry of Education. There is practitioners have no training at all (and often no standard curriculum, mandated program have not completed secondary school) and some components or model, nutrition requirements, have participated in short-term (e.g., 10 days) or standard set of resources. New ECCD Facilitators Training and a three to Community based (i.e., publically funded) five day ECCD refresher course provided by the preschool ranges from five to seven hours per Ministry of Education and Save the Children. day. This is often preceded and followed by a These short courses are generic training long walk from home and back, typically in small packages developed by western ECCD specialists groups accompanied informally by an older and delivered by the Ministry of Education. sibling, parent, or grandparent from the There is no culturally specific content and, apart children’s village. Ministry of Education policy from pointers on how to make local learning stipulates that children’s journeys to and from materials from local materials, there is no school–including preschool children– do not guidance on how to incorporate local funds of exceed one hour of walking each way. In knowledge, languages, cultures, family skills or community ECCD centres, the government pays parents’ goals for their children’s development. for children to attend. In workplace based ECCD centres, the employee pays a nominal fee Study of the Emerging ECCD for children to attend. In NGO centres, the NGO Sector pays for children to attend. In private ECCD, From 2011-2012, a national study was conducted parents pay for children to attend. to assess perceptions of the need and goals for

ECCD programs in Bhutan, their desired ECCD Practitioner Training characteristics, and the associated need for As yet, there is no professional development development of professional capacity to design, system to produce a cadre of well-qualified operate, and monitor ECCD programs. The ECCD practitioners or leaders. For their 11th study was led by the co-authors, along with a Five Year Plan, the Ministry of Education has set study team that included representatives of four a target of recruiting secondary school (class 12) partners in the study: the Royal Education graduates to work as full-time practitioners in Council, the Royal University of Bhutan, the ECCD programs with a basic one year certificate Ministry of Education, and the Ministry of in ECCD, followed by a diploma, degree and

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Health. At the time of the study reported below, and preschool providers strongly supported conducted from 2011 to 2012, there were about expansion of centre-based programs for young half the number of ECCD programs as there are children. Their main reasons for supporting this today as shown in Table 1. To date, this is the new concept were, respectively: (1) to provide only known study of ECCD in Bhutan conducted safety and care for children while parents are with Bhutanese partners and scholars. The working; (2) to enable children to learn, study was supported by the Open Society especially English and Dzongkha alphabets, Foundation (www.opensocietyfoundations.org/). before starting formal schooling; and (3) to Over 200 individuals were surveyed provide socialization outside the home. and/or interviewed for the study. At least one practitioner from every community-based A Made-in-Bhutan Approach to preschool program in the country completed a Professional Education in ECCD questionnaire sent to them by mail (most The broad study of ECCD confirmed programs have only one practitioner). Ten parent and community demand to develop the practitioners from some private preschools also ECCD sector. The ECCD policy within the completed the questionnaire. As well, the study National Education Policy requires a team interviewed representatives of government professional education system for front-line institutions (Ministry of Education, Ministry of practitioners to deliver a spectrum of infant, Health, National Commission for Women and toddler, and preschool programs. Partners in Children); autonomous institutions (Royal the scoping study agreed that development of a Education Council, Royal Institute of Health professional system of career-laddered Science, Royal University of Bhutan), non- certificate, diploma, degree and graduate government organizations (Save the Children, courses on early childhood care and UNICEF, Loden Foundation, Tarayana development is timely. This will help to ensure Foundation, Draktsho Vocational Institute, and the quality of an array of programs and services the Respect Education Nurture and Empower for young children and their families. Paro Women Organization), and key individuals College of Education in the Royal University of including Dzongkhag education officers and Bhutan was identified as the best place to start village head-men. Focus groups meetings were to deliver the professionalization program. conducted with over 100 parents and with pre- Leaders in the development of the ECCD primary school teachers. The team also engaged sector are acutely aware of the value and need to over 40 young children in a number of villages in bring local funds of knowledge into early conversations about their wishes and needs in learning curricula, and to preserve and cherish regards to going to preschool. The design and long-held cultural and religious traditions interpretation of the study paid close attention through the early childhood programs. At the to the country’s overarching GNH policy as the conclusion of the study, a made in Bhutan end product of development, asking approach to post-secondary education in ECCD, interviewees for their views on the importance of conceived by the study team, was resoundingly the policy and their ideas for implementing the endorsed by government and university policy in the context of ECCD. representatives. Conceptually, this bi/multi- The study found that parents, community cultural approach emphasizes the benefits of level governing bodies and leaders, government incorporating the best of the west while and non-government actors, and private nursery

Using a Policy of ‘Gross National Happiness’ 17 affording a central place for local knowledge, pride in who they are as Bhutanese citizens. values, and practices in professional training Bhutanese scholar Pedey (2013) warned that in and early childhood programs. The aspirational the absence of capacity for ECCD in Bhutan, the vision informing this made in Bhutan approach government and private practitioners rely on is one of children continuing to develop their external consultants who know little about the strong identification with and knowledge about cultures and languages. The attendant risk of the land, their families’ religion, cultural importing western approaches to the exclusion traditions, and forms of social interaction, while of local goals for children and local funds of also benefiting from some formal instruction knowledge is very high. A balance must be and opportunities for socialization beyond their reached, as the made in Bhutan approach home and village. identified in the study reported here Support for a made-in-Bhutan approach underscored. suggests that Bhutanese leaders in education and community development are exercising Incorporating GNH into ECCD caution about importing fully elaborated, Leaders in developing the ECCD sector in prescriptive, brand name pedagogical Bhutan have pointed to GNH as a national approaches, early learning curricula and philosophy that could provide direction for resources in order to ensure that the country can development of the sector (Choden, 2013; Pedey, sustain its long-held cultural traditions and 2013). Indigenous knowledge, and support children’s

Pillar 1: Sustainable and equitable development: Economic development for all Bhutanese

. Learn about fairness

. Want only what we need

Pillar 2: Environmental conservation: care for nature and others

. Appreciate the importance of the environment

. Do not use non-degradable items

Pillar 3: Cultural Promotion: Preserve wisdom of an ancient culture

. Respect parents, extended family, neighbours

. Labour for the good of all: classroom, playground and toilet cleaning and beautification

 Incorporate Bhutanese folk tales and stories

Pillar 4: Good governance: good

. Resolve conflicts peacefully

. Do everything in a democratic way

. Be honest

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Discussion programs for children who have traditionally This section explores the potential for learned at the hearth and side by side with congruence of the current approach to ECCD adults in their agrarian villages. Yet research with the GNH policy in Bhutan. shows that centre-based programs for young School readiness was the most recurring children do not yield cognitive gains and can objective of ECCD identified by participants in produce social behaviour problems if the the study reported here. Similarly, documents programs are not of high quality (Peisner- and discussions by the Ministry of Education Feinberg & Burchinal, 1997). Moreover, centre- identify school readiness as the main aim of based programs can erode the responsibility of ECCD, underscoring the potential of ECCD to extended family members and villages to care contribute to the country’s pursuit of the for children (Swadener et al., 2000). As well, Millenium Development Goals and Education some countries have found that provision of for All. The GNH policy, especially Pillar 3, preschool as a form of child care does not always enshrines the importance of preserving the result in increased maternal participation in the wisdom of an ancient culture, including the labour force (Cascio & Schanzenbach, 2013; central role of the family in caring for children. Fitzpatrick, 2010). This outcome was suggested When families shift from extended to during the national study in Bhutan, where nuclear units, and when women’s traditional mothers, and sometimes fathers, were often seen roles as primary caregivers shift to roles in the at community-based preschools waiting for their labour force outside the home--as they are all children all day--perhaps because of the hour over the world-- various non-traditional long walk each way to drop off and pick up their arrangements to care for young children must be children. found. To promote a country’s economic At the present time, Bhutan has chosen to development objectives, citizens often expect explore centre-based preschool programs with that public funds should be directed towards explicit early learning objectives that appear to supporting alternative child care arrangements. focus on learning the rudiments of Dzongkha This situation does not necessarily call for and English. As noted, there is little to no centre-based care or early learning programs training for preschool facilitators, and facilities such as preschool or kindergarten. Preschool is are often extremely basic. The centres provide not child minding. There is a significant new opportunities for children to socialize with difference between child care programs, which is other youngsters beyond their home villages, but an approach to providing group care for children preschool facilitators lack training, mentorship when family members are not available, and and supervision to ensure that children’s social preschool or kindergarten, which are generally interactions are constructive. As well, there is oriented towards promoting optimal child often only one facilitator for a group of up to 20 development and learning. children. (In large classes with two co- In many countries, the state seems all too facilitators, there are no arrangements for willing to take over the family’s role in caring for substitutes if one is unable to come to work). children through various forms of institutional Although strongly discouraged by the ECCD unit based care, including centre-based infant care in the Ministry of Education, the use of and preschool programs When there are high traditional ways of disciplining a child, including numbers of children who do not enroll in school corporal punishment is acknowledged, or who fail early grades, governments often particularly when the ECCD facilitator has not respond to a push from international received practitioner training. Without training, organizations to establish early learning a holistic curriculum that reflects elements of the

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GHN philosophy, or quality assurance, it is Reasons given for this emphasis were that: (1) reasonable to ask whether the emerging ECCD children’s transition for formal schooling will be sector would do better to support (at least on a facilitated by becoming familiar with the two pilot basis in a mixed-model approach) a village- languages used in Primary 1; and (2) it is widely level, family daycare model, where one caregiver understood that there are no orthographies for or family within a village is supported with other languages spoken in the country. Demand training, mentorship, supervision and for preschool in the majority language of remuneration to care for village children in their instruction in formal school is also extremely home or a nearby facility. Family based daycare common among parents and educators around would seem to be more congruent with the GNH the world. In Bhutan, the effort to promote policy, with its emphasis on the family’s role in school readiness in both private and caring for children and maintenance of cultural community-based preschools visited by the traditions, and could also provide longer hours study team largely consisted of children’s to cover the time that dual career parents are at engagement in teacher-led rote recitation and work or in the fields. copying of the letters and sounds of the The choice of centre-based preschool in Dzongkha and English alphabets and numbers Bhutan seems to be driven by the perceived need with few instances of learning through play. to introduce children early to the rudiments of Lack of support in ECCD for facilitating the two languages of instruction they will be children’s proficiency with their home language required to master when they transition to is increasingly common in preschools around formal schooling. What are the potential the world and a potent source of language loss subtractive effects of early learning programs in around the world, with the attendant loss of Bhutan? cultural knowledge and diversity. This lack of support reflects parent demand, teacher Home Language Proficiency recruitment and training practices, and The National Education Policy in Bhutan does international pressure to measure children’s not comment on the language of instruction to learning in early grades using standardized early be used in ECCD. According to the Chief learning measurement tools, such as Early Program Office for ECCD in the Ministry of Grade Reading Assessment, that do not take into Education in Bhutan (Gyeltshen, 2014), ECCD account uneven learning trajectories when practitioners are encouraged to use children’s children are gaining proficiency in two or more home languages and not to restrict their languages. This is especially so in settings interactions to English and Dzongkha. The where there is no option to participate in formal reality, however, is that one of the main schooling that offers instruction in the home activities in centre-based ECCD in Bhutan is rote language, so that supporting acquisition of the recitation of the letters and sounds of English majority language of instruction is part of and Dzongkha. becoming school ready. A majority of participants in the study The rapidly changing situation in Bhutan emphasized the value of centre-based preschool brings to the fore some of the possible trade-offs experience for facilitating children’s acquisition in a country that aims to use early childhood of Dzongkha and English so that children do not programs as a vehicle to improve readiness for a lose their first three years of primary school modernized school system. The main trade-off struggling–and often failing–to learn English that appears to be imminent in Bhutan is and Dzongka. Virtually no one identified children’s opportunity to become fully proficient support for ethno-minority linguistic proficiency. in their home language and, potentially, a

Using a Policy of ‘Gross National Happiness’ 17 second language that is the lingua franca of their MLE) is a moot question. In many countries, geographic region, and to use this language in when MTB-MLE is offered for formal schooling, their formal learning journeys. parent demand for ECCD programs to focus on A large research literature has shown that acquisition of dominant languages sometimes children’s first language is the optimal language shifts to demand for ECCD programs to play a for literacy and learning throughout primary role in maintaining and developing children’s school (UNESCO, 2008a). Indeed, some proficiency in their home language (Ball & educators argue that only those countries where McIvor, 2013). This seems a likely scenario in the learner’s first language is the language of many parts of Bhutan, where cultural continuity instruction are likely to achieve the goals of and happiness with who one is and what one has Education for All. UNESCO has encouraged are superordinate values. home language instruction in primary education It is not hard to grasp all that may be at since 1953 (UNESCO, 1953). In its report, stake for ethno-linguistic minority children in Strong Foundations: Early Childhood Care and Bhutan and for the nation as a whole from Education, UNESCO (2007) highlights the neglect of ethno-linguistic diversity in the advantages of MLE right from the start. For context of formal learning. Outcomes may range example: children are more likely to enroll and from children developing low self-efficacy as succeed in school (Kosonen, 2005); parents are learners when faced with the need to learn more likely to communicate with teachers and English and Dzongkha as soon as they enter participate in their children’s learning (Benson, school, not being able to succeed in learning 2002); girls and rural children with less tasks, teachers feeling overwhelmed by exposure to a dominant language stay in school children’s inability to participate, early longer and repeat grades less often (Hovens, experiences of school failure, not becoming fully 2002; UNESCO Bangkok, 2005); and children in literate because of struggles to master two new MLE tend to develop certain types of cognitive written languages, and so on. For those children flexibility and mentalinguistic awareness earlier who do succeed, perhaps through a language and better than their monolingual peers (e.g., transition program that helps them to acquire Bialystok, 2001; Cummins, 2000; King & Dzongkha and English, there is still the risk of Mackey, 2007). subtractive effects of schooling whereby children Yet, Bhutan is one of many countries fail to become linguistically competent members around the world that insist on exclusive use of of their local communities and lose the ability to one or two privileged languages, while excluding access their cultural heritage. While some other languages (Arnold, Bartlett, Gowani, & children may continue to develop proficiency in Merali, 2006). A common understanding in their first language while succeeding in school in Bhutan, attested to by the findings of the study English, this does not happen automatically. In reported earlier, is that parents demand ECCD other countries where outcome research is programs that have as a primary goal teaching available, studies show that many children who their children English and Dzongkha to save speak non-dominant languages and dialects do them from early school difficulties and failure. not become fully proficient in their home This parent demand is understandable, given the languages, resulting in an inability to language challenges that children will face upon communicate about more than mundane school entry. However, whether parents would matters with parents and grandparents. In other demand English and Dzongkha acquisition as countries where this situation exists, there is ECCD goals if formal schooling offered home rapid depletion of the nation’s repository of language based multilingual education (MTB- languages and dialects and the cultural

18 Global Education Review 2(1) knowledge that is carried through them. In ECCD programs and during the transition to Bhutan, avoiding this kind of cultural loss is the school to prepare children meaningfully for the stated purpose of the GNH policy and mix of language(s) they will need to acquire for implementing Commission. success in primary school. There is a growing literature describing Given the important role of family circumstances, resources and models that are members as children’s primary caregivers and working around the world to successfully first teachers in Bhutan, leaders in ECCD could support learning of ethno-linguistic minority explore how to involve community members children through home language based, with diverse language skills in ECCD programs multilingual education (MTB-MLE) (e.g., and in primary schools. There is a need to Benson & Kosonen, 2013; Yiakoumetti, 2012). develop and evaluate strategies for training This literature is beginning to answer questions ECCD facilitators and lower primary teachers to such as: be effective in MTB-MLE classrooms.  Under what circumstances and with In many countries, education authorities what resources can MTB-MLE be an effective, raise objections to allowing education to additive approach whereby children become encompass non-dominant languages, with proficient in their home language while laying similar arguments used to justify restrictive the foundation for learning in additional language in education policies. The most languages? common argument in Bhutan is that there are no  What are the costs and benefits of writing systems to support the development of alternative approaches in varying situations and literacy in any languages in Bhutan besides at different levels, from the individual, the Dzongkha and English. However, two of the family, community, school, region, and nation? languages, Lepcha and Nepali, are written  What are meaningful yet efficient ways languages with literacy traditions in other to measure costs and benefits? What are the countries. As well, there is the potential to implications of MTB-MLE for recruiting, develop orthographies for Bhutan’s other, educating, and mentoring teachers and teacher unwritten languages. A small indication of this assistants and for creating and evaluating potential was gleaned by the authors when they curricula in diverse language classrooms? engaged a group of teenagers who were using  What are the contributions of family and their phones to text in Tshangla (Sharchop)--one community in formal and non-formal MTB-MLE, of the languages, spoken by between 18.6% and and how can these be measured? 21.2% of the population, especially in the eastern Investment in a coordinated program of region, that is purported not to have research could advance knowledge about such orthography. While phone texting hardly questions in order to inform national language approximates the development of orthography, in education policies, teacher training, and local this encounter hints at the potential for an approaches to language of instruction in formal unwritten language to become a medium of text- and non-formal education. based communication. Elsewhere in the world, A coordinated program of research in steps are being taken to create orthographies for Bhutan could advance knowledge about these oral languages in order to ensure their survival kinds of questions in order to inform national and so they can become languages of learning in language in education policies, teacher training, formal education. and local approaches to language in education in The Tibeto-Burman languages of Bhutan formal school and in ECCD programs. Research were not documented until recently, with the is also needed on steps that can be taken in exception of Dzongkha, which has a native

Using a Policy of ‘Gross National Happiness’ 19 literacy tradition in Bhutan. The government of – one of Bhutan’s endangered languages. Bhutan is now advocating for the creation of Investment in the process of developing Tibetan--or Dzongkha--or Tibetan-like (Ucen) orthographies for at least the languages in orthographies for its endangered languages Bhutan that are spoken widely, such as Tshangla (Hyslop, 2011). Many of Bhutan’s languages are (unwritten lingua franca of eastern Bhutan) endangered including: 300 Brokkat speakers, would be congruent with the GNH policy, 5000 Brokpa speakers, 1100 Layakha speakers, especially Pillar 3, which promotes preservation 1000 Khampa Tibetan speakers, 1000 Dakpa of the wisdom of ancient cultures. Languages speakers, 1000 Chali speakers, 1000 ‘Olekha are the vehicles for expressing and preserving speakers, and 1000 Gongduk speakers – to cultural knowledges. This is intangible cultural name a few that are in the endangered range heritage--traditional and Indigenous knowledge, (SIL International, 2006). beliefs, and practices that are time-tested, forged Around the world, along with increasing through the experiences of generations and recognition of language endangerment and of expressed with often-unique concepts and the cultural knowledge and identity that is lost expressions of a common tongue. Respect for when a language dies, there is increased interest multiple languages broadens the base of and investment in creating orthographies for knowledge from which everyone can draw, unwritten language endangerment (Cahill & Rice, contributing to a global knowledge repository. 2014). For example SIL international holds Some governments regard home annual symposia on this topic, and has languages as subversive to national unity. numerous projects to assist minority language Indeed, national unity is reportedly one of the groups to develop written versions of their motivations for establishing Dzongkha as the languages and to deliver education in these national language (Van Driem). However, this languages (Malone, 2004) Literacy in an outlook is contradicted by studies that show that endangered language can strengthen a non-dominant groups whose languages and language’s vitality, raise the perceived status of cultures are respected rather than repressed will the language, make it possible communicate in be more loyal to the state. As UNESCO Director new ways, preserve cultural knowledge, and General Irina Bokova underscores: “Recognizing make it easier to disseminate certain types of local languages enables more people to make information, such as health information, their voices heard and take an active part in their agricultural innovations, and education. collective fate. The protection and promotion of Language documentation methodologies home languages are keys to global citizenship have improved, and are aided by new and authentic mutual understanding.” technologies. This can be a complex Many linguists, educators, and world undertaking and requires specific technical leaders agree that perhaps the greatest threat to expertise on linguistic and non-linguistic factors home languages is posed by education systems that need to be considered in order to represent that refuse to use them as languages of an oral language (Adams, 2014). However, it instruction or even as subjects of study. In the can be done and is especially urgent in the face context of Bhutan, where there are nineteen of imminent language loss in almost every distinct languages, promoting children’s country in the world, including Bhutan. An acquisition of their home language, Dzongkha example of this is the work of Hyslop (2014), and English through formal education would who worked with the Dzongkha Development help to ensure a sense of social inclusion and Commission in Bhutan to develop a preliminary ethnic pride, sustainability of local knowledge, Roman and Ucen-based orthography for Kurtop and communication within the country and on

20 Global Education Review 2(1) the global stage. Other countries in the region, folk heroes and stories (e.g., Ap Wang Drugay, including , Cambodia, and the Meme Heyley Heyley and others) could be , have new national language polices pursued through the development of children’s that support processes to recruit and train home books, cartoon serials, and other learning language teachers and to develop home language resources. Using the GNH policy to guide and textbooks and other learning materials, enable development of the ECCD sector will including sometimes creating an alphabet. One ensure that cultural traditions and step that is being implemented in Bhutan is to epistemological knowledge residing within ensure that ECCD practitioners and teachers Bhutan’s multi-ethnic, multi-lingual who speak a particular language are assigned to communities is explicitly considered and teach in the communities that also speak that incorporated in the evolution of policy and in language. ECCD teaching and learning.

Inclusion of Multiple Cultures and Conclusion Languages This article highlights what might be sustained Bhutan has many rich cultures to draw upon and what might be sacrificed through the and strong commitment to respect for all introduction of centre-based ECCD programs as sentient beings and the connections among this formerly isolated Himalayan Kingdom beings in the natural world and in families and opens up to hegemonic and homogenizing forces communities. This recognition of of globalization. The foregoing description of interdependence, enshrined in the GNH policy, the emergence of an ECCD sector in Bhutan encompasses values and beliefs that are points to the role that national aspirations, pertinent to the well-being of young children, embodied in a superordinate, visionary policy their families, and communities. While policy like GNH, could play in promoting social based on a holistic approach has been a inclusion, language maintenance, and pervasive term in ECCD and in education in preservation of culturally-based wisdom. As general, the mutual interdependence that is Bhutanese scholar Pedey (2013) states: “The reinforced throughout the pillars, domains, and goal of the Bhutanese education system is to values of Bhutan’s GNH policy provides a depth prepare children to be GNH graduates. This and breadth of understanding and scope that goal requires foundations to be laid from the could be highly instrumental if it was applied to early childhood period.” Providing scope for the design, delivery and monitoring of ECCD multiple languages of instruction, including and professional development programs. This Dzongkha, English and students’ home can also help to guard against an over languages, right from the start in ECCD, can enthusiastic reach for models and curricula from enrich and empower the next generation to outside the country, as so often happens when a uphold the pillars of GNH while becoming global country identifies resource gaps that it quickly citizens, leading to a more sustainable future. wants to fill. One step to make ECCD curriculum consistent with GNH philosophy is Notes to revive the age-old tradition of story-telling 1. The treaty was revised in 1920 and 1949, and to incorporate folk tales and local literature. and concluded in 2007. With globalization and the advent of television, 2. Until the 1960s, the only formal Hindi and English cartoon characters have education available in Bhutan except for become very popular with Bhutanese children. a handful of private schools was through Reviving and strengthening the status of cultural Buddhist monasteries.

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3. ‘Ucen is the Tibetan-based orthography http://www.arnec.net/ntuc/slot/u2323/ECD%20con derived from Brahmi in the 7th century ference%202013/ARNEC%20PPT%20III.pdf Cummins, J. (2000). Language, power and . C.E. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters. 4. Formerly people from Nepal who settled Dargye,Y. (n.d.). An overview of Bhutan’s Monastic in Bhutan before 1950. Education System. Retrieved on February 26, 2014 5. For information on GNH visit: from www.vesakday.mcu.ac.th/vesak49/article/pdf/Bhu http://www.gnhc.gov.bt/wp- tan_Monastic_Edu.pdf content/uploads/2013/04/GNH-FAQs- Dorji, R. (1991). A Brief historical background of the pdf.pdf; http://www.gnhc.gov.bt/; religious institutions of Bhutan. Buddhist Himalaya: http://www.bhutanstudies.org.bt/ A journal of Nagarjuna Institute of exact methods. Vol III, No. I & II. 6. The liturgical, religio-philosophical, Fitzpatrick, M. D. (2010). Preschoolers enrolled and mothers language of the Dharma. at work? The effects of universal pre-kindergarten. Journal of Labor , 28(1), 51-58. References Gross National Happiness Commission (2008). Gross Adams, L. (2014). Case studies of orthography decision National Happiness Policy Screening Tools. making in mainland Southeast Asia. In M. Cahill & K. Thimphu, Bhutan: Author. Rice (Eds.). Developing orthographies for unwritten http://www.iaia.org/hia2010/proceedings/HIA%20 language (pp. XX). Dallas: TX: SIL International. 2010%20Presentations%20PDFs/4%2 Arnold, C., Bartlett, K., Gowani, S., & Merali, R. (2006). Is 0Wed%2011am%20Workshop%20%20Gross%20 everybody ready? Readiness, transition and National%20Happiness/Bhutan_GNH continuity: Reflections and moving forward. _screening_tool.pdf Background paper for EFA Global Monitoring Report Gross National Happiness Commission (2013). Eleventh 2007. Five Year Plan Volume 1: Main Document. Thimphu, Ball, J., & McIvor, O. (2011). Canada’s big chill: Indigenous Bhutan: Author. languages in education. In C. Benson & K. Kosonen Gyeltshen, K. (2014). Personal communication, Thimphu, (Eds.). Language issues in comparative education: Bhutan, January 15, 2014. Inclusive teaching and learning in non-dominant Hyslop, G. (2014). Kurtop orthography development in languages and cultures. (pp. 19-38). Rotterdam: Bhutan. In M. Cahill & K. Rice (Eds.). Developing Sense Publishers. orthographies for unwritten language (pp. XX). Benson, C. (2002). Real and potential benefits of bilingual Dallas: TX: SIL International. progammes in developing countries. International King, K., & Mackey, A. (2007). The bilingual edge: Why, Journal of and Bilingualism, 5 when, and how to teach your child a second (6), 303-317. language. New York: Collins. Benson, C., & Kosonen, K. (Eds.) (2013). Language issues in Kosonen, K. (2005). Education in local languages: Policy and comparative education: Inclusive teaching and practice in Southeast Asia. First languages first: learning in non-dominant languages and cultures. Community-based literacy programmes for Rotterdam: Sense Publishers. minority language contexts in Asia. Bangkok: Cahill, M., & Rice, K. (2014). Developing orthographies for UNESCO Bangkok. unwritten language. SIL International. Liang, X., Fuller, B., & Singer, J.D. (2000). Ethnic Cascio, E.U., & Schanzenbach, D.W. (2013). The impacts of differences in child care selection: the influence of expanding access to high-quality preschool education family structure, parental practices, and home Washington, DC: Brookings Institute Panel on language. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, Economic Activity. 15(3), 357-384. http://www.brookings.edu/~/media/Projects/BPEA Lewis, M., Simons, G.F., & Fennig, C.D. (Eds.). (2013). /Fall%202013/2013b%20cascio%20preschool%20ed Ethnologue: Languages of the world (17th Ed.). ucation.pdf Dallas, TX: SIL International. Choden, K. (2014). Nurturing the seeds of happiness: ECCD www.ethnologue.com budget for the Eleventh Five Year Plan (2014-2018) Malone, D. L. (2003). Developing curriculum materials for under Ministry of Education, Royal Government of endangered : Lessons from the Bhutan. Paper presented at the Annual Conference field. International Journal of Bilingual Education of the Asia Regional Network for Early Childhood, and Bilingualism, 6(5), 332. , November 20. Malone, S. (2004). Planning mother tongue-based education programs in minority language

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communities. Bangkok : SIL International – Asia White, A. (2007). A global projection of subjective well- Area. http://www.sil.org/resources/archives/41126 being: A challenge to positive psychology? Psychtalk, Namgyel, S. (2014). Personal Communication. Thimphu, 56, 19-20. Bhutan, January 15, 2014. Yiakoumetti, A. (Ed.) Harnessing linguistic variation to Open Society Foundations: improve education. Rethinking Education Vol. 5. www.opensocietyfoundations.org/ Bern: Peter Lang. Pedey, K. (2013). A Gross National Happiness (GNH) inspired early childhood care and education About the Authors programme: A dialogue on harmonizing western Jessica Ball, MPH, PhD, is a professor in the School of theories and Bhutanese funds of knowledge. Paper Child and Youth Care at the University of Victoria in Canada. presented at the Annual Conference of the Asia She is a specialist in the cultural nature of child development. Regional Network for Early Childhood, Singapore, She was the external lead in the study reported in this article. November 19. She has a strong commitment to protecting cultural and www.arnec.net/ntuc/slot/u2323/ECD%20conferenc linguistic heterogeneity in the face of the homogenizing e%202013/ARNEC%20PPT%20III.pdf pressures of globalization and especially the dominance of Peisner-Feinberg, E.S., & Burchinal, M.R. (1997). Relations English as the language of formal education. She has worked between preschool children’s child-care experiences on three continents, most recently focusing on strengthening and concurrent development: The cost, quality, and local capacity for culturally-grounded and multilingual early outcomes study. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 43(3), childhood care and development programs. She has 451-477. published, consulted, and presented extensively on the Royal Government of Bhutan (1969). Third draft manufacture of marginalized childhoods through laws, , Article 1.S8 and Article 3.S6. policies and practices that exclude ethnic minorities, Thimphu: Bhutan, Author. Indigenous people, girls and differently abled children Royal Government of Bhutan (2007). Population Projections (www.ecdip.org). of Bhutan 2005-2030. Thimphu, Bhutan, Royal Government of Bhutan, National Statistics Bureau. Karma Chimi Wangchuk. M.Ed., is a Bhutanese lecturer Royal Government of Bhutan (2013). Annual Education at Paro College of Education in the Royal University of Statistics 2013. Thimphu, Bhutan: Royal Bhutan, where he is part of a team developing the first post- Government of Bhutan, Ministry of Education. secondary courses in early childhood care and development. Royal Government of Bhutan (2013). National Education He was the Bhutan team leader for the study reported in this Policy. Thimphu, Bhutan: Royal Government of article. He is a member of the Sharchop ethnic population Bhutan, Ministry of Education. and grew up in a remote Himalayan village, experiencing SIL International (2006). Dzongkha. Ethnologue Online. firsthand the importance of learning one’s cultural traditions Dallas: Author. and mother tongue. He is deeply committed to ensuring www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=d retention of cultural traditions, Indigenous knowledges, and zo spirituality through early childhood care and education Swadener, B.B., Kabiru, M., & Njenga, A. (2000). Does the practices as Bhutan opens up beyond the Himalayas to the village still raise the child: A collaborative global arena. study of changing child-rearing and early education in Kenya. New York: State University of New York Press. Thinley, J. Y. (2005). Rethinking development: Local pathways to global wellbeing. Keynote address at The Second International Conference on Gross National Happiness, St. Francis Xavier University, Nova Scotia, Canada, June 20-14. UNESCO (2007). Strong foundations: Early childhood care and education. Paris: Author. UNESCO (2008a). Mother Tongue Matters: Local Language as a Key to Effective Learning. Paris: UNESCO. Van Driem, G.L. (1993). Language policy in Bhutan. London: SOAS. Van Driem, G.L. (2007). The diversity of the Tibeto-Burman language family and the linguistic ancestry of Chinese. Bulletin of Chinese Linguistics, 1.2, 211-270.