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The Historical Path from Research and Development to Operational

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The Historical Path from Research and Development to Operational elementary mathematics program was also tested. The Historical Path from Prior to 1965, the children were transported from Research and Development their schools to the Stanford campus to receive their CAl lessons. The first use of CAl in an to Operational Use of CAl elementary school was in the spring of 1965, when 41 fourth-grade children were given daily arithme­ tic drill-and-practice lessons in their classroom on a Patrick Suppes and teletype machine that was connected to the Insti­ Elizabeth Macken tute's computer by telephone lines (Suppes, 1972). CAl from 1965 to 1970 In this article we will trace the development of In this section we will first continue the story of present-day uses of CAl beginning with the early the development of CAl at Stanford, and then stages in the late 1950s. Because of the brevity of discuss the development of CAl at other institu­ the article, we will limit ourselves to CAl as it has tions. During the 1965-66 school year the Stanford been developed and used in publ ic schools and CAl program expanded to three schools, all con­ universities; we will not include the use of CAl by taining teletypes linked to the IMSSS computer. the military. Even so, we can do little more than About 270 elementary students and 60 high school mention some of the most important projects; we students received drill-and-practice CA I lessons in will, however, give an extensive list of references in mathematics. During the same time about 50 which more detailed information can be found. We elementary students continued to receive the tuto­ divide the article into four time-spans and present rial mathematical logic program at the Institute them in chronological order. (Suppes, 1972). The 1966-67 school year was the first year of CAl Prior to 1965 the Brentwood project (using an IBM 1500 Sys­ The earliest users of CAl were members of the tem), which was an investigation by the Institute computer industry who in the late 1950s used CAl of the feasibility of teaching mathematics and programs to train their own personnel. Electric reading as an integral part of an elementary school typewriters and teletypes were linked to computers, program by using individualized, tutorial CAl over and instructional modules were presented to learners an extended period of time. Each student had two who then responded with one-syllable responses. display devices, a cathode-ray tube (CRT) and a These first modules were programmed in fairly 16mm film projector of the rear projection type. complicated programming languages that were not Each station also contained two headsets-one for easily learned by a lay person, but by 1960 IBM had the student and one for the teacher-by which developed the first CAl author language, Course­ previously recorded oral instructions cQuld be writer I, with which educators could program their transmitted. The students could respond by touch­ curriculum ideas more directly (Me Lagan and ing a light pen to one of the answer choices Sandborgh, 1977). displayed on the CRT or by typing an answer on a In January, 1963, the Institute for Mathematical keyboard which was also part of the station. A Studies in the Social Sciences (I MSSS) at Stanford more detailed description of this project and its University began a program of research and devel­ evaluation is given in Atkinson (1968) and Suppes opment in CAl that has resulted in some of today's and Morningstar (1972). most widely used applications. The Institute's Another highlight of the Institute's work in the program was then under the direction of the senior middle and late 1960s was the development of author of this article and Richard Atkinson. The university-level computer-based programs. In 1967 Institute's first instructional program was a tutorial a first-year Russian program was piloted with curriculum in elementary mathematical logic which Stanford students; all regular classroom work was was first demonstrated late in 1963. During the eliminated and learning took place at Model-35 spring of 1964 the preliminary version of an 'teletypes with Cyrillic keyboards and audiotapes with earphones. The statistical evaluation of this program showed very positive results both in terms of academic achievement and in terms of student Patrick Suppes is Director, Institute for Mathematical interest level, and so a second year of Russian Studies in the Social Sciences, Stanford University, Stan­ instruction was added (Van Campen, 1970; ford, California. Elizabeth Macken is Director, Evaluation Suppes, and Morningstar, 1969). During this time Department, Computer Curriculum Corporation, Palo Alto, the I nstitute had also prepared and tested an California. introductory college-level course in elementary EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY/April, 1978 9 ·. mathematical theories (Suppes, 1972; Suppes, Jer­ tion had been started at two test sites, Phoenix man, and Brian, 196B). This course has since been College and the Alexandria Campus of Northern expanded to two courses, one in mathematical Virginia Community College, and a 32-terminal logic and one in axiomatic set theory J which are system for delivering the TICCIT program had currently in use on the Stanford campus. been installed at Brigham Young University (Mc­ In the 1960s at the University of Illinois another Williams, 1974). widely used CAl project was begun in connection Another use of CAl developed in the early with Control Data Corporation and the National 1970s is the CARE project reported by Cart· Science Foundation (Lacey, 1977). This was the wright, Cartwright, and Robine (1972). The CARE PLATO system, which today delivers interactive curriculum is a self-contained college level course material using alphanumerics, graphics, and anima­ designed to help regular classroom teachers identi­ tion. Axeen {1967} reports the use of a PLATO fy children with particular mental handicaps that CAl curriculum concerning library use; Bitzer and are likely to adversely· affect their academic prog­ Boudreaux (1969) discuss a PLATO course in ress. A unique feature of this CAl program is the nursing; and Coombs and Peters (1971) used the method of dissemination, which is a mobile CAl PLATO system to study CAl in role-pJaying games. unit that can be driven to teachers who request the A number of interesting CAl Projects were also program. By 1972 the unit had served teachers in completed at the Computer Assisted Instruction Maryland, Pennsylvania, Texas, and Washington, Laboratory of the University of Texas. Castleberry D.C. and Lagowski (1970) describe a CAl chemistry During the early and middle 19705 CAl work at course containing 15 modules of supplementary Stanford continued with some revisions of the material for the introductory course in general elementary school curriculums and some special chemistry. Judd, Bunderson, and Bessent (1970) applications of those curriculums to hearing·im­ investigated the effects of learner control in a CAl paired students (Suppes, Macken, and Zanotti, course in precalculus mathematics, and Homeyer 1978; Suppes, Macken, Zanotti, and Poling, 1976). (1970) reported the results of comparing a CAl The Institute also put a great effort into revisions course in computer programming with traditional and expansions of existing university-level curricu­ instruction of the same course. lums and into the creation of new university-level Another center for research in CAl in the late courses. In addition to the curriculums in Logic, 1960s was Florida State University. Hansen, Dick, Axiomatic Set Theory, and Russian, members of and Lippert (1968) discuss the results of imple­ IMSSS and other professors and staff had by 1975 menting a college physics course by means of CAL completed and put into use at the University the The Florida center also conducted several studies following courses: Old Church Slavonic, History on computer managed instruction in a programmed of the Russian Literary Language, Introduction to instruction course (Hagerty, 1970) and a health Bulgarian, Introduction to BASIC, Introduction to education course (Lawler, 1971). LISP, and various courses in music. Details of these Vinsonhaler and Bass (1972) surveyed over 30 curriculums, their implementation, and their evalua­ separate experiments involving a total of about tion are given in Suppes, Smith, and Beard (1977). 10,000 students that compared traditional instruc­ tion with traditional instruction augmented by CAl from 1975 to the Present CAl. This article gives a good overview of some of In this section we discuss several of the currently the important CAl projects of the late 19605 which avaiiabJe CAl systems. We begin with a brief we have not been able to mention here. description of the system available through Comput­ er Curriculum Corporation (CCC), with which both CAl from 1970 to 1975 authors of this article are associated. A CCC CAl Early in 1972 the MITRE Corporation and C. system consists of an instructional computer that Victor Bunderson and associates at Brigham Young can provide individualized lessons to as many as 96 University began the development and field testing CRT or teletype terminals simultaneously. The of the Time-shared, Interactive, Computer-Con­ computer and some or all of the terminals are trolled, Information Television (TICeIT) system of installed at the user's school or other instructional CAL The purpose of the TICCIT project was to use site; some of the terminals can be located at minicomputer and television technology to deliver neighboring sites and are then linked to the CAl lessons and educational
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