VSGCP-N-93-002 C3 l.OARCOPY ONLY

SEAFOODPASTEURIZATION AND IVHMMAL PROCESSINGMANUAI.

Virginia Tech C!RCUt,ATlNGCOPY

Virginia Cooperative Extension

Virginia Sea Grant

National Fisheries Institute

IN%1K al lallfl lePlakW PRL UBRARYBLDG., GSO LNVERSfTYOF R I-'P. "I,i >JD NiSHA$4ASETTF-'< -i .' USA 01! 79dw11 4 SKAFOOD PASTEURIZATION AND MINIMAL PROCESSING MAMJAL

Thomas E. Rippen Virginia SeafoodResearch and ExtensioriCenter Hampton, Virginia

CameronR. Hackney George J. Flick Geoffrey M. Knobl

Departmentof Food Scienceand Technology Virginia PolytechnicInstitute and StateUniversity

Dorm R, Ward Departmentof Food Scienceand Technology North Carolina StateUniversity

In cooperation with Roy E. Martin National Fisheries Institute

Robert Croonenberghs Division of Shellfish Sanitation Virginia Departmentof Health

Virginia Cooperative Extension Publication 600-061 993! Virginia Sea Grant Publication VSG 93-09 Virginia Seafood Research and Extension Center Publication VPI-SG-93-01

Virginia PolytechnicInstitute and StateUniversity Acknowledgments

We thank John Chandlerof the Virginia Tech Departmentof Food Scienceand Technologyand the staff of the Virginia Tech Photo Lab for their assistance, We alsothank Edmund Nelson and Steeltin Can Company, Baltimore, Maryland, for assistingwith the preparationof the Can SeamEvaluation Section; the Wilkens-Anderson Companyfor photosof their can quality control equipment;and the National Food ProcessorsAssociation for their help with seal evaluationportions of this project. We also thank Keith Gates,University of Georgia, for his very thorough critique of the manuscript and for his valuableinsights. This work is a result of researchsponsored by NOAA Office of SeaGrant, V.S. Departmentof Commerce,under federal Grant No. NA90AA-D-SG045 to the Virginia GraduateMarine ScienceConsortium and the Virginia SeaGrant College Program. The V.S. Governmentis authorizedto produceand distribute reprints for governmentalpurposes, notwithstandingany copyright notation that may appearhereon.

VirginiaTech does noi discriminateagainst employees, students, or apphcantson the basisof race, color, scx, sexual orientation,disability, age, veteranstatus, national origin, religion, or political ~on. Anyonehaving cluestions concerningdiscrimination shotdd contact thc Equal Zmploymcnt/A~vs Action Oflice.

VirginiaCooperative Extension progranis and cmploymcntarc open to aH, regardlessof race, color, rchgion,scx, agc, veteran status, national origin, disabi7ity,or pohtical a+hation. An equal opportunityl~rmativc action employer. 1ssucd in furtheranceof Coopcrativc&tension worR, Virginia Polytechnic 1nstitute and State University,Virginia Stare University, and the U.S. Departmentof Agriculturecooperating. Wilham A. Allen, 1nterimDirector, VirginiaCooperative Extension, VirginiaCooperative Extension, Virginia Tech, BlacRsburg; Lorenza W. Lyons,1nterim Adnunistrator, 1890 Extension Program, VirginiaState, Petersburg. Table of Contents

Introduction

SECTION 1 Thermal Processing: Principles and Definitions 3 Definition of Terms...... ,...... , Pasteurization 38 8 Definition and Basis Shelf-life...... ,.11 Pasteurization of Products other than Crabmeat Effect of ContainerType ...... 12 Process Considerations...... , 18

SECTION 2 Cooling and Other Shelf-Life Factors .. 20 Cooling .. 20 Can Seams ,, 23 Under-processing .... 24 Product Temperature...... Initial Microbial Population ., 25 Conceptof Microbial Survivors in a Batch .. 25 A "New" Spoilage Organism .. 28 CrabmeatSpoilage and Proper Retorting ....,....,..., .. .. 28 HACCP as a Quality AssuranceApproach 29 Case Studies of Pasteurization Procedures...... 30 Plant 1 .. 32 Plant 2 .. 32 Plant 3 .. 33 Waterbath circulation .. 33 Microbial Populationsof CookedCrabs and Fresh Crabmeat 34 Discoloration in Pasteurized Crabmeat 37 Cause and Prevention of Blue Discoloration....,...,... 37 Recommendations to Minimize Discoloration...... 38 Other Defects .. 38 Use of Steam Tunnel Processes to Reduce Microbial Levels . 39 Developmentof AtmosphericSteam Process for Flake Crabmeat.. 40 AtmosphericSteam Process for LumpCrabmeat: A Study . 40 Minimally ProcessedSeafoods Sous Vide SeafoodProducts!...... 41 Advantages...... ,...,, .. .. 42 Safety Considerations .. 42 Clostridium botulinurnType E .. 43

SECTION 3

Temperature Measurements ...... 45 Thermocouples...... , . 45 General Application Data ...... 46 Thermocouple Installation ...... 51

Procedures ...... 53 Recorders...... 58

SECTION 4 PasteurizationProcessing Equipment and Controls 62 Recordingand Indicating Thermometers 62 Proportional Flow Steam-ControlValve Agitation of Waterbathto Maintain Uniform Temperature 64 Baskets PasteurizationTank Hook-Up...... Servicing of Equipmen.t 66 Thermometersin RefrigeratedStorage Areas . 67

SECTION 5

Can SeamEvaluation and Can Coding 68 Can Coding...... 69 Double Sear@Evaluation: Determining Proper Formation 70 Double Seam Defined 70 Visual Inspection of External Seam Formation 70 Possible Causes of Cut Overs 71 Possible Causes of Cut Seam....,...,,,...... 73 PossibleCauses of Droops and Lips 75 Possible Causes of False Seam....,...... 75 PossibleCauses of Spinners Checklist: RecommendedDaily SeamerOperating Procedures . 76 Start-up .. 76 Production ...... , .. 77 End of day...... 77 External Seam Measurements...,...,...... ,.77 Seam Width Height, Length! .. 77 Seam Thickness...... , .. 78 Countersink .. 79 Inspection of Internal Seam 79 First Operation Seam Formation...... 80 SecondOperation Seam Formation 81 Tearing Down the Double Seamfor Inspection...... 82 Visual Inspection of Internal Seam....,...,...... , .. 85 Cover Hook Tightness Wrinkle! Rating...... 85 Determining Tightness Wrinkle! Rating...... 86 Possible Causes of Jumped Seam 88 Internal Seam Measurements 89 Double SeamEvaluation: Daily Testing and Records ...... 89 Examination of Cans Prior to Use...,...... 89 Double Seam Evaluation Stripping Seamsfor Inspectionand Measurement 93 Testing Cans f'or Leakage,...,...,...,...... Alternative Packaging: Special Considerations Flexible Pouches and Bags Testing Methodsfor Plastic Packaging....,...,..., . 100 Can Handling 105 Empty Can Handling...... 105 Container Washing......

SECTION 6 General Recordkeeping Requirements 108 Process Documentation....,...... , 108 Cooling Record 109 Distribution Records 109 Can Seam Evaluation...... , 109 Refrigerated Storage Temperature Documentation 109 Record Retention 109 Recordkeepingto Comply with FederalRegulations in the PasteurizedCrabmeat Industry...... 110 Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points HACCP! 110 Critical Control Points and a Pasteurized Crabmeat Process 112 ContainerIntegrity...... ,...,...... ,,,..., 112 Pasteurization 113 StorageTemperature,...... ,...,,...,,,...... 115 Management Review of Critical Control Point Records 116 Coding Requirementsand Recordsof Initial Distribution 116 Seafood HACCP...... ,...,.....,,...,...,..., . 117 Summary...... ,....,...... ,,...... 117

APPENDIX I

CrabmeatIndustry PasteurizationHACCP Recommendations 119

APPENDIX II

Developing a Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Plan 126

APPENDIX III Exampleof a ProcessingProtocol for ModeratelyThermal-Processed Crabmeat... 146

APPENDIX IV

National Blue Crab Industry PasteurizationStandard 152

References 161

Index 168 LiSt Of TableS

Table 1 Observedrelationship of blue crab pasteurizationprocess to refrigerated shelf-life ...... ,...,...... ,...,...... ,, 11 Table 2 Effect of container size on accumulatedF-value when processedin the same

batch...... ,...... 17 Table 3 F-valuesachieved in 187-19' waterbath,401 x 301 cans, crabmeatinitial temperature g.T.!=60-65'F...... , .. 25 Table 4 D-value in secondsof nonspore-formingmicroorganisms at either 185'F or 15 PF ...... ,...... 36 Table 5 Upper TemperatureLimits F! for ProtectedThermocouples for Various Wire Sizes ..... 46 Table 6 Limits of Error for Standardand SpecialGrade Thermocouples...,, 49 Table 7 Essentialand Optional SeamMeasurements ..... 91 Table 8 Example Seam Dimensions for Steel 401 x 301 Can...... 98 Table 9 Causes and Solutions to Common Double Seam Defects 101 LiSt Of FigureS

SECTION 1 Figure l. Logarithmic survivor curve D-value curve!. Illustration definesan organism or population of organismshaving a D», = 1.0 minute...... 3 Figure 2 Example of a thermalresistance curve z-value curve!, illustrating an organism possessinga z-value of 15'F 5 Figure 3 Hypothetical heatpenetration curve assuminginstantaneous heating and cooling. In this example, F, = 30.9 minutes ...... 6 Figure 4 Heat penetrationcurve for 16 oz. of crabmeatin a 401 x 301 can, where F",= 31 minutes...... 7 Figure 5 Product type affects heatingrate and the location of the cold point area of slowest heating! ...... , . 9 Figure 6 Heat penetration curves for crabmeat in 4, 8, and 16 oz. cans heated to 185 F, then cooled in ice slush ...... ,....., 13 Figure 7 Heat penetrationcurve for crabmeatin a 4 oz. can...... 14 Figure 8 Heat penetrationcurve for crabmeatin an 8 oz. can...... 15 Figure 9 Heat penetrationcurve for 16 oz. of crabmeatin a 303 x 406 can ....., . 16

SECTION 2 Figure 10. Cooling rates of pasteurized crabmeat, in 16 oz. cans, under four cooling conditions...... 21 Figure 11 Time needed to cool crabmeat from INPF to 55'F with and without air agitation.....,...,...,...,...,...... ,...,...... , . 22 Figure 12. Waterbathtemperatures in a cooling tank, with and without air agitation 22 Figure 13. Hypothetical representationof a pasteurizedpile of crabrneat,X's and 0's indicate surviving bacteriacapable of prematurespoilage...,...,..... 26 Figure 14. Representationof a pasteurizedpile of crabmeatpartitioned in containers; X's and 0's indicate surviving bacteria capableof randompremature spoilage in the pack...... ,...... 27 Figure 15. Waterbathtemperatures m a heating tank, with and without air agitation ... 31 Figure 16. Effect of initial crabmeattemperature on F-values,401 x 301 cans...... 31

SECTION 3 Figure 17. .. 45 Figure 18. Containerssuitable for pasteurizedand minimally processedseafoods 52 Figure 19. Common thermocouples 53 Figure 20. Thermocoupleassemblies for cansand pouches...... 53 Figure 21. Locating the thermocoupleinsertion point 54 Figure 22. Formingthe pilot holeat the thermocoupleinsertion point 54 Figure 23. Completingthe receptaclehole at the thermocoupleinsertion point ... 55 Figure 24. Inserting the thermocouplereceptacle and gasket ...... ,...... 56 Figure 25. Completingthe thermocouplereceptacle installation 56 Figure 26. Installingthe thermocoupleand gasket into the receptacle...... 57 Figure 27. Completedthermocouple assemblies for a can top left! andfor pouchesor bags 58 Figure 28 Cross sectionof a thermocoupleinstalled in sidewall of can 59 Figure 29 Thermocouplehardware including thermocouple wire andcompatible plug 59 Figure 30 Digital recorder datalogger! 60

SECTION 4

Figure 31. Digital thermocouplethermometers 63 Figure 32. Pasteurizationtank hook-up and recording/monitoringequipment ..... 65

SECTION 5 Figure33. A can leak detectorwhich usesvacuum to draw air out of the suspectcan. Leaks are identified by bubblesviewed through the transparentplate as they rise through water previously poured into the can. 69 Figure 34. Cross sectionalview of seamfollowing first operation...... 71 Figure35. Fully formedseam following second operation 71 Figure 36. Seamcross-section at the crossover lap!, solderedcans...... 72 Figure37. Roll & chuck alignmenton seamer closing machine! 72 Figure 38. Cut or fractured seam ...... ,...,...... ,...... 73 Figure 39. SeamDefects...... ,...... , 74 Figure 40. SeamDefects...... 75 Figure 41. SeamDefects . .. 76 Figure 42. , . 78 Figure 43. .. 78 Figure 44...... ,...,...... ,...... ,...,.... 79 Figure 45 Figure 46. Correct First Operation 80 Figure 47. Correct First Operationat Crossover 80 Figure 48. Tight First Operation...... ,...,...... , .. 81 Figure 49. Loose First Operation .. 81 Figure 50. Normal double seamand overlap .. 82 Figure 51. Wide or long double seam,short overlap...... ,...... 82 Figure 52. Use special seamevaluation opener to remove end of can 83 Figure 53. Tear remainingcenter cover with nipperswithout distorting seam...... 84 Figure 54. Cut through seamand can body ,. 84 Figure 55. Gentlytap down strippedcover to unhookcover from body ...... , 84 Figure 56. Tightness wrinkle! rating in percent .. 86 Figure 57. Cross-sectionalappearance of cover hook correspondingto three wrinkle ratings,...... ,...... ,...... ,.... 86 Figure 58. Stripped cover hooks from loose sean top! and normal seam 87 Figure 59. Location of pressureridge...... ,...,...... ,. 87 Figure 60. A droop on the cover hook .. 88 Figure 61. View of cover hook at the crossover lap! of solderedcan 88 Figure 62. Seamfeatures commonly measured ...... 92 Figure 63, Recording seam measurementson a form ...... ,. 93 Figure 64. Tools commonly usedto tear-downand measuredouble seams ...... 95 Figure 65. Use of a can seam micrometer to measure hooks...... 96 Figure 66. Seam Scopes ...... ,...... 97 Figure 67. Seamsaw used for sectioningdouble seams ...... 98 Figure 68. Long body hook....,...... ,,...,..., . 103 Figure 69. Short body hook...... ,....,,...... 103 Figure 70. Long coverhook,...... ,...... 104 Figure 71. Short coverhook...... ,...... ,...... 104 Moderate temperaturethermal processingis usedto extendthe refrigerated shelf-life of certain pre-packed seafoods. The relatively mild heatingconditions result in color, texture,and flavor characteristicsthat are similarto "fresh" products,but with greatly extendedshelf-life. While almostany seafoodcan be moderatelyheat processed, only smokedfish, crawfish tail meat, seafoodanalogs surimi!, and crabmeathave received significant attention. Theseproducts are cookedprior to packagingfor pasteurization. Significant quantitiesof other seafoodsare minimally processedby sous vide technology. Although similar to pasteurization,sous vide items are often not cookedprior to packaging and are producedprimarily for flavor developmentand suitabihty for central distribution Hackney et al., 1991!. They generallydo not possessthe greatly extendedshelf-life associatedwith pasteurizedseafoods. The blue crab industry has found the greater thermal processof pasteurizationto be a valuabletool for inventory managementand marketing. The current trend is to apply pasteurizationas an integral stepin comprehensivequality assurance plans. Potential pathogens are eliminated, and microbial quality and shelf-life standardscan be predictedand defined in contractsbetween processors and buyers. Advancesin packagingand processingprocedures are opening new opportunitiesfor marketersand consumers. The U.S. experiencein moderate-temperaturethermal processing of seafoodsis basedlargely on meat from the blue crab Callinectessapidus!. As a consequence,this manual focusesprimarily on principlesassociated with pasteurizationof crabmeat. Markets for blue crabs were developedas early as the 1800s. Blue crab meat is highly perishable,and was virtually unavailableoutside the coastalregions. The pasteurizationof crabmeatin sealedcontainers has come a long way. First usedby a few innovative processorswho realized its potential for penetratingdistant marketsand for improved inventory management,pasteurization is now thoughtby many to have been the industry's salvation. Anzulovic and Reedy 942! describeda waterbathmethod of pasteurizingcrabmeat in sealedmetal containers,achieving a six-weekshelf-life. Byrd 951! patenteda procedureto select several processing temperatures 70-210'F! to target shelf-lives of 1-12 months. The current standardpractice of heating401x301 tinplate cansof crabmeatin a 1%FFwaterbath until cold-point temperaturesattain 185'F for one minutewas publishedby Tatro 970!. Shelf-life is extendedfrom 6-10 days for fresh crabmeatto 6-18 monthsfor properly pasteurized crabmeat. As wouldbe expectedof any processwhich offers marketing flexibility, pasteurizationis usedwith increasingfrequency in thecrabmeat processing industry. But manyprocessors haveadopted the procedure without fully understandingthe total pasteurization process. Furthermore,some processors have modified the processto fit their particularneeds, contributingto theconfusion as to whatconstitutes an adequatepasteurization process. Lack of understandingand inconsistent processing procedures have brought the pasteurization industry to the attentionof regulatory agencies. This manualis intendedto introduceto the crabmeatpasteurization industry the good manufacturingand thermal processing methods that are currently practiced by othersegments of the food industry. It behoovesthe industryto usethis manualto increaseunderstanding of the pasteurizationprocess and improve procedures to complywith strictercontrols that may be required in the future. This manualdiscusses pasteurization as a totalprocess of both heatingand cooling. All too oftenprocessors do not give full considerationto the secondhalf of the process:cooling. Theimportance of containerseam evaluation; an area that is receivingincreased attention by bothprocessors and regulatory agencies, also is discussed.Finally, the importanceof adequatedocumentation of the variousprocessing parameters is addressed. SECTION l.

Thermal Processing: Principles and Definitions

Definition of Terms dermal Processing:Thermal processing is the applicationof heatto a foodor container of food so that a targetedtotal heatexposure is achievedat the cold point of theproduct. The termsD-value, z-va1ue, and F-value are usedto definea thermalprocess, including pasteurization. CommercialSterilization: A processthat destroysall microbial pathogens,and all other organismsthat could lead to spoilageunder normal distribution and storageconditions. However,cern non-pathogenicthermophilic sporeformers may survive. Sincevirtually all psychrotrophicand mesophilic microorganismshave beendestroyed, the product need not be refrigeratedin order to achievethe anticipatedshelf-life. D-Value: Decimal reduction time; the time neededto reducea populationof microorganismsby 90% one log cycle!. D-valuescan be determinedfrom survivor curves where the log population is plotted againsttime Fig. 1!, or by the formula:

10,000

1,000

Number of Surviving 100 Microorganisms per Gram of Crabmeat 10

0,1

0.010 1 2 3 4 5 6 Time In Minutes At 185'F

Figure 1. Logarithmic survivor curve D-value curve!. Illustration definesan organism or population of organismshaving a D,~ = 1.0 minute. D~ ~ p ~ "/ log, - log~i

where a = the initial population, and b = the survivors after a time interval.

The heatresistances of bacteria,vegetative cells, or sporesvary with the speciesof bacteria, conditionsunder which the cells are grown temperatureof incubation, phase of growth,age of the spores!,and the inoculumlevel. The heatingmenstruum, or mediumin which the sporesare tested,also influencesthe heat resistance. Factorsaffecting bacterial heat resistanceinclude water content, pH, andthe chemicalcomposition fats, salts,proteins, carbohydrates,and minerals! of the heatingmenstruum. Therefore, the D-values of microorganismswill vary dependingon the conditionsmentioned above. Sometimesit is desirableto determineD-values at other processtemperatures. Equivalent D-valuesare calculatedby the formula:

Log D, = log D, - T, -T,/z! where

D, = the known referenceD-value at the referencetemperature! D2 = the desiredD-value at the desiredtemperature! T, = the referencetemperature T, = the desiredtemperature z = the z-value as described below

It is importantthat equivalentD-values not be calculatedfor temperaturesfar greateror lessthan the referencetemperature, since the real D-valuesmay be considerablydifferent than the calculatedvalues. Survival curves are not always lineu", they often have shoulders and tailings. z-value: The numberof degreesFahrenheit or Centigraderequired for a thermal death time curve to traverseone log cycle. The z-valuegives an indication of the relative impact of different temperatureson an organism,with smaller values indicating greater sensitivity to increasingheat. This point should not be misinterpreted: z-value doesnot indicate overdl heat resistanceof an organism,only the relative impact of changingtemperature. The z- value is obtainedby plotting the logarithmsof at least two D-valuesversus temperature several D-valuesare required for greatestaccuracy! Fig. 2!. Converselyz-values can be used to calculateD-values at various temperaturesand are essentialin processcalculations. Theseconversions are reasonablyaccurate within the rangeof normalprocessing temperatures. The formula for calculatingz-values is:

z = T, - T,!/ log Di - log D,! D-value,Minutes0.1170185

200

Temperature in'F

Figure 2 Example of a thermal resistancecurve z-valuecurve!, illustrating an organism possessinga z-value of 15'F.

F-value. A mathematicallycalculated number that describesthe total heatingvalue of the process. It is the equivalent,in minutesat a given temperature,of all heatconsidered, with respectto its capacity to destroy sporesor vegetativecells of a particular organism. The F- value defines a processthat is equivalentto that which would result from instantaneously heatinga productto a giventemperature, holding it for a specifiedtime, andinstantaneously coolingit Fig. 3!. Of course,instantaneous heating is impossiblein real processing. Therefore, an F-value is calculatedto accountfor heatingand cooling rates, Heating/cooling curvestend to be shapedlike a wavebeginning its approachto a beach Fig. 4!. The shape of the curve is affected by product type, container size, containershape, method of loading the pasteurizer,pasteurizer style, amount of agitation, temperatureof the waterbath Delta T!, etc. The destructionof microorganismsbegins at relativelylow temperaturesand accelerateswith increasingtemperature. As the internal temperatureof the product approachesor exceedsthe referencetemperature, the destructiveimpact is maximized. Even as the product cools, microorganismscontinue to die becausethe heat that remains in the can contributes in decreasingproportions! to thelethality of the process.Total or accumulated heatexposure and process lethality are phrases often used nearly synonymously with F-value. An F-valuefor a processusually representsmultiple D-values.

185 Temperaturein'F01015 2052530 35

Time in Minutes

Figure3. Hypotheticalheat penetration curve assuming instantaneous heating and cooling, In this example, F», = 30.9 minutes. 240

226

212

198

184 e re 170

Temperature 'F! 142

128

114

100

86

72

58 44o 2o4Oeoao

Figure 4, Heat penetration curve for k6 oz. of crabmeat in a 401 x 301 can, where F gag16 = 3 1 rninufcs. To determinethe F-value,the areaunder the curvemust be integrated.This canbe approximatedby dividing the curve into small sections;the F-value is then calculatedfor eachsection and the individualF-values are added together. The formulafor eachsection time interval! is:

F = log' T, T~lz! X the time interval!

where T2 is the mid-point median! temperaturefor the time interval.

Both the heating and cooling sectionsof the curve are consideredin the calculations. Whenthe time intervalis large,the definedarea has a staircaseappearance; however, when the time intervalis small, suchas whenthe data are recordedand calculated by computer, the staircaseappearance is nearlyeliminated. In eithercase, error is minimizedby the use of mid-pointtemperatures rather than actual measured temperatures in the calculations.For most applications, sufficient accuracyis achievedwhen calculationsare basedon time intervals of five minutes or less. Sometimesit is desirableto calculatea processlethality at a different temperaturethan the reference. A reference F-value can be convertedto an equivalentF-value at another temperatureusing the formula:

F~ ~~ = F~ ~! X log' Ta~ - T f~ z!!

Cold Point.'The slowestheating point location! in a container Fig. 5!.

Pasteurization Definition and Basis Pasteurizationis a term that is usedto refer to a mild heatmgprocess, usually at less than 212'F. By definitionthe termindicates that theproduct is not sterile,and therefore may continue to harbor microorganisms. Consequently,pasteurized products must be continuouslyrefrigerated so that the surviving microorganismswill multiply slowly, if at all, and thus achievean acceptableshelf-life. The term pasteurizationas applied to seafood implies the use of hermetic packagingand anaerobicconditions in the containersduring storage. Steam

OT

Heating

Medium

t t t Convection Heating Conduction Heating Liquid in Can! Solid Food in Can!

Figure 5. Product type affects heatingrate and the location of the cold point area of slowest heating!.

Pasteurizationof foods other than crabmeatis often defined in terms of a target organism. When the D- and z-valuesof the microorganismare known, it is easy to determinea pasteurizationprocess at a selectedtemperature using the formula: FTz = DT log 10'!

where T= referencetemperature, and n = the number of decimal reductions desired.

For example,in milk the target organismis Cgziggg g~gh, which has a heat resistance of D», = 0.60 minutesand z-valueof 9V. The above formula can be usedfo determinea pasteurizationprocess for milk at a desiredtemperature. If a desiredpasteurization temperatureis 150'F, the pasteurizationprocess will be F»o z=9! = D», log 10»or 0.6 x 15 = 9 minutes. Of courseother D-valuescan be calculatedusing the formula for equivalentD-values given above. In thisexample a 15-Dprocess was selected. This might seemhigh to thosewho are usedto thinkingin termsof a 12-Dprocess for cannedfoods. The larger value is in responseto the expectednumber of nucroorganismsthat might be presentin the raw pmduct. ~t,trid~im hotulinum is the organismof concern in most cannedproducts. The numberof Q. +~~m sporesencountered in mostfoods is usually very low an averageof less than one per containeris assumed!;therefore a 12-D process providesa verylarge safetyfactor. Othertarget organisms may be usedin other preservationsystems and, if high numbersare expected,a greaterprocess is warranted. There is no target organism for the pasteurizationof crabmeat. The processevolved basedon shelf-lifeextension. The traditionalpasteurization process, which was recommendedby the Tri-State SeafoodCommittee soon after the procedurewas released from earlierpatent rights, wasbased on heatingone pound cans 01x301! of crabrneatto a cold point slowestheating point! temperatureof 185'Fand holding for oneminute. Recommendationsthen called for cooling the product to a cold point temperatureof 1$FF in 50 minutes. The heatingcurve from this processgives an averageF» z =16! of 31 minutes; however, many processorsare achievingprocesses of F» z=16! of 60 to 120 minutes. In view of this process-basedperspective on the dynamicsof pasteurization,the Tri-State recommendationswere revised in 1984by the National Blue Crab Industries Association,and a National Industry PasteurizationStandard was recommended appendix IV!. The z-value of 16 was picked arbitrarily, becausethere is no specific target organism. There is debatewhether this value is truly appropriate,but from a historical standpointit has worked and its use will probably continue. Within the range of normal crabmeat pasteurizationtemperatures, F-value calculationsbased on z=16 producea reasonableand conservativeprocess. However, caution shouldbe exercisedwhen calculatingequivalent F- valuesat minimal processingtemperatures below about 170'F! for which inoculatedpack studies are recommended.

10 Shelf-life To our knowledge,controlled studies have not beenpublished to equatevarious crabmeat pasteurizationschedules with shelf-life. However,considerable empirical data have been accumulatedin mid-Atlanticcommercial blue crabprocessing facilities that supportthe observationslisted in Table1. Obviously,the actualshelf-life will alsodepend on such factorsas the initial microbialload, compositionof the microbialpopulation, storage temperature,and containerintegrity.

Table 1. Observedrelationship of bluecrab pasteurization process to refrigerated shelf-life

F»~ z =16!, minutes Shelf-life, months 10-15...... 1.5 15-20...... 2-4 20-25...... 4-6 25-30...... 6-9 30-40...... 9-18 0 ...... 12-36

Pasteurization of Products other than Crabmeat Imitation crabmeatand other seafoodanalogs surirni! are commonly pasteurized. Pasteurizationhas also beenproposed for other productsincluding shrimp Lerke and Faxber 1971!, crawfish, and smokedfish Eklund et al. 1988!. The latter group examinedthe feasibility of pasteurizingvacuum packaged, hot processedsmoked fish. Since the U.S. Food and Drug Administration droppedthe Good ManufacturingPractice GMP! regulations on the processingof hot smokedfish new GMPs are expectedsoon!, there has been increasingconcern regarding the potential of a botulismoutbreak associated with these products. The pasteurizationprocess described by Eklund et al. 988! has the potential to minimize the concernsassociated with this product. In their study, hot smokedfish were vacuumpackaged and pasteurizedin hot water at various temperatures. Both type E and nonproteolyticB were usedas test organisms. Sampleswere processedin 85, 89.9, and 92.2'C water bathsand required 29, 28.5 and 27.7 minutes, respectively, for the internal temperaturesto equilibrate, Type E was the most heat sensitiveof the test organisms,but none of the samplesprocessed for 175 minutesat 85'C,

11 or 55 minutesat 92.2 C, developedtoxin after 6 monthsof refrigerated storage. Unfortunately, F-valuesfor the processeswere not published. The sensoryqualities of the pasteurizedfish were unchangedwith respectto tasteand texture. The color did darken; however a lighter smokebefore pasteurizationeliminated the problem. The researchers reported that pasteurization was more effective for smoked fillets and steaks than for dressed fish. A small quantity of smokedfish is pasteurizedcommercially in the United States.

Egect of Container +pe As discussedearlier, crabmeattraditionally hasbeen pasteurized to a cold point temperature of 185'F for one minute and then cooled to 109K within 50 minutes now 55'F within three hours!. This processhas beenbased on the pasteurizationof 16 oz. of crabmeat in 40lx301 cans. The obvious question is: What would be the effect of using this same processingparameter on smaller cans? Fig. 6! The answeris, quite simply, under processing. This, of course, assumesthat the traditional processin 16 oz. 0lx301! cansis the referenceprocess. Since the containersare smaller, they require less time to reach 18' at the cold point. Consequently,the total time the product is exposedto the lethal effects of heat is significantly reduced. Hence, the F«, values are smaOer than the 31 minutes achievedin the traditional 40lx301 cans. Furthermore, pasteurizationof 16 ouncesof crabmeatin containersof dimensionsother than 401x301will impact the process Figs. 7-9!. Conversely,overprocessing may result if a time/temperatureprocess established for a large containeris usedto pasteurizea small container Table 2!.

12 240

226

container

198 container

184 ! container

170

156

142 Temperature 'F! 128

114

100

86

72

58

30 0 14 28 42 56 70 84 98 112 126 140154168 182 196210 Time in Minutes

Figure 6. Heat penetrationcurves for crabmeatin 4, 8, and 16 oz. cans heatedto 185'F, then cooled in ice slush. 240

226

212

198

184

170

156 TemperaturePF!128142

114

100

86

72

58

44

300 1428 42 56 70 84 98 112126 140154 168 182 196210

Time in Minutes

Figure 7. Heat yenetration curve for crablneat in a 4 oz. can.

14 240

226

212

198

184

170

156 Temperature 'F!128

114

100

86

72

300 1428 42 56 70 84 98 112126140154168182196210 Time in Minutes

Figure 8. Heat penetrationcurve for crabmeatin an 8 oz. can.

15 240

226

212

198

184

170

156

Temperature 'F! 142

114

100

86

72

58

300 1428 42 56 70 84 98 112 126140154168 182196 210 Time in Minutes

Figure 9. Heat penetrationcurve for 16 oz. of crabmeatin a 303 x 406 can.

16 Table 2. Effect of containersize on accumulatedF-value when processedin the same batch.

$~Z ~12 i~ li+!Z TESTE F85! F85! F85! 3.0 .0 .0 .0 6.0 .0 .0 9.0 .0 .0 .0 12.0 .0 .0 .0 15.0 .0 .0 .0 18.0 .0 .0 .0 21.0 .0 .0 .0 24.0 .0 .0 .0 27.0 .0 .0 .0 30.0 ,2 .0 .0 33,0 .6 .I .0 36.0 1.6 .4 .0 39.0 3.3 85'F! .9 ,0 42.0 6.2 1.9 .I 45.0 10.2 3.5 .2 48.0 15.6 6.0 85'F! .6 51,0 22.8 9.5 1.1 54.0 31.7 14. I 1.9 57.0 41. I 19.9 3.2 60,0 51.4 26.5 5.0 63.0 62.3 34.2 7.4 66.0 74.1 42.4 10.5 85'F! 69.0 86,8 51.3 14.5 72.0 99.4 60.5 18.8 75.0 109.3 66.5 23.5

78.0 114.9 71.1 28.5 81.0 117.2 74.3 32,8 84.0 117.6 75.3 35.5 90.0 117.7 75.5 36.5 93.0 117.7 75.6 36.8 96.0 117.7 75.6 36.9 99.0 117.7 75.6 36.9 102.0 117.6 75.6 36.9 105.0 117.6 75.6 36.9 108.0 I 17.6 75.6 36.9 III.O 117.6 75.6 36,9 114.0 117,6 75.6 36.9 117.0 117.6 75.6 36.9 120.0 117.6 75.6 36.9 123.0 117,6 75.6 36.9 126.0 117.6 75.6 36.9 129.0 117.6 75.6 36.9 132.0 117.6 75,6 36.9 135.0 117.6 75.6 36.9 138.0 117.6 75.6 36.9

17 Industry interest in new generationpackaging and packagingmaterials has increasedin recent years. Specifically, there is growing interest in thin-profile containerssuch as pouches,boil-in-bags, and moldedor drawntrays and cups, all of which can significantly incr' the heatingand cooling rates. This type of packagingis oftenperceived as resulting in productscloser to fresh,and does not havethe "canned"product connotation of tinplate and aluminum containers. Somedesigns also accommodatenumerous convenience features. They may be microwavableor dual ovenable,easy opening, reusable and resealable. Actually, product quality is not substantiallydifferent than when crab is processedin conventional containers. Specialcare should be taken with any innovativepackaging, especially regarding seal integrity. Any new packagemust be able to withstandthe rigorous conditionsencountered during commercial filling and processingoperations, as well as in distribution. Refer to appendixIII for suggestionsabout integrity evaluationof plastic containers.

Process Consideratioas Many factors contribute to the heatingand cooling ratesof crabmeatduring pasteurization and the product's ultimate shelf-life. It cannotbe assumedthat a typical processof heating containersin 185'F water for two hours followed by two hours of cooling will assurea shelf-life of 12 monthsor longer. Heating and cooling ratesand F-values accumulatedheat exposure!are determinedby severalparameters, including: l. duration of the process 2. waterbathtemperature 3. waterbath circulation 4. crabmeattemperature I, T,! 5. container size, shape,and material Subtletiesmay exist as well. For example,waterbath circulation and temperaturelayering patternsmay be af'fectedby methodof agitation, batch size, containerdistribution, and the use of tank covers and insulation. Although the effectivenessof a processis usually determinedby its F-value, other factors may be just as important and yet not be accountedfor in the routine calculations. In addition to F-value and heat transfer rates, shelf-life wiH depend on such factors as: l. initial microbial load 2. compositionof the microbial population 3. composition of the product e.g. fat content! 4. storagetemperature, and 5. containerintegrity.

18 To be meaningful, F-values must relate back to the first three factors, but these relationshipsare often under-appreciated.More specifically, evaluationsof pasteurization proceduresin plants experiencingproblems have shown shelf-life to be significantly improved by: 1. useof agitatedwaterbaths 2. selectingprocess schedules that account for variationsin initial producttemperature 3. diligent can seaminspection and seamermaintenance programs 4. identifying seasonal or processing factors that contribute to crabmeat that is of reducedmicmbial quality prior to pasteurization Hackney et al. 1991; Rippen et al. 1989!. Temperatureabuse during distribution or storageis a serioushazard but, fortunately, is now less common, due to the industry's awarenessof the risk. However, processorsshould never take lightly the importanceof proper temperaturecontrol, And they should advise their customersabout proper handling practices.

19 SECTION 2.

Cooling and Other Shelf-Life Factors

Cooling All too frequently, the pasteurizationprocess is regardedmerely as the heatingof the product to the desired temperaturefor the appropriatelength of time. This, however, is a misconceptionthat has proved costly to many processors. The processconsists not only of heating the product, but also of cooling it to temperatures at which the growth rate of surviving microorganismsis greatly reduced. Even during the cooling phase,heat remaining in the canscontributes to the processlethality. However, this doesnot imply that cooling should be prolonged in order to take advantage of the lethal impact of residual heat. On the contrary, coolingshould be as rapid as possible. Many different types of microorganismsgrow in a wide range of temperatures. Fortunately, those microorganismsthat would ordinarily spoil fresh crabmeatare very susceptibleto destructionby the heatencountered in the normal pasteurizationprocess. Conversely,those organismsthat do survive are typically thosewhich grow well at elevated temperaturesbut not at refrigeratedtemperatures; hence the importanceof refrigeration after pasteurization. Even if the product hasbeen adequatelyheated but then is allowed to cool at a slow rate, microorganismsthat have survived pasteurizationcould start to multiply and thus shortenthe anticipatedshelf-life of the product. Also, slow cooling rates may allow injured bacteria, which would otherwise die, to recover; or encouragespores to germinateinto a vegetative form that is more likely to spoil crabmeatat refrigeration temperatures. Therefore, it is imperative that processorsreduce the internal temperatureof the product as quickly as possible. Tri-State and the more recent National Blue Crab Industry Association NBCIA! standards recommendimmersion of heatedcontanrers in an ice-water bath. Work conductedby Virginia Tech's SeafoodExtension and ResearchUrut supportsthis recommendation Fig. 10!. An ice-water bath, vigorously agitated, is the most efficient methodof cooling the product Fig. 11-12!. The Tri-State SeafoodCommittee previously recommendedthat the heatedcans be cooled to 100'F in an ice-water bath within 50 minutesof processing,then removedto refrigerated storage. The rationale for theserecommendations was that some residual heat was neededto evaporatethe moisturefrom the cans to prevent rusting. Rusting is not a major problem with the majority of the cansbeing usedtoday. The problem of microbial growth is of much greater consequence.

20 200

190

180

170

160

150

140

130 Temperature,'F110120

100

90

80

60

40 300 4080 120 160200 240 280 320 360 400 440 480 520 560 Time in Minutes

Figure 10. Cooling rates of pasteurized crabmeat, in 16 oz. cans, under four cooling conditions.

The more recent standards NBCIA! call for the heated cans to remain in the ice-water bath until the cold point temperaturereaches 55'F within three hours before being removed to refrigerated storageat 35'F. This standardis intendedto improve both the quality of the product and its safety.

21 100

90

80

70

60 Time in Minutes 50

40

30

10

Static Agitated

Figure 11. Time needed to cool crabmeat from 18' to 55'F with and without air agitation.

44

45

Static Agitated Figure 12. Waterbathtemperatures in a cooling tank, with and without air agitation.

22 It is very important that the cooling water be chlorinated, There is a certain seamfailure rate in any cannedproduct. Whenthe cansare hot the sealsare moreeasily breached by microorganismsin thecooling water. As the sealanthardens the cansbecome impermeable to microorganisms. Chlorination of the cooling water kills organismsthat might otherwise causespoilage or safetyproblems if they were to get into the food; however, chlorination cannotbe expectedto compensatefor defectiveseam integrity. Only breakpointchlorination is recommended. That is, add sufficient chlorine sanitizerto assurethat a slight residual of availablechlorine perhaps5 ppm.!is presentthroughout the coolingperiod. Chlorinetest strips are available for confirming theselow levels. Storagetemperatures of 36'F or beloware necessaryfor both shelf-life and safety considerations.In theevent of undetectedcontainer leakage, cooling waters may be drawn in, carrying C. botulinum or other pathogenswith it. Documentationof storagecooler room temperaturesis a critical componentof a pasteurizationHACCP plan. Continuousor, at least, dailytemperature records will help mitigateregulatory concerns associated with C. bohdinum in inventoriedproducts. Care must be taken to prevent accidentalfreezing as sometimesoccurs during storageor shipment. Severeproduct toughening,drip, and flavor loss result when pasteurizedcrabmeat is allowed to freezeunder marginal freezing conditions. Most often the processoris but one facet in a multi-facetedmarketing channel. Unfortunately, the more complicatedthat distribution systembecomes, the greater the opportunity for error. Moreover, if a problem occurs with the product due to mishandlingor neglect somewherealong the distribution chain, the processorusually must take the ultimate responsibility, unlessit can be unequivocallydocumented that anotherparty is at fault. Therefore, it is imperative for the processorto periodically remind all membersof his distribution systemof the importanceof proper refrigeration and handling of pasteurized crab meat.

Can Seams Defective can seamspose a threat to the healthof consumers. Bacterial pathogensdrawn into the can during cooling could possibly establishthemselves, especially in the absenceof the competitive microflora normally found in fresh crabmeat. Therefore, it is critical that seamsbe routinely checked to assurethat they meetthe manufacturer'sspecifications. Also, can seamingequipment should be inspectedfrequently by a qualified technician, with adjustmentsmade as neededand any corrective actionsrecorded. Container seaminspection and closing machinemaintenance is discussedin detail in Section5,

23 Under-processing Inadequateheating occasionally leads to early spoilage, Temperature and time are oftencritical for producinga predictableshelf-life. A differenceof a few degreesin the waterbath,say 185F versus18', or a few minutesin the heatingtime, may significantly af'feetshelf-life. It is at the end of the heating step, when crabmeatis hottest, that the bacterialdestruction rate is exponentiallygreatest. Employees responsible for pasteurization shouldbe carefullyinstructed in this relationshipsince they maynot fully appreciatethe impactof appmmtlyminor changesto the establishedschedule. Pasteurization systems shouldbe loadedand operatedso as to promoteuniform circulation of the heating water. Table3 containstypical calculated F-values for crabmeatin a commercialpasteurization run. It lists a company'sexpected total F-valuesfor variousheating times when waterbath temperaturesand other processingparameters are kept the same. Times representminutes in the hot waterbathprior to transferring the cans to ice slush. Notice, in this case, that two hours 20 minutes!of heating producedlethalities slightly below the NBCIA minimum of F =31 minutes. Although residual heat during initial cooling will raise final F-values, this companymay wish to heat for a minimum of 125 minuteswhen processingwarm meat,and 135 minuteswhen processingchilled meat less than 6GV!.

Product Temperature An often-overlookedfactor is the initial temperatureg.T.! of the crabmeatimmediately beforeit is pasteurized.Meat thatis held in ice overnightbefore processing may requirean additional 15 minutesor more of heatingcompared to meatpacked and processedright off the picking tables. A process' F-value and therefore its bacteria-killing potential can vary by 30 percent when initial product temperatures are not accounted for in the pasteurizationschedule. This critical effect is well known to individuals trained in low-acid cannedfood proceduresbut is rarely emphasizedby pasteurizersof seafood. When the product temperatureis unknown or when both cold and warm crabmeatare processedin the samebatch, managersshould selecta longer processestablished for refrigerated crabmeat.

24 Table 3. F-values achieved in 187-1%PF waterbath, 401 x 301 cans, erabmeat initial temperatureg.T.! =60-6$T For illustrative purposesonly each pasteurizationsystem must be evaluatedindependently!!

F-value F,", ~Minutes

90 ...s ~ ~ ~ ~ 5,0 95 s ~ ~ s 6s8 100 9.7 105 13.4 110 17.3

112.5 21.0 115 23.4 117.5 .... 26.8 120 .... 30.2 122.5 32.7

125 35.6 127.5 , ...... 40.7 130 , ...... 43.6 132,5 ...... 46.5 135 49,4

137.5 52.0 140 55.1 142.5 58.0 145 60.9

Initial Microbial Population Rememberthat pasteurizationworks by killing bacteria,and a certain numberare killed by a given process. If the meat has low initial counts, then essentiallyall may be killed, while on anotheroccasion high counts may lead to a shorterthan normal shelf-life. This conceptis describedin detail in the following discussion. Pasteurizationcannot be successfullyused as a salvageteclmique for marginal quality crabmeat.

Concept of Microbial Survivors in a Batch Occasionallyseafood processors and regulatorsare confusedby the prematurespoilage of a few containersfrom a batch of thermally-processedproducts. Becauseof the spotty

25 occurrence,it might be assumedto be a problem of defectivecontainer seams. This is not the only possible explanation, however. In fact, random survival patterns should be expected. If for a given initial microbial load the absurdwere possible,and all of a very large batch of crabmeatwere packedinto one giant can and processedto an acceptedF-value, it would spoil due to growth of survivors Fig. 13!. The more canswe fill i.e, the smaller the can!, the more cansare likely to spoil but also the smaller the percentageof spoiled to unspoiled cans. The effect is simply the result of partitioning and probability of survival Fig. 14!. If the initial load is smal1eror the F-value higher, fewer survivors and spoiled cans will result, This simplistic model may not appear to describe pasteurization since significant numbers of organismsmay survive in nearly every can. However, the thermal-tolerantbacteria present after pasteurizationgrow very slowly at refrigeratedtemperatures. Only thosethat grow out to a level of spoilageprior to the expectedshelf-life of the product are of concern.

X = 9 month shelf-life 0 =6 month shelf-life

Figure 13. Hypotheticalrepresentation of a pasteurizedpile of crabmeat;X's and 0's indicate surviving bacteriacapable of preinaturespoilage.

26 X = 9 month shelf-life 0 = 6 month shelf-life

Figure 14. Representationof a pasteurizedpile of crabmeatpartitioned in containers; X's and 0's indicate surviving bacteriacapable of randompremature spoilage in the pack.

Initial microbial load is important, but its significancemay be poorly understoodby managerswho view the thermal processas a highly forgiving clean-upstep. An F-value definesthe number of targetedbacteria that are killed, Using a hypotheticalsituation, if a one-poundcontainer of crabmeatcontains 10,000 thermoduric bacteria that are capableof prematurelyspoiling the final pasteurizedproduct, then an F-valueresulting in their destruction a.5-D or five log-cycle reduction! will producethe expectedshelf-life. Every time that this pasteurizationprocess is applied to a containerof crabmeatstarting with no more than 10,000 of thesethermodurics, satisfactory results are achieved. And anytime that more than 10,000 are present, the can will spoil prematurely. In commercialproduction; however, we must kill far more organismsthan thosefound in one container, If 50,000 of the one-poundcontainers of crabmeatare pasteurizedduring a season,then 500,000,000 of the offendingorganisms must be destroyed.In this sccmMioof volumeprocessing, a 5-D processis inadequateto destroyall of the targetedorganisms. Even a 6-D processwould result in 500 survivors or a prematurespoilage rate of up to one percent 00 cans! of the year's pack.

27 In practice, heat is never uniformly appliedthroughout the container. The F-value achievednear the sidewallsis likely to be many times that at the center. The conceptstill holds, however, since a processis establishedbased on a desiredF-value at the container center, and any survivors there would ultimately spoil the entire contents.

A "New" SpoilageOrganism A complicating factor in the recentepisodes of shortenedshelf-life has beenthe increased significanceof microflora type. The recent isolation of a thermoduricpsychrotrophic anaerobe a non-pathogenicCIostridium! from prematurely spoiledpasteurized ciabmeat has createduncertainty as to the adequacyof a F =31 minute process. The organism has not beenpreviously described. Industry confidencein pasteurizationhas been clearly shaken over the past few seasons. Spoilageduring storagehas appeared throughout the industry at an unusuallyhigh level Chai, Ward and Moody, 1990!. Most of this loss resulted from can seamfailures but another,potentially more serious,problem from a long term economic perspective was the appearanceof the psychrotrophic Clostridium. This bacterium, and possibly similar isolates,have disruptedexpectations such as thoselisted in Table 1. Preliminary investigationindicates an unusuaUyhigh degreeof heat resistancefor a psychrotrophicspoilage bacterium; D»> =9 minutesin peptone-yeast-glucosebroth Webster et al. 1990!. It may be even more heat resistantin crabmeat,requiring F-valuesof more than 90 minutesto achieveacceptable shelf-life. Despite the safety factor associatedwith a F»,=31 minute process,regulatory concernis heightened when pasteurized products spoil prematurely, resulting in several recent recalls involving approximately$400,000 worth of crabineat. At the workshop that produceda model HACCP Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point! plan for the blue crab processing industry, it was recommendedthat "there be uniform pasteurizationregulations among the stateswhich are 'process' based. Theseregulations could be basedupon previous NBCIA recommendations,or upon appropriateresearch" anon,, 1988!. The latest researchfindings could be applied to establishinga new pasteurizationstandard. However, the problem now appearsto be more isolatedthan initially believed; only rnachine-pickedclaw meat in one plant is clearly implicated. Consequently,significant modificationsto processschedules appearto be unwarrantedat this time.

Crabmeat Spoilage and Proper Retorting The isolation of a spoilageorganism that can survive pasteurizationhighlights the importanceof proper cooking of the crabs. Preliminary information indicatesthat the organismcould not survive normal retort temperature. Therefore, its presencein pasteurized

28 crabrneatindicates either contaminationof the picked meat or inadequatecooking. It is importantthat theretort be checkedfor cold spots. Examinethe steamspreader to make certain the holes are of the proper number and size and are unplugged. Our studieshave clearly shown large differencesin extent of cooking accordingto location in the retort. Thesedifferences can be eliminatedor lessenedby having the retort ia good workingorder and properly vented. Contaminationcan be lessenedby developinga HACCP-basedquality assuranceprogram. Crabsthat fall on the floor should not be used. In addition, it may be necessaryto clean and sanitizebasket carts to avoid cross contamination. Thesecarts are exposedto live crabs, left in the open, and seldomsanitized. Spore-formingspoilage bacteria will survive on the carts and may later contaminatethe crabsand the picking equipment. Other practicesto avoid cro.e-conhuniaatiooare describedin a separatesection beginning on page 34.

HACCP as a Quality Assurance Approach HACCP as it relatesta pasteurizedcrabmeat and other seafoodprocesses is outlined in appendicesI and II and reviewed by Garrett and Hudak-Roos990, 1991!. U.S. low-acid cannedfood LACF! regulationspertain to shelf-stableproducts CFR, 1979!. Critical operations,monitoring and control are identified basedon the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point HACCP! principles of quality assurance. Pasteurizedand other refrigerated items are excluded. Theseproducts are coveredprincipally under the general Good Manufacturing Practices requiring food processors engaged in interstate commerce to assure the wholesomenessand safety of their products CFR, 1977!. Although seafoodpasteurization is excludedfrom the specific processcontrols and record- keepingrequirements of LACF production, processorsmust show evidence, satisfactoryto the federal Food and Drug Administration, that they producesafe productsprocessed under sanitaryconditions. As with LACF, the most efficient meansof accomplishingthis goal is through the implementationof HACCP plans. AppendicesI and II include descriptionsof HACCP as it appliesto seafood. Ward et al. 982! recognizedthree critical control points in crabmeatpasteurization: l. containerintegrity 2. pasteurization assuringa targetedprocess! 3. storagetemperature A set of industry guidelineswas endorsedby the National Blue Crab Industry Association NBCIA, 1984! based, in part, on this approach. A draft blue crab HACCP model, including pasteurization,was developedjointly by the National Marine Fisheries Service NMFS! and the seafoodindustry National FisheriesInstitute! as part of the NMFS Model SeafoodSurveiHance Project mandatedby Congress NFI, 1988!. It identified four CCPs specific to pasteurizationinclusive of thoserecognized by Ward et al 982!. Preventivemeasures, monitoring and recordswere outlined for; 1. sealer operation 2. pasteurizercontrol can seaminspection, time/temperature process and operator training! 3. adequateproduct cooling rate 4. assuranceof 32-36 F storage Appendix I!

Mostly unspecifiedwere reporting instruments forms! and recommendationsrelated to records review and NUOCAs Notice of Unusual Occurrence and Corrective Actions taken!. This report did, however, provide a much neededframework for conductingfield tests in participating processingplants a voluntary FDA/NOAA program!, which is currently under review. As HACCP plans are developed,pasteurization should be integrated into overall quality assuranceprograms encompassing raw product handling through processing, distribution, and consumption. Processorsare not likely to have control over each step, but HACCP and associatedrecord-keeping allows for improved liability managementand may qualify the companyto supply major buyers. Detailed HACCP training programs and materials are availablefrom the ¹tional FisheriesInstitute Arlington, Virginia! and Virginia PolytechnicInstitute and StateUniversity, Departmentof Food Scienceand Technology Blacksburg, Virginia!.

Case Studies of Pasteurization Procedures Investigationswere conductedat Virginia Tech's SeafoodExtension and ResearchStation and at three crab processingcompanies to evaluatethe effect of waterbathcirculation and initial product temperatureon heat transfer rates, F-values,and shelf-life. Laboratory Study: Both 401x208and 401x301containers heatedsignificantly faster at the bottom of the hot water tank immediatelyabove the steamspreader! than at the top, with or without air agitation. As expected,the small containersheated significantly faster than the large containers. Differences in heating rateswere reflectedin correspondinglysignificant differencesin F-values. Waterbathtemperatures during heatingranged from 19 PFto 194'F without air agitation and remaineduniformly at 191'F throughoutthe tank with agitation Fig. 15!. Starting the processwith cold meat TF! resultedin 30 percentlower F-values comparedwith starting with crabmeatat 73'F in 401x301cans Fig. 16!. 190 192

191

190

191

Static Agitated

Figure 15. Waterbathtemperatures in a heatingtank, with and without air agitation.

37F

60 3F

50

40 F-value Minutes

30

10

Cold Warm initial meat temperature

Figure 16. Effect of initial crabmeattemperature on F-values, 401 x 301 cans.

31 During ice slush cooling, the use of air agitation resultedin significantly faster cooling rates Figs 11-12!. Crabmeattemperatures in 401x208cans dropped from 18' to 55'F industryguideline temperature! in 55 minuteswith agitationand in 65 minuteswithout agitation. The correspondingcooling times in 401x301cans, with andwithout agitation, were 89 and 75 minutes, respectively. Ice bath temperaturessurrounding the warm cans rangedfrom 42'F to 5PF withoutagitation and remained uniformly at 32'F with agitation Fig. 11-12!.

Ia-phrit Studies:No significantdifferences were foundrelating heat transfer rates in containers to their location in the tanks.

Probkm: Shelf-life was variable and very short spoilagewas observedwithin 6 weeks! despiteheating 307x409 cans for 120 minutesat 18' to 189'F. Thermal penetration studiesconducted on two different datesrevealed F»

Plant 2

Problem: Shelf-life was variable and dependanton the day of processing. Study revealed that the crabmeatwas under-processedon those days when it had been refrigeratedovernight for pasteurizingon the following day. Warm, freshly-pickedmeat developedF,~ = 45 minutes while cold meat received F», = 27 minutes. Modificatioa: The processtime was lengthenedby 15 minutesfor cold crabmeat. Results: Spoilagelosses have approached0 percent.

32 Plant 3

Problem:Crabmeat pasteurized in institutionalpouches heated and cooled at an extremely slow rate more than 10 hours to heatand cool!, which reducedproduction and causedthe meat to discolor, Modification: When spacerswere loosenedto encouragecirculation around the containers, F-valuesdoubled but heattransfer rates remained unacceptably slow Whenimproved spacerswere installedand air agitationwas added to the coolingtank, heatingrates improved by 460 percent and cooling rates by 1500percent. Results:Process times were very muchshortened while F-valuesachieved acceptable levels.

Waterbath circulation In the laboratory and in-plant studiespreviously discussed,the effect of agitating the waterbathswas pronounced,especia11y in the cooling tanks. Bath temperatureswere far more uniform and closer to the temperaturedesired. Another effect is also important here. Just as a blast freezer cools more quickly than does static air, moving water transfersheat more rapidly than does uncirculatedwater, Heat transfer ratesare largely determinedby the temperaturedifference betweenthe crabmeatand the surroundingwater, creating the necessarydriving force the engineer'sdelta T!, Cold containerscool the heating water surroundingthem and, when transferredto ice slush, hot containersheat the surrounding cooling water. Therefore the temperature gradient that forms on the outside surface of each container, like layers of an onion, must be strippedaway for most efficient heating or cooling. Although pumps have a demonstratedvalue in circulating water, our experiencehas shownthem to be difficult to control for uniformity throughoutthe tanks. Injection of compressedair into a spreaderpipe in the bottom of the tanks is effective, simple, and inexpensivesince air lines are usually presentin the pasteurizationroom for other purposes. If the existing steamspreader is used,connect compressed air to the steamline betweenthe steam regulating valve and the tank, Important: install check valves to prevent steam from entering the air or water lines.! Circulation problems are most acutein ice slush, and vigorous agitation of the cooling water is very effective. The benefitsare less dramaticin heatingtanks, and very rapid water movementmay be unnecessary.The heatingtank shouldbe bubbling uniformly acrossthe tank but not appearto be a "ro11ingboil." Indeed, at temperaturesmarginally conduciveto bluing, the problem may be aggravatedby excessivelyvigorous circulation of the heating water.

33 Microbial Populations of Cooked Crabs and Fresh Crabmeat The microbiological quality of fresh crabmeatmay determinethe effectivenessof a pasteurizationprocess. It is influencedby the methodby which whole crabs are cooked, the processingenvironment, and storageconditions. The cooking of crabs in commercial processingoperations is performedby eitherboiling or retorting pressuresteaming!, and usuaHyvaries by geographicallocation. Commercialprocessors in statesbordering the Gulf of Mexico often boil crabs, whereasin someMid and South Atlantic statesit is mandatedby statelaw that crabs be cookedby retorting. When crabs are cookedby boiling, it is recommendedthat the water be aHowedto return to a rolling boil and that cooking continue for at least an additional 10 minutes. Nonetheless, even following this recommendation,microorganisms may survive the boiling process. Cann 977! observedthat crabs in the middle of the basketdid not reach a temperatureof 6PC 4KFj duringcommercial processing, while Schultzet al. 984! reportedthat crabsboiled for 10 minutesobtained a temperatureof only 63.FC 43'F!. On the other hand, Dickerson and Berry 974! found that temperatureswould often approach19'. The differencesin observationsmay be partially explainedby the time required to return to a rolling boil. In someinstances, this time interval can be quite long, with the temperatureof the crabs slowly increasingduring the "come up" period. The final product temperatureachieved during boiling, as well as the length of time at lethal temperatures, influences the microbial load of the crabs. The microflora of live crabs is comprisedlargely of Gram-negative,heat-sensitive bacteria, which are killed at temperatures achievedby proper boiling. Nonetheless,it is not uiiusual to observeaerobic plate countsof 1,000 per gram when freshly boiled crabs are tested. Retorting crabs can result in a product that is essentiallyfree of microorganisms,as sampleddirectly from the retort. The processobtained from retorting crabs for 10 minutes at 250 F is equivalentto F~p z=18! of 0.7 to 1.8 minutes,depending on the size of the individual crabs and whether or not female crabsare bearing an egg massoften referred to as the "sponge" spongecrabs heat much more slowly! Dickerson and Berry, 1974!. For reference,an F~, z=18! of 2.3 to 3 minutesis consideredadequate for commercial sterilization of canned foods, Although cooking, especiallyretorting, can eliminate most of the crab's natural microflora, microorganismsare introducedduring subsequentprocessing steps. Sourcesof microorganismsinclude workers, utensils, contact surfaces,and insects. Since picking of the crabmeatis so labor intensive, the workers are perhapsthe greatestsource of microbial contamination. In areasof the country where crabs are debacked,washed, and refrigerated before picking removing the meat!, microorganismsare introducedfrom the workers and the wash water during debacking. In other areas, the customarypractice is to cool the crabs in

34 theretort basketsand aHow the pickersto debackthe crabsimmediately prior to picking. This latter processingprotocol is superiorfrom a microbiologicalstandpoint. Microorganismsthat canbe introducedonto crabmeat from workersinclude spoilage organismsand pathogens. A partial list of pathogensthat can be introducedfrom workers include:Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonellae, Campylobacter, Listeria this is morelikely to be an environmentalcontaminant!, and Enteropathogenic Eschenchia coli. Of the pathogens listed,S. aureusis the mostcommon contaminant. The organismis naturallypresent on the skin, hair, and nasal passagesof inuch of the population. Becauseof the extensivehuman handlingof crabmeat,S. aureusis a majorconcern of regulatoryagencies. Dstena monocytogenescan be found in the processingplant environment,and as a consequencecan potentially be introducedinto the crabmeatthrough a variety of routes. Someof the more obvious include contaminationof the cookedwhole crabs prior to picking, through contact with the floor, contaminatedgloves, or contaminatedshovels used to load crabs onto the picking tables. Perhapsa lessobvious route would be drip from ceiling condensate in cold rooms used to store cooked crabs, This can occur if cooked crabs are not sufficientlyair cooledbefore being placed in refrigeratedstorage; steam rising from the warm crabs will condenseon the ceiling of the cooler and contaminatethe crabs with a variety of microorganisms,Listeria amongthem, Once on the surfaceof the cooked crabs, theseorganisms easily contaminate the meat as it is beingremoved by pickers. Crabmeat'sready-to-eat status has madethe control of Listeria monocytogenesin these productsa high priority to FDA Hooker et al. 1991!. Although L. monocytogenesexhibits greater heat resistancein crabmeatthan in fluid milk products, D-valuesreported by Hamson and Huang 990! show it is eliminatedby conventionalpasteurization at any inoculationlevel Table2!, Commercialbuyers are increasinglyqualifying suppliers based on their ability to deliver pathogen-freeproducts. The usesof pasteurizationfor fresh cooked seafoodsand of milder thermal processesfor targetingvegetative pathogens in productsdestined for frozen distribution are applicationslikely to becomemore important in the 1990sas safety concernspredominate. Other pathogensfrom the environmentmight include Vibrio speciesand Salmonellae, Hackney et al. 980! demonstratedthat Vibrio can contaminate crabrneat from the environment. Reservoirs include waste containers, insects, and dust. Most spoilagemicroorganisms and pathogensare heat sensitiveand can be destroyedby low to moderateheat. The heat resistanceof various non-sporeforming microorganismsis summarizedin Table 4. The D-valuesof pathogensand spoilageorganisms were calculated from heat resistancedata in the literature, with milk being the most common heating medium. Heat resistanceof microorganismsis significantly influencedby the food medium being heated.

35 Table 4. D-value in secondsof nouspore-forming microorganismsat either 18' or 156K

D-value D-value 185'F, 50'F, z-value Heating Organism sec! sec! medium Reference

Vibrio chalerae 0. 16 11. 7 18.9 buffer Schultz et al. 984!

0.29 93.0 13.9 crabmeat Schultz et al. 984!

Li steri a 0.16 39.8 15 1 crabmeat Harrison and monoc'ytogenes Huang 990!

0.02 11.2 milk Bradshaw et al. 985!

0.09 28.2 14.4 milk Sunning et al. 986!

0.007 19.8 10.4 skim milk Bradshaw et al. 987!

0.02 17.2 12.2 cream Bradshaw et al. 987! Staphylococcvs avreus 0.002 15. 0 9.2 various Stumbo 973! foods

0.04 132.0 9.9 various Stumbo 973! foods

Salmonella ty phieuri um 0. 002 2.3 11.2 milk Bradshaw et al. 987!

0.001 4.2 9.9 Bradshaw et al 987! Salmonella senftenberg 0.017 53.6 9.9 Stumbo 973!

Yersini a 0. 000721.4 9.9 milk Lavett et al. enterocoliti ca 982!

Shi gella dysenteri a 0.0002 3.0 8.5 milk Stumbo 973!

Campylobacter j ej vni 0.0007 1. 03 10. 4-12. 1 skim milk Doyle and Roman 981! Other Bacteria' 0.008-0.01 60-180 7.2-10.8 various Stumba 973! foods

Psevdceronas, !lchromobacter, Enterobacter, Pli crococcus, and Yactobacillus, as well as most syore-forming bacteria.

36 Discoloration in Pasteurized Crabmeat The bluing that occurs in pasteurizedcrabmeat occurs during heat treatmentand intensifiesduring storage. It has beenobserved that crab meatprocessed above 1%PF developsthe off-color more readily than that producedat lower temperatures.Some processorshave adoptedalternative processing schedules to the previously described19' processto reduceproduct rejection in the marketplace. Thesealternative processes were usuaHybased on personaljudgment rather than thermobacteriologicalprinciples or studies. While oneproblem may havebeen either eliminated or reducedin magnitude,another may have beencreated. As pasteurizationtemperatures are reduced,processing times must be substantiallyincreased. Unfortunately, the magnitudeof this increasemust be obtainedfrom both thermocoupletemperature profiles and mathematicalcomputations. Failure to determine an equivalent thermal process can result in product loss and may even present a health hazard.

Geese and Prevention of Blue Discoloration Crabspossess a copper-basedhemocyanin that tendsto form gray to blue-black complexeswhen the picked meat is cannedor pasteurized Babbitt et al,, 1973, Boon, 1975, Groninger and Dassow, 1964!. Meat processedabove approximately 19 PFfrequently discolors, hencethe selectionof 185'C-19PF waterbaths. The discolorationof pasteurized blue crabmeatinvolves more than elevatedtemperatures, however, since retorted whole crabs do not discolor. Waters 971! confirmed that contaminationof the picked meatwith metals, especiallyiron, can greatly exacerbatebluing. The addition of citric acid Waters, 1971! and sulfates Fellers and Harris, 1940! inhibits the formation of blue pigments. Certain food grade phosphates e.g., addition of 0.3% by weight dry sodium acid pyro-phosphate!may also be beneficial in color control Moody, 1991!, as is EDTA ethylenediaminetetraaceticacid!. Additives and GRAS Generally Recognizedas Safe! substancesshould be usedjudiciously, if at all. Although no standardof identity currently exists that would specificallyprohibit the use of appropriateadditives, regulatory officials must be notified and labelling requirementsfollowed. Also be aware that manyconsumers are looking for food productswhich are "natural" or "contain no additives." Also, the use of additives requiresadditional quality assuranceprograms, aiid the possibility exists that an additive may fall out of favor at somefuture time, Any undesirablepublicity could causeconsumer rejection of the product for an extendedtime.

37 Recomm endations to Minimize Discoloration 1. Al 1 crabmeatshould be processedat internal temperatureslower than 19'. 2. Pasteurizer waterbathtemperatures should not exceeda rangeof 189-192K. 3. Pasteurized crabmeatshould be storedfor reasonabletime periods and the "First-in First-out" rule should be folio~ed. Free liquid prodiicedin the can during thermal processingfacilitates the bluing process. When bluing occurs, processorsshould considerprocessing procedures that do not require boiling, washing,or fluming of the cookedcrabs or cores. 5. Design heating tanks for uniform water circulation. Excessiveturbulence in one portion of the tank may trigger bluing in meat from that area. Minimize contactof crabmeatwith any sourceof iron, including corroded steel and aluminum often contains trace metal contaminants!. Experiment with more than one container style and manufacturer since enamel compositionand quality varies.

Other Defects A targetedF-value definesmicrobial kill at containercenter and can be accomplished with many optional time/temperaturecombinations in nearly any suitable containertype. This flexibility permits the considerationof other quality parameters. A new processbased on the destructionor inactivation of a target anaerobe,for example, must be evaluatedwith the following factors in mind. Their relative impact is likely to vary according to container type and heat/time/waterbathcirculation parameters. Heating temperaturesbel.ow 1%PF are usedto reducebluing, a visual defect. In addition to b1uing, defectsof non-microbialorigin in pasteurizedcrabmeat include a dry appearance and coarsetexture, excessivefree liquid, cookedodor and flavor, and formation of small cxystalsthat feel gritty whenchewed. None of theseproblems has been sufficiently studied to permit a comprehensiveunderstanding of causesand control measures. However, observations in commercial facilities and the existence of similar problems in other food products may offer someinsights. Product dryness, usually accompaniedby darkening, occurs on the surface of the meat where it contacts air in the headspace. Whereas bluing appears to be particularly temperaturesensitive, product dryness is mostlytime dependant.That is, mostheat-induced quality changesrequire someoptimal combinationof temperatureand time for them to develop, Bluing can occur even at 18' if the crab is held there for a very long time, but appearsquickly at 20PF. A dry over-cookedappearance is likely to develop most often

38 when the heatingtime continueswell beyondthe two-hour processtypically given one-pound cans. A short exposureto high temperaturesaffects appearanceless. A reasonablecompromise process, then, for controlling both of thesedefects should includerapid heating to a temperatureof between185 and 189'F,holding for the time ngills of winter-dredgedcrabs to the meat during picking. This condition affects all body meat producedfrom thesecrabs, not just pasteurized. A less-understoodproblem relatesto very small crystalline grains that form during pasteurization. The compositionof these particles has not beenconfirmed, but preliminary evaluationindicates struvite, magnesium ammoniumphosphate Moody, 1991!. As in cannedproducts, the problem arises from naturally occurring constituentsand is preventedby the addition of sodiu~ acid pyrophosphate. Other chelators additivesthat bind certain ions! have not beenevaluated for control of struvite in crabmeat.

Use of Steam Tunnel Processes to Reduce Microbial Levels Consumershave typically demonstrateda preferencefor fresh crabmeatover meatthat is either pasteurizedor frozen. However, somepotential fresh marketsare beyondreach due to shelf-life limitations. Basedon a preliminary study by North Carolina StateUniversity researchers Gates 1977!, an investigationwas conductedat Virginia PolytechnicInstitute and StateUniversity to determinethe feasibility of using atmosphericsteam to extendrefrigerated shelf-hfe Rippen et al. 1988!.

39 Development of Atmospheric Steam Processfor Flake Crabmeat Flake crabmeat was spread in trays and passed through a steam tunnel so that the meat achieveda temperatureof 167%. It was handpacked, while still warm, into standardplastic containersused for fresh meat and storedon ice. Researchersfelt that pre-chilling or packing with sterile implementswould reduceits acceptanceby the industry. Results indicated significant reductionsin aerobicplate counts, and completeelimination of coliforms, fecal coliforms, and S. aureus. No changeswere found in color, moisture content, or sensoryquality. The crabmeatmaintained significantly lower APC's than untreatedcontrols during storage,and sensoryshelf-life was extendedby 85 to 100 percent. A process suchas this has merit where the intent is to extend the shelf-life of a fresh pre- cooked product or to reducethe probability of contaminationwith potential pathogens. Furthermore, the competitive microflora reducethe risk of botulism since subsequent contaminationwith a mixed spoilagemicroflora is expected,and containersare not hermetically sealed. Far more cautionis warrantedfor refrigeratedproducts that are mildly pasteurizedafter they are placed in hermeticcontainers.

Atmospheric Steam Processfor Lure Crabmeat: A Study Lump crab meatis very unevenin size. Becauseof this variability, slightly higher temperatures75'F and 185'F! were selected. In three separatetrials, forty pounds 88 kg! of fresh lump crab meat, previously picked and packaged,was obtainedfrom a Virginia crabmeatprocessing plant. Twenty pounds, packagedin eight-ouncetamper-evident containers, was stored in ice and usedas controL The remaining twenty pounds was spreadout on a perforatedstainless steel tray and exposed to atmosphericsteam. The crabmeat was heated in a modifiedsteam blancher until the internal temperatureof monitored lumps reachedthe designatedtemperatures of 175'F or 185 F. Pleasenote the differencesin temperaturesfrom the 167K for flake meat. It was earlier establishedthat lower temperatureswere not adequate,therefore a higher temperature was added!. The processedmeat was then packagedinto eight-ouncecontainers and placed

1R ice. At day 1, a samplecontainer from eachtemperature and the controlwere analyzed for total coliforms APHA procedure,3-tube MPN in LST broth, incubated48 hrs at 35'C! and for moisture content AOAC vacuumoven dry procedure!. At days 1, 3, and 5, each treatmentwas evaluatedfor aerobic plate count pour plate with plate count agar incubated for four days at 2PC!, Staphylococcusaureus counts APHA, Baird-Parker spreadplate, incubatedat 37 C for 48 hrs!, Listeria counts recovery procedureusing Oxford agar overlay,incubated at 3PC for 48 hrs!, texture Instron!,and color Minolta Chroma-meter,

40 Hunter L,a,b scale!. Theseprocedures were continueduntil sensoryevaluation of the sample was borderline. Sensoryproperties were evaluatedby a 10-12 membertrained panel. Sensoryscores were basedon the 9-point scale end of shelf-life was indicated by a mean score of 5, borderline, or below!. The procedure was conducted in triplicate. Statistical analysiswas performed using the SAS system.

Resiilts: Aerobic plate countswere significantly decreasedand Listeria, S. aureus, and coliforms were eliminated, Unheated control samples were positive for a non-pathogenic Liberia which was never isolated from the heat-treatedsamples. With the ehmination of spoilageand potential pathogenicorganisms, shelf-life was increased10-14 days. After a shelf-life of 11 days, sensoryevaluation results indicatedthat the controls were no longer acceptable. Odor and flavor values were unacceptableand aerobic plate counts were 1.57x 10' cfu/g, Aerobicplate counts of both the heat-treatedsamples were 5 logs less 99.999 percent fewer! than the control samplesat day 11. Both test samplescontinued with acceptablesensory ratings for an additional 14 days. The steam treatment enhanced flavor of the treated samples. The test samples consistentlyrated higher in sensoryevaluation than the control even on day 1, Texture Instron! of all sampleswas not significantly different p> 0.05.! throughoutsensory evaluation. Color was not significantly p.05! changedwhen heatedto 175'F; however, when the sampleswere heatedto 185F, darkeningof the meatoccurred. Moisture contents were not significantly p! 0.05! affected by the addition of steamto heat meat to 175'F. Reductionswere observedat the higher temperature85'F!. In summary,the processof heating the meat to 175'F producedthe best product with the least changesin quality, and greatly extendedshelf-life.

Minimally Processed Seafoods Sols Vide Seafood Products! Minimally processedfoods, including seafood,are being introducedinto the U.S. market. The processwas developedin Francewhere the productsare portion controlled, vacuum packagedin plastic pouchesor ridged containers,which are highly impermeableto oxygen and moisture, and then cookedin either a water bath or high humidity oven. Cooking temperaturesare usually far less than thoseassociated with pasteurizationof crabmeat. The cookingprocedures may involve using temperatures very closeto that desiredfor the internal temperaturemaximum for the products,therefore requiring long cookingtimes; or products may be cookedquickly using temperaturesconsiderably above the desiredinternal maximum. In either case,the principles that apply to pasteurizationalso apply with this processing technology. The products should be cookedto a desiredF-value and cooled quickly. The earlier discussionson container size, initial bacterialpopulation, cooling, and survivors also apply to sous vide processing.

Advantages Sos vide is an outgrowth of the French cooking methoden papillote cooking a product in oiled parchmentto lock in flavor!. While the idea of cooking in vacuum-sealedpouches has beenaround since the early part of this century it was actually patentedby %'.R. Grace and Co.!, it was not until the mid 1970sthat the French chef GeorgePralus madeit a popular cooking method in Europe. Pralus first usedsous vide as a preferredcooking method for preparingfoie gras gooseliver!. He discoveredthat by cooking under vacuum the product has less shrinkage,better flavor, and improved color retention. The product also has an extendedshelf-life when held under refrigeration. Furthermore,vacuum cooking allows the food to cook in its own juices and loss of favor volatiles is minimized. The productsare usually packagedraw and lightly spicedsince flavors are retainedin the packages. The productsare usually producedat central facilities and usedat upscale restaurants as a means of enhancing menu selection.

Safety Considerations The safety of sos vide productshas beenquestioned since theseproducts are only minimally processedand do not contain preservativesto control microbial growth. Furthermore, the cooking processdoes not eliminatenon-proteolytic types of C. botulinrun, and there is somequestion as to whether it may allow other organismssuch as I.isteria to survive. Shelf-life and safetyof theseproducts is dependentsolely on refrigeration, therefore it is critical that psychrotrophicpathogens not survive and grow. In the United States,companies have producedthese products as refrigerated, ready-to- mt, heat and serveproducts. They are processedunder controlled conditionsand caution is exercisedduring distribution. As of early 1992, the productsare being sold only to food serviceestablishments and are not being sold retail. This could changein the future as demand incus. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration has limited the productionof sous vide products to approvedfood processingoperations and currently is not allowing production at retail establishments,such as grocerystores. It is importantthat theseproducts be producedunder an approvedHACCP hazardanalysis critical controlpoint! program,and that the principles that have been outlined for pasteurizationbe understoodand applied to their production. Severalmajor manufacturershave gone to freezingsous vide products,opted for full

42 pasteurizationprocess schedules, or stoppedproduction due to safetyand regulatory concerns.

Clostridium botulinum Type E As has beennoted, seafoodpasteurization processes are not basedon destructionof Clostridium botulinum; insteadit is shelf-life that is the important consideration. Fortunately the heat resistanceof type E providesa large safety factor. C. botulinum type E has a D», value of 0.2-0.32 minutes. Therefore, a processof F»5 of 31 minutesprovides at least a 96D process, However, other types of psychrotrophicnon-proteolytic C. botulinum are more heat resistant. Non-proteolytic type 8 is reported to have D-values of 0.45-14.33 minutes. A 31-minute F-value may provide only a 2.2D processfor this organism. Type F is reported to have a similar heat resistance. Despite the safety factor, in any discussionof pasteurizedcrabmeat and public health, the principal considerationis the potential presenceof C. botulinum Type E toxin. Although unlikely, the possibility exists for the toxin to be presentand thereforeit merits attention. Human botulism is relatively rare; however, its control and preventionis one of the most important considerationsin food processing. History has shown repeatedlythat an outbreak of botulism can causesevere, often ruinous, economicproblems for processors. Furthermore, when a problem does arise, a whole segment of the food industry is often affected, not just the processorinvolved EMund 1982, Eyles 1986!. C. botulinum, the etiological agentof botulism, is divided into eight types, basedon seriological differentiation of the neurotoxin: A, 8, Cl, C2, D, E, F, and G Sakaguchi 1979!. The types have beendivided into 4 groups accordingto proteolytic activity Smith 1977!. Group I and II are the most important with respectto humanbotulism. Group I includes type A and proteolytic strainsof type 8 and F. This group is strongly proteolytic and producesputrid, unpleasantodors. This group also produceshighly heat-resistantspores and has a minimum growth temperatureof about 50'F. Group II includesall types E and non-proteolyticstrains of 8 and F. Group II is neither proteolytic nor gelatinolytic and cultures do not produceputrid odors in food. This group can grow at temperaturesas low as 38'F, and the sporesare heat labile. The symptomsof botulism usually developin 12 to 36 hours after ingestion of the food; the range is 2 hours to 14 days. In general, the shorter the onsettime, the more severethe symptoms. The amount of toxin in food doesvary, and death hasbeen reported after a mere tasteof a small piece of beanpod or asparagus. Food poisoning occurs more frequently in women becausethey prepareand tastethe food more often than men do. Botulism is difficult to diagnose. Gastrointestinalproblems are often the first sign i.e., vomiting, nausea, and sometimes diarrhea!. Other early symptoms

43 are weakness,lassitude weariness!,dizziness, and vertigo. Thesecan be followed by eye problemssuch as blurredvision, diplopia doublevision!, dilatedand fixed pupils,and impaired reflection to light. Other symptomsare weaknessof facial muscles pharyngolaryngealparalysis difficulty in speechand swallowing!, impaired salivation drynessof the mouth,tongue, and throat!, complaint of thirst. Abdominalpain is severe and often accompaniedby constipation. Muscle weaknessoccurs in the soft palate, tongue, diaphragm,neck and extremities, causingdifficulty in walking and grip. Fever is absentand mentalprocesses are normal. The majorcause of deathis respiratoryfailure and airway obstruction. C. botulinum is widely distributed in soils and, becauseof run off, all types may be isolatedfrom the aquaticenvironment Dolman 1964!. TypeE is the toxin mostfrequently isolated from aquaticenvironments and is most often implicated in botulism associatedwith seafoodproducts. The sporesof type E are often isolatedfrom fresh water and marine sedimentsin temperatezones Dolman1964!. The numbersof all typesof C. botulinum found in waters, seafood,and sedimentare usually low; the highestcounts are usually found in sediment less than 100 per gram!. The incidencein marine fish usually follows patterns associated with the bottom sediments. Presnell et al. 967! examined the incidence in Mobile Bay, Alabama. C. botulinum was found in only 4.1% of the sedimentsamples and 2.7% of the oyster samples. Ward et al. 967a! surveyedthe U.S. Gulf Coast. They found 3% to 5% of fish, and 5% to 8% of the sediment,sampled to contain C. botidinum. In further work, Ward et al. 967b! found a slightly lower incidenceon the Atlantic Coast. Cockey et al. 974! found C. botidinum in 21 of 24 crab samplesfrom the ChesapeakeBay. In these surveys, type E was usually the predominant type. Most outbreaksof botulism associatedwith fishery productshave implicated semi- preservedproducts, i.e., smoked, salted, or fermentedproducts that are eatenwithout further cooking Eklund 1982, Lynt et al. 19S2!. Type E is inhibited by water activity less than 0.975 % NaCl! and pH less than 5.3 Emodi and Lechowich, 1969!, The sporesare sensitive to heat. Decimal reduction times at 82.2 C 8'! range from 0.49 minutes to 6.6 minutes,depending upon the heating medium and the strain Lynt et al. 1982, Simunovicet al., 1985!. The sporesare most resistantin tuna packedin oil. For foods not packedin oil, a D-value of 4.3 minutesat 82.2 C is usually consideredthe maximumexpected heat resistance. Z-valuesrange from 4.8'C to 9.6'C Simunovic et al,, 1985!. For comparison, other membersof Group II produce slightly more heat-resistantspores with D-values for non-proteolytic type B ranging from 1.49 32.3 minutes at S2.2'C Scott and Bernard 1982!. The D-values for non-proteolyticF are similar to non-proteolyticB.

44 SECTION 3.

Temperature Measurements

Thennocouples A thermocouple is a device for the measurementof temperature Fig. 17!. Its operation is based on the observation that a small electric current will flow in a closed circuit composedof two dissimilar metallic conductors. The pair of conductors,or thermocouple elements, which constitutes the thermoelectric circuit, is called a thermocouple. Simply stated,a thermocoupleis a devicethat convertsthermal energy to electric energy. The amount of electric energy producedcan be usedto measuretemperature when connectedto an appropriate recorder. Of all the available temperaturetransducers, why use a thermocouplein a particular application? There are numerousadvantages to consider: 1. Physically, the thermocoupleis inherently simple, being only two wires joined together at the measuring end. 2. The thermocouplecan be madelarge or small dependingon life expectancy,drift, and response time requirements, 3. It may be flexible, rugged, and generallyeasy to handleand install. 4. It normally covers a wide range of temperaturesand its output is reasonablylinear over portions of that range. 5. Comparedto many temperaturetransducers, the thermocoupleis less subjectto self- heatingproblems, 6. Usually, thermocouplesof the sametype are interchangeablewithm specifiedlimits of

error. 7. Also, the materialsare readily availableat reasonablecost. The expensein most cases is nominal,

Figure 17.

45 The commonly used thermocoupletypes are identified by letter designationsoriginally assignedby the Instrument Societyof America ISA! and adoptedas an American Standard in ASA C96.1-1964. Some of these are: 1. Type T Copper +! Constantan -! 2. Type J - Iron +! Constantan -! 3. Type K Originally Chromel" +! Alumel' -! 4. Type E Originally Chromel* +! Constantan -! 5. Type S - Platinum/10% Rhodium +! versusPlatinum -! 6. Type B - Platinum/30% Rhodium +! versusPlatinum/6% Rhodium -! *Trademark- Hopkins ManufacturingCompany

Table 5 gives recommendedmaximum temperaturelimits for various gaugesizes of wire.

General Application Data Type T: These thermocouples are resistant to corrosion in moist atmospheres and are excellent for subzero temperature measurements. They have an upper temperature limit of 70PF and can be used in a vacuumand in oxidizing, reducing, or inert atmospheres.This is the only thermocoupletype for which limits of error are guaranteedin the subzero temperaturerange, and it is probably the most commonly used thermocouplein the food industry including those usedin heat penetrationstudies for pasteurizedseafoods!. A wide variety of manufacturedthermocouple hardware is availablefor this type.

Table 5. Upper TemperatureLimits 'F! for ProtectedThermocouples for Various Wire Sizes

Wire Size

Thermocouple No, 8 No. 14 No. 20 No. 24 No. 28 ,128 in! .064 in! ,032 in! 0.020 in! .013 in!

J 1400 1100 900 700 700 E 1600 1200 1000 800 800 700 500 400 400 T K 2300 2000 1800 1600 1600 Rand S 2700 8 3100

46 TypeJ: Thesethermocouples are suitablefor usein vacuumin oxidizing,reducing, or inert atmospheres,at temperaturesup to 140PF. The rate of oxidation of the iron thermoelement is rapidabove 1000'F, however, and the useof heavy-gaugewires is recommendedwhen long life is required at the higher temperatures, Bare thermocouplesshould not be used in sulfurousatmospheres above 1000F. This thermocoupleis sometimesused for subzero temperatures,but the possiblerusting and embrittlementof the iron wire under these conditionsmakes it lessdesirable than Type T for low temperaturemeasurements. Limits of errorhave not beenestablished for TypeJ thermocouplesat subzerotemperatures.

TypeK: TypeK thermocouplesare recommended for continuoususe in oxidizingor inert atmospheres at temperatures up to 230PF. Because their oxidation resistance characteristics are betterthan those of otherbase metal thermocouples, they findwidest use for measuring temperaturesas low as -42 FF, althoughlimits of error have beenestablished only for the temperature range 0 to 230KB. Type K thermocouplesmay be usedin hydrogenor crackedammonia atmospheres if the dewpoint is below -40K. However, they should not be usedin. 1. Atmospheresthat are reducing or alternatelyoxidizing and reducing unlesssuitable protected with protection tubes. 2. Sulfurous atmospheresunless properly protected. Sulfur will attack both thermoelementsand will causerapid embrittlementand breakageof the negative thermoelementwire through interangularcorrosion. 3. Vacuum except for short periods preferentialvaporization of chromium from the positive elementwill alter calibration!. 4. Atmospheresthat promote "green-rot" corrosion of the positive thermoelement. Such corrosion results from preferential oxidation of chromium when the oxygen contentof the atmospheresurrounding the thermocoupleis low and in a certain range. Corrosioncan causelarge negativeerrors in calibration and is most seriousin the temperaturerange 1500'F to 190PF. Green-rot corrosion frequently occurs when thermocouplesare usedin long unventilated protecting tubesof small diameter. It can be minimized by increasingthe oxygen supply through the use of large-diameterprotecting tubesor ventilatedprotecting tubes, Another approachis to decreasethe oxygen contentbelow that which will promote preferential oxidation by inserting a "getter" to absorbthe oxygenin a sealedprotection tube.

Type E: Type E thermocouplesare recommendedfor use over the temperaturerange of- 420 to + iSXFF in oxidizing or inert atmospheres.In reducingatmospheres, in a}ternately oxidizing and reducing atmospheres,in marginally oxidizing atmospheres,and in vacuum they are subjectto the samelimitations as TypeK thermocouples.These thermocouples are suitablefor subzerotemperature measurements since they are not subjectto corrosionin atmosphereswith high moisturecontent. However,limits of error for the subzerorange have not been established. Type E thermocouplesdevelop the highestemf electromotiveforce! per degreeof all the commonly usedtypes and are often usedprimarily becauseof this feature.

TypesR and S: TypeR andS thermocouplesare recommendedfor continuoususe in oxidizing or inert atmospheresat temperaturesup to 250PF, intermittently up to 270PP. They shouldnot be usedin reducingatmospheres, nor thosecontaining metallic or nonmetallicvapors, unless suitably protected with nonmetallicprotecting tubes. They never should be inserteddirectly into a metallic primary protecting tube. Types R and S thermocouplesmay be usedin a vacuumfor short periods of time, but greater stability will be obtainedby using 'ape B thermocouplesfor such applications. Continueduse af Types R and S thermocouplesat high temperaturescauses excessive grain growth that can result in mechanicalfailure of the platinum element. It also renders the platinum susceptibleto contamination,which causesnegative drifts in calibration, that is, a reductionin the emf output of the thermocouple. Calibration changesalso are causedby diffusion of rhodium from the alloy wire into the platinum, or by volatilization of rhodium from the alloy. All of theseeffects tend to produce negative calibration shifts.

Type B: Type B thermocouplesare recommendedfor continuoususe in oxidizing or inert atmospheresat temperaturesup to 310PF. They are also suitablefor short tenn use in vacuum to this temperature. They should not be usedin reducingatmospheres, nor in thosecontaining metallic or nonmetallicvapors, unlesssuitably protectedwith nonmetallicprotecting tubes. They should never be inserteddirectly into a metallic primary protecting tube. Under correspondingconditions of temperatureand environmentType B thermocouples will show less grain growth and less drift in calibration than with Type R or S thermocouples. The limits of error for the commonletter designatedthermocouple types, as listed in Table 6, are taken from ANSI StandardC96.l. Most manufacturerssupply thermocouples and thermocouplewire to limits of error or better.

48 Table 6. Limits of Error for Standard and SpecialGrade Therlnocouples

Temperature Range Limits of Err r 'F! Standard Special

32 to 530 +4'F +2'F 530 to 1400 +3/4% +3/8%

32 to 530 +O'F +2'F 530 to 2300 +3/4% +3/8%

RorS 32 to 1000 5oF g2'h'F 1000 to 2700 +>A%

-300 to -75 +1% -150 to -75 +2% +1% -75 to 200 >1'h'F +3/4'F 200 to 700 +3/4% k3/8%

32 to 600 +3'F +2~4'F 600 to 1600 ~3/8%

1600 to 3100 +'la%

Extensionwires are insertedbetween the measuringjunction and the referencejunction and have approximatelythe samethermoelectric properties as the thermocouplewires with which they are used. The wires are normally availableas single or duplex, solid or stranded,insulated wires in sizesranging from 14 to 20 BRS gauge. A varietyof insulations andprotective coverings are availablein severalcombinations to suit the manytypes of environmentsencountered in industrialservice. Extensionwires maybe separatedinto two categorieshaving the foHowing characteristics:

Category1: Alloys substantiallythe sameas used in the thermocouple. This type of extensionwire normaUyis usedwith basemetal thermocouples.

Category2: Alloys differing from thoseused in the thermocouples. This type of extension wire normally is used with noble metal thermocouplesand with severalof the nonstandardizedthermocouples.

49 Severalpossible sources of error in temperaturemeasurement accompany the use of extensionwires in thermocouplecircuits. Most of the errors can be avoided, however, by exercisingproper precautions, One type of error arisesfrom the disparity between thermocoupleand extensionwire components. This disparity results from the variations occurring among thermoelementslying within the standardlimits of error for each type of thermocoupleand extensionwire. For example, it is possiblethat an error as great as +8% could occur in the Type IQKX and J/JX thermocoupleextension wire combinations,where the standardlimits of error are +4'F for the thermocoupleand the extensionwires treatedas ~te combinations. Such errors can be reducedsubstantiaHy by selectingextension wires whoseproperties closely match those of the specific therrnocouple,up to the maximumtemperature of the thermocouple-extensionwire junction. A second source of error can arise if a temperature difference exists between the two thermoelement-extensionwire junctions. Errors of this type are potentially greater in circuits employing category2 extensionwire, A third source of error lies in the presence of reversed polarity at the thermocouple/extensionwire junctions, or at the extensionwire-instrument junctions. A fourth sourceof error concernsthe use of connectorsin the thermocoupleassembly that have conductivecharacteristics which differ appreciablyfrom thoseof the thermocouple extensionwires, The magnitudeof errors of this type can vary over a wide range depending on the materials involved and the temperaturedifference spanned by the connector. A completethermocouple temperature sensing assembly usually consistsof the following: 1. Sensingelement assembly basically composedof two dissimilar wires, supportedby an electrical insulator and joined at one end to form a measuringjunction 2. Protection tube, either metal or ceramic, and commonlyreferred to as thermowells 3. Connector 4. Miscellaneoushardware; for example;adaptor to jooi the protection tube to the head or thermocouple glands. Numerousvariations in measuringjunction are possible;the specific application dictates the most desirable method. 1. Exposedbare wire junction: in this type of a junction the sheathand insulating material are removedto exposethe thermocouplewires. Thesewires are joined to form a measuringjunction that may be twist or butt-weld type. a. fast response b. exposedmagnesia will not pick up moisture c. not pressure tight

50

Figure 18, Containerssuitable for pasteurizedand minimally processedseafoods.

52 Figure 19. Commonthermocoup1es.

Figure20. Thermocoupleassemblies for cansand pouches.

Procedures Thermocouplescan be easily installed, using the following steps:

Step1: Thermocouplesshould be installedin the geometriccenter of the containerbecause this is the location that is slowestto heat. This location is easily determinedin containers where the width or diameteris uniform such as a can!. However, it becomesmore difficult when a variable width container such as a nestablepolymer type! is used. The diameter of

53 the can will determinethe length of the thermocouplewhile the height determinesthe location of the thermocoupleinsertion Fig. 21!. Both measurementsare usually very important. Obviously, for a flattenedcontainer, such as a pouch, thicknessis the most critical measurement.

Step 2: Once the proper measurementshave beentaken, a pilot hole is madein the containerwith an awl or punch Fig. 22!. The awl is usedon both metal and semi-rigid polymer type containers. Care shouldbe exercisedin making the hole since excessive pressurewill bend or damagethe container. For pouches,a paperpunch is often usedto producea small hole near a side or end seamfor fitting specializedhardware.

Figure 21. Locating the thermocoupleinsertion point,

Figure 22. Forming the pilot hole at the thermocouple insertion point.

54 Step3: After the pilot hole is made, a hole puller or cutter is installed and, dependingon the style, either slowly tightenedwith a wrenchor cut directly Fig. 23!. A round hole will be producedafter the cutter penetratesthe container. During this process,metal containers may develop a slight deformationnear the hole but this is expectedand often necessaryto assurea properly shapedgasket seat for the thermocouplereceptacle. The hole cutter should be replacedwhen cutting becomesdifficult or the seatis indistinctly formed.

Figure 23. Completingthe receptaclehole at the thermocoupleinsertion point.

55 Step 4: Slip a gasketover the threadedend of the receptacleand insert the receptaclefrom outside the container Fig. 24!. On the inside, install a receptaclenut. Tighten the nut with a wrench Fig. 25!. The receptacleshould fit snugly but over-tighteningshould be avoided. Check the container sincean improper installation may causea leak, resulting in misleading temperature measurements.

Step 5: Containersshould be filled with product to normal net weight capacity, then seamed in the usual manner. Some seamersrequire the use of flush mount style receptaclesto preventjamming.

Figure 24. Inserting the thermocouplereceptacle and gasket.

Figure 25, Completingthe thermocouplereceptacle installation.

56 Step 6: The thermocouplerod is then installed with a specialtool Fig. 26!. Frequently, needletype thermocouplesare usedfor pouches. They may be positionedhalfway between the pouch side panelswith the aid of a spacerthat slips over the end of the thermocouplein conjunction with an external bracket Fig. 27!. In pouch applications,the thermocoupleis installed prior to filling with product and sealing.! All gasketsshould be replaced periodically to prevent leakage. Thermocouplesshould also be examinedfor physical defects as well as electric conductance continuity!. A Volt-ohm meter is useful for the latter procedure.

Figure 26. Installing the thermocoupleand gasketinto the receptacle.

57 Figure 27, Completedthermocouple assemblies for a can top left! and for pouchesor bags.

Step 7: A properly installed thermocouplemay causeminor deformationin metal containers and stressmarks in polymer containers. This is perfectly acceptableand does not interfere with the measurements.

Step 8: The cross-sectionin Figure 28 depictsan acceptablenon-projecting plug-in thermocoupleinstallation. Figure 29 provides a view of a thermocoupleassembly. After the thermocouplehas been installed, temperaturemeasureinents can be made using any of several dataloggerrecorders and supportingequipment. As previously mentioned,special mounting hardwareis availablefor placing temperaturesensors into flexible packages Fig 27!.

Recorders One of the most important functions in any food processingoperation is data gathering. Temperatureis usually the most important kind of data to be gatheredin a food-processing facility but there are other parameterssuch as those measuredin ampsor watts that may also be important. Thesedata can indicate the statusof processingoperations so that problems can be identified manuallyor automaticallywith alarms; or they can be filed for future referenceas required by regulatory agencies. Data gatheringcan be achievedeither manuaHyor automaticaHyusing recordersor dataloggers. The high cost and variable reliability of humanlabor contrastedwith the low cost and generally high reliability of recorders has rendered some manual data recording obsolete.

58 Figure 23. Cross-sectionof thermocoupleinstalled in sidewall of can.

Figure29. Thermocouplehardware including thermocouple wire andcompatible plug.

In one form or anotherrecorders are found in almost every food processingplant. They are the efficient method for data gathering. Thesedevices vary as to size and price, recording speed,type of data storagemedia, and ability to record different types of inputs suchas voltage,amperage, or power. While thesevariations may present a confusingarray of choice, relatively few are appropriate,because recorders are often designedfor one specific application. For example,if permanentrecords are required, a recorderwith some

59 type of inked chart may be needed. Recordersof this type are sometimescalled analog devicesbecause the data receivedare continuouslyrecorded. The advantageof deviceswith chart recordersis that they provide an instant historical record of a process. However, chart recordersare subjectto pen malfunctionssuch as blotting or interruptionsof ink flow from the pen. The more versatile the recorder, the more knowledgeablethe user usually must be with its installationand operation. The cost may also be higher than necessaryfor a specific application. Analog recordersare steadilybeing replacedby digital devicesthat record data as discrete valuesat prescribedtime intervals Fig. 30!. The conceptof digital recording is graphically contrasted to analog recording. Digital recorders can output data to paper tape, cassette tape, strip charts, internal memory chips for later retrieval with a computer,or directly to a computer. Computerscan also function as recordersif coupledwith a data acquisition systemand can record data as fast as severalthousand times per second. Becausedigital recordersare usually programmable,they are very versatile. Stand-aloneunits normally sampleno faster than once per secondbut a rate this high is usually unnecessary.Most processingparameter-measurement devices such as temperaturetransducers usually have a slow responseso that a high samplingrate is unnecessary.In addition to recording, both analog and digital devices can be interfaced to alarms to warn operators when problems occur. They may also serveas processcontrollers.

Figure 30. Digital recorder datalogger!. While the forgoing discussionmay provide the processorwith an introduction to data recorders,it is usually unnecessaryto be concernedwith the working principle of a data recorder. The important point is to find a reliable recorder that meetsthe needsof the applicationand user. In addition, considerationshould be given to price, easeand rapidity of repair, and how comfortableone feels with the operationof a particular unit. Appropriate regulatory agenciesshould be contactedprior to selectingthermal recording equipmentto assurecompliance with current interpretationof good manufacturingpractices.

Figure 31. Digital thermocouplethermometers,

the pasteurized crab industry, it is wise to standardize equipment and to use indicating thermometers. Important: keep a current record of calibrationfor aH temperature instrtunents. The recording thermometersare usedto documentthe processingprofile of eachbatch of crabmeatpasteurized. They record water-bathtemperature and time of processing. This record is important in providing information about eachprocess and must be kept on file for future reference. Chart recordersmay havean advantagehere over digital printouts. Their tracingsprovide a continuoushistory of the waterbathtemperature so that even the shortest processdeviation will be recorded. For this reason, someregulatory agenciesmay request their use. Short-intervaldigital recordsare sufficient in most instances,however, and provide other featuresdescribed previously. The importanceof record keepingwill be discussedin a separatesection. Someseafood processors now monitor internal crabmeattemperatures in two or more containersof every batch as well as waterbathtemperatures. This extra monitoring provides detailedprocess information and permits interfacing with a computerfor database developmentand routine thermal processcalculations. This record becomesa powerful tool for managersby confirming the adequacyof every batch processed,and by permitting data sorting and retrieval for preparing reports to customers or regulatory agencies, Therrnocouplewires can be run from a connectionbox in the pasteurizationroom to a computerin the company'soffice. For assistancewith hardwareand software selection, contactyour Land Grant or SeaGrant university's food sciencedepartment.

63 The range of accuracyof both the recording thermometerand the clock are important and should be standardizedthroughout the industry. This is part of the Tri-State recommendationsas revised by the National Blue Crab Industry AssociationStandards Committee and included in Section 6.

Proportional How Steam-Control Valve Most crabmeatpasteurization operations use steam as the sourceof heat to raise the temperatureof the water bath, A proportional flow steam-controlvalve is usually required in the operationfor maintainingthe desired waterbathtemperature. Thesevalves are most frequently air-actuatedand meter the steamas required, "anticipating" the volume needed,as opposedto a solenoidvalve which is either open or closed. Without the proper valve, temperaturefluctuations may be too extremefor a time/temperature-basedprocess.

Agitation of Waterbath to Maintain Uniform Temperature Uniform temperaturethroughout the heatingand cooling bathsis crucial; without some meansof agitating the water, cold spotsand hot spotsmay develop. Water can be successfully agitated with air injected through a spreader in the bottom of the tank. Make certain that hole sizesand their placementin the spreaderare such that air is released uniformly acrossthe tanks. Otherwise,most of the agitation may originate near the air inlet point. Virginia Tech staff have measuredas much as a 6'F differencebetween locations in a heatingtank dependingan the uniformity af agitation. The spreaderalso must be level to assureeven air bubble distribution acrossthe tank. Check this carefully during installation.

Baskets Pasteurizationbasket bottoms, sides, tops, and dividers must be designedto permit free circulation of waterbathwater They shouldbe well maintainedand free of burrs or sharp edges,especially when used for flexible packaging.

Pasteurization Tank Hook-Up A typical pasteurization tank hook-up is demonstrated in Figure 32. Minor variations may exist, dependingon the requirementsof individual plants; nonetheless,the f'undamental elementsof all operatingplants shouldbe the same. Someplants have the minimum required equipment but do not use it. For example, the recording thermometer and clack is of little value as a processdocumentation record if a chart is not installed or never changed. 1 Steam inlet 10 Water inlet Manual Valves: 2 Steam pressure reducer11 Steam & air spreader 3 Steam control valve 12 Basket supports- ~ backflaw 4 By-pass 13 Indicating Thermometer ~ prevention 5 Air, instrument 14 Control element bath temp. sensor! gate B Filter 15 Process controller/recorder 7 Pressure regulator 1B Product temperature 8 Drain 17 Datalogger F value!

Figure 32. Pasteurizationtank hook-ttpand recording/monitoringequipment.

65 The crabmeattemperature F-value! dataloggersystem depicted in Figure 32 is not necessary,but its use is encouraged. It permits frequent processverification and recordsfor HACCP plan complianceand may prevent a recall by identifying lots achievingacceptable F- values even if processdeviations occur.

Servicing of Equipment The old axiom, "If it ain't broke, don't fix it," has a great deal of merit. There is, however, anotheraxiom which may not be quite as widely accepted:"If it's working, is it really working?" As with mostequipment, periodic maintenance and calibration is necessary for the equipmentused in the pasteurizationprocess. Manufacturersof processrecorders and clocks suggestroutine servicing. Maintenancerequirements of individual processorsdepend on the frequencyof useand the environmentalconditions in the areaof operation, Periodic servicing is necessaryto ensurethat the equipmentis performing properly, When conductingheat penetrationstudies with thermocouplesas previously described, andat regularintervals approximatelymonthly!, several operational measurements should be determinedfor the use and accuracyof pasteurizationcontrollers/recorders. The following questionsshould be answeredand documented: l. At what time on the chart tracing are the cans submerged?Be certain that the tracing includes the entire time that the cans are in the tank the timed portion of the process schedule!. Make certain that the sameroutine is followed during normal operations as they are on the day thatthe scheduleis established. 2. Is the chart speedcorrect? That is, do the time intervals eclipsedby the chart tracing agreewith your thermocoupledatalogger or watch? 3. Is the charttemperature tracing close to the recorderset-point temperature? 4. Does the tracing agree with the indicating thermometer? 5. Do the indicatingthermometer and chart tracing agree with your dataloggerwaterbath leads?For precisedetermination of temperatureagreements, wrap leadsaround the controller's temperaturesensor, indicating thermometer,and anotherthermometer known to be accurate. Virginia Techresearchers have found that problems with pasteurizationsystems that are difficult to regulate wide temperaturefluctuations or over-shootingof the set-point temperature!are often due to improper placementof the controller's waterbathtemperature sensorused to determinethe need for steam. It shouldbe locatednear the steamspreader in the bottom of the tank; usually under the basketsupport flanges. If locatedat a higher positionor in a well, the controllermay lag respondingtoo slowly to rapidlychanging temperatures.Also, controlvalves should be properlysized and be of the air-actuated, proportional flow type. Therrnotneters in Refrigerated Storage Areas While refrigerated storageis not part of the actualpasteurization process, the ultimate successof the processis contingenton proper refrigeration of the pasteurizedproduct. In fact, if cansof pasteurizedcrabmeat spoil during storage,documentation verif'ying continuous safe storagetemperatures may prove to be the processor'sbest defensewith regulatory authorities. Temperaturesof 36'F and below will not supportthe growth and toxin production of ClosIridium bohdinumeven if the bacteria should enter containersthrough defective seams. Therefore, the authorsstrongly advisethat storagerefrigeration control and monitoring be given critical consideration. As is the casewith the indicating thermometerin the pasteurizationprocess, all recordingthermometers used to monitor refrigerated areas should be periodically checkedusing a certified standardreference thermometer. Again, the industry must monitor thesestorage areas because the storagetemperature of pasteurized crabmeatis a critical factor in the production of a safe, high quality product.

67 SECTION 5.

Can Seam Evaluation and Can Coding

In previous sections,problems associated with swollen andjor decomposedcans of pasteurizedcrabrneat were attributedto inadequateheating, cooling, or storage. A fourth potential problem area is defectivecan seams. During the past few years, there have been several incidences of swollen cans and decomposed crabmeat due to defective can seams. Although only recently recognizedas a potentially significant problem, defectivecan seams are not new to the crabmeatindustry. Some stateregulatory agenciesthat have responsibility for the crabmeatindustry have neither inspected can seams nor required processors to inspect them, There are several reasons: first, the significance of the problem was not widely recognized until recent years; second,some agencies did not have staff memberstrained in can seamevaluation; and, third, the processingplants did not have employeestrained in can seamevaluation. Both industry and the regulatory agenciesare now aware of the problem, and many are training their personnelin can seamevaluation Unfortunately, in somecases, the seafoodindustry was too slow in acceptingthe importanceof the seamingoperation until the cost of negligence becameprohibitive despitethe availability of training schoolsand remindersmailed by can companies. Unlike low-acid cannedfoods, pasteurizedcrabmeat must be refrigerated; therefore, the crabmeatindustry has beenexempt from the strict inspection,process control, and record keepingrequirements imposed on the low-acid can food LACF! industry. One requirement of the LACF industry,which maybecome applicable to the pasteurizedcrabmeat industry in the future, is the periodic inspectionand teardownof can seams. What happenswhen a can seamis defective? Nothing may happen,in some,cases, or "leaks" may develop. Even when leaks do not developat first, this is probably a temgerary situation, unlessthe problem causingthe defect is corrected. When leaks occur, bacteria in the environmentcan be drawn into the containerthrough the leaks; thus spoilageof the productis hastened.The leaksmay be extremelysmall "micro-leaks,"but the bacterialload introducedinto the containerby just one small drop of water can be enoughto causemajor contamination, The presenceof micro-leakscan be detectedusing a specifically designed detector Fig. 33!.

68 Figure 33. A can leak detectorwhich usesvacuum to draw air out of the suspectcan. Leaks are identified by bubblesviewed through the transparentplate as they rise through water previously poured into the cari

UsuaHy, air or water dropletsgain entry through micro-leaksin the can seamsduring the cooling phaseof the pasteurizationprocess. A leaking seamallows air to escapewhen the container is heatedand the internal pressureincreases. When the containeris cooled, the pressureis relieved, and a vacuumoccurs because of this loss of air. Outsideair or water then enters through the leak to relieve the vacuum. Defective can seamscan create seriousproblems for the industry. What is in question, however, is the extent of the problem, Someprocessors in the pasteurizedcrabmeat industry do not know how to evaluatecan seams. Although someof the major suppliersof pasteurizationcans provide a can seamevaluation service, discussionswith companyofficials indicate that only a portion of thosebuying cans makeroutine useof the service. The NBCIA StandardsCommittee has recommendedthat all companiespasteurizing crabmeat have at least one employeewho has been trained in can seamevaluation. That employeeis responsiblefor can teardownexammations every four hours of operation. The NBCIA also recommendsthat a record of theseevaluations be kept and filed for future reference.

Can Coding The proper coding of cansis a significant protectiondevice not only for the consumerbut also for the processor. The more refined the coding system,the easierit is for the processor to locate and recall the product. According to the k f Pr uct Recallsan P e i, a prOduCtCOde at a minimum shouldinClud: 1. Product should be coded for easyidentification and at frequentenough intervals to keep the lots smaH.

69 2. Codesshould be related to processingrecords so that lots that may need to be recalledbecause of a processdeviation or other problem may be identified quickly and completely. 3. Keeping of raw product and quality-control records should be kept in such a way that the product in any batch can be identified.*

It is to the processor'sadvantage to keep eachlot small. If lots are kept sma11,only the lots in questioncan be recaHedinstead of an entire day's production. Severalcoding systems and methodscan be used, accordingto the requirementsof the plant, and the choice should be left to the individual processor. Specialattention shouldbe given to the clarity of the code mark. In the caseof recaHs,illegible codescould create seriousproblems.

Double Seam Evaluation: Determining Proper Formation DosableSeam Dered The double seamconsists of five thicknessesof plate interlockedor folded and pressed firmly together. It is formedin two operations.A first operationroll tucksthe curlededge of the cover underneaththe flange on the can body, as illustrated in Figure 34. The seamis then completedby the secondoperation roll, which pressesthe folds of metal tightly together,squeezing the compound lining into the spacesbetween the metalto effect a hermetic seal Fig. 35!. The namesof the various parts of the double seamare shown in the cross sectionviews of first andsecond operation seams. The juncture of the doubleseam and the sideseam of the can is referred to as the crossover or lap.

Visual Inspectionof External SeamFormation Cansleaving from the closing machineshould be examinedvisually. Carefully inspect the entire periphery to detectany seun malformationor defects such as pronouncedcut overs, cut seains,droop, lips, false seams,spinners skids!, crackedplate, or any evidenceof seamlooseness. Rotatingthe seambetween the thumb and forefinger is very helpful in detectingcertain typesof seaindefects. The frequencyof theseexaminations will dependon the speedat which the closing machineoperates. At a minimum,visual external seam inspection of cansfrom each seaminghead must be madeevery thirty minutesof machineoperation and recorded.

This requirementmay have less application to the pasteurizedcrab industry than do itemsl and2.

70 rsink

rsink Wdth or Len Wid orL

Can Body

Figure 34. Cross sectionalview of seam Figure 35, Fully formed seam following first operation, following secondoperation

Cut Over: A cut over is a sharp fin of the cover formed over the top of the seamingchuck flange during the seamingoperation Fig, 36!. This condition usually occursat the body lap of solderedcans, but may occur all the way around the end, A slight sharpness,best noted by running a finger around the inside of the seam,is not indicative of a defectiveseam, but when pronouncedcould result in a more seriouscut over. A severecut-over condition is dangerous,leading to a possiblefracture known as a cut-throughcut over. Correction is mandatorywhen severecut overs are encountered,

Possible Causes of Cut Overs: I. Incorrect vertical alignmentof the first operationseaming roll groove relative to the seamingchuck. The seamingchuck and first operation seammgroll groove should be set to inaintain .001 inch to,002 inch vertical running clearancebetween the top of the chuck flange and the lead-in angle of the seamingroll groove Fig. 37!.

71 Utover

Figure 36. Seamcross-section at the crossover lap!, solderedcans.

First Operation Roll

Cross-section ss-section

Figure 37, Roll & chuck alignmenton seamer closing machine!.

2. Verticalplay of first operationroH. Roll shouldrevolve freely but verticalplay in excess of .002 inch should be avoided. 3. Vertical play in seaminghead assembly.

72 4. Worn seamingchuck flange. Usually causedwhen the lead-in angle of the first operation seamingroll groove rides the chuck flange, Not sufficient vertical running clearance. 5. First or secondoperation seMning rolls set too tight. When either operationroH is set too tight, the seainformation can be forced beyondthe ideal limits of the seamingroll groove profile to producea cut over. 6. Worn seamingroll grooves. AH first and secondoperation roll groove profiles were developed to produce good seam formations and maximize the life of the groove. Incorrect setting of seamingrolls, even though the seamformation producedis acceptable, should be avoided as the life of the roll grooves will be reduced and the developmentof seamdefects hastened. Any seamingroll, when suspectedof creating cut overs becauseof possibleworn groove conditions, should be replacedonly after determining that the roll is set correctly. 7. Solid or semi-solidproduct trappedin seam. 8. When excessivelylong body hooks force too much metal into the mon, sharpnessall around the seam as well as at the crossover often results.

Cut Seam: A double seam,wherein the outer layer of the seamis fractured Fig. 38!, is known as a cut seam. Immediate correction must be made when this condition exists.

PossibleCauses of Cut Seam: l. Seam too tight. 2. Defective end plate. 3. Excess sealing compound. 4. Long body hook.

Droop: A smooth projection of double seam below the bottom of a normal seam is identified as a droop. While droops may occur at any point of the seam, they usually are evident at the side seamlap Fig. 39!. A slight droop at the side seam lap or crossovermay be considerednormal becauseof additionalplate thicknesses incorporatedin the seamstructure of soldered cans. Figure 38. Cut or fractured seam.

73 Figure 39. SeamDefects.

A droop at the crossoverexceeding 'h the cover hook length should not be tolerated, immediatecorrection is mandatory. Similarly, slight droops in the seamat points away from the lap are undesirable,and correctionsshould be madeto eliminate them.

Lip: An irregularity in a double seamshowing as a sharp "V" projection below the normal seam Fig. 39! is called a lip, or a "V" droop If lips are observedduring the inspectionof double seams, the cause should be determined and corrections made. Possible Causesof Droops and Lips: 1 First operation seam too loose. 2. Worn first operationroll groove. 3. Body hook too long. 4. Product trapped in seam. 5. Formationof can body out of shape. 6. Excessiveamount or unequaldistribution of end lining compound.

False Seam: A false seamis a seamor portion of a seamthat is entirely unhookedand in which the folded cover hook is compressedagainst the folded body hook Fig. 40!. This is a seriousdefect that will causeLeakage, and if it is repetitive must be correctedimmediately. Sometimesthe folded body hook doesnot project below the seam,and the false seamcan then be detectedonly by very closeinspection.

PossibleCauses of False Seam: 1. Mushroomed can flange. 2. Bent can flange. 3. Damagedor bent cover curl. 4. Misassembly of can and cover, 5, Can not properly aligned at assembly. 6. Improperly filled can. Product extendingover can flange.

Spinner Slip, Skid, Dead Head!: An incompletelyrolled fmished seam Fig. 41! Fal'se Seam is known as a spinner, slip, skid, or dead head. Correction must be made immediately.

PossibleCauses of Spinners: l. Insufficient lifter pressure. 2. Improper end fit with chuck. 3. Worn seamingchuck. 4. Incorrect pin height setting. Chuck set too high in relation to lifter plate. 5. Seamingrolls binding. Figure 40. SeamDefects.

75

Production: 1. Fully evaluatethe seamof one can every four operatinghours. 2. Routinely monitor visual parameters,including external seammeasurements and potential defects. 3, Seameroperator should continuouslyconfirm that product does not lay over the top of body flanges. 4. Seameroperator should continually confirm that no damagedcans especially dented flanges! are seamed.

End of day: 1. With machinerunning, hosedown the interior and exterior of seamer. 2. Shut off seamingmachine including main switch and greasewith appropriatefood grade lubricant.

External Sem Measurements Following visual inspectionof the external seamformation, the seamwidth, thickness, and countersinkdepth shouldbe measured. Thesemeasurements and complete internal seam inspectionshould be madeat least once every four operatinghours. Complete inspectionof the double seamshould also be madeon start-up, after a prolongedshut down, after a severe closing machinejam, and after a changein can size or body or end material. It is recommendedthat the width and thicknessof the first operationseam be checkedat least every forty operatinghours or wheneveran adjustmentof the seamingrolls is required. Seammeasurements shouM be madeat three points around the periphery of the can, at least 'h inch away from the crossover. The highestand lowest readingsshould be recorded. Average dimensionsderived from two or more individual measurementsshould not be used. A micrometer especiallymade for measuringdouble seamsis shown in Figure 42. Care should be exercisedthat the micrometeris in proper adjustment. When the micrometer is set at zero position, the zero graduationon the moveablebarrel should match exactly with the Index Line on the stationarymember. If, for any reason,the zero adjustmentis more than half a spacefrom the IndexLine at this setting,an adjustmentshould be made.

Seam Width Height, Length! To measure the seam width, hold the flat surface of the micrometer against the can body as shownin Figure43 andturn the barreluntil the entireseam is lightly trappedbetween the calipers. Figure 42.

Figure 43.

Seam 17rickness The thicknessof the seamshould be measuredas illustrated in Figure 44. When taking the measurement,balance the micrometerwith a finger immediatelyabove the seamand turn the barrel until the anvil assumesthe sameangle as the taper of the countersink,when the cajipers grip the seam.

78

Allowancesmust be madefor the variations due to normal differencesin plate thicknessand temper as well as in sealingcompound weight and placement. Internal seam evaluation and recording of seam measurements should be done at a minimum of once every four operatinghours. As indicatedin the precedingsection, completeinspection of the double seamshould always be madeafter prolonged shut downs, after severeclosing machinejams, and after changesin can size or body or end materials.

First Operation Seam Formation Figure 46 showsthe appearanceof a correct first operation seamin cross sectionaway from the lap. Notice that the cover hook curvesaround against the inside of the body hook and the body hook is in contactwith the flange of the end. The seamshould be roundedat the bottom and in contactwith the body of the can, Due to extra material in the seamat the lap of solderedcans, however, the first operationseun will be somewhattighter at this point only and will show a slight flat at the bottom, as indicatedin Figure 47, If the first operationis too tight, the bottom of the seamwill be slightly flattenedthrough its length, as shownin Figure 48. If the seamis too loose, the cover hook will not be in contactwith the can body, as shownin Figure 49.

Figure 46. Correct First Operation. Figure 47. Correct First Operationat Crossover.

80 Figure 48. Tight First Operation. Figure 49. Loose First Operation.

Due to possiblevariations in end curl configurations,first operationthickness may vary. The ideal first operationthickness should be determinedby sectioningthe seamso the portion of the cover hook relative to the body hook may be noted Figs. 46 and 47!. The seammay be sectionedeither by filing radially acrossthe seamor by use of a seamsaw.

Second Operation Seam Formation The secondoperation roll groove flattensthe seamand pressesthe folds togethertightly enoughto compressthe sealingcompound and causeit to fill the parts of the seamnot occupiedby metal. This compressedsealing coinpound is iHustratedby the solid black area around the body and cover hooks in the well-formed seamsshown in Figures 35 and 50. Excessivepressure does not producea good seamand may even producea defective seam. Extreme tightnessof the secondoperation roll will stretchthe metaland causean increasein the width and outsidediameter of the seam. This tightnessis also likely to produce slippagebetween the hooks, commonlycalled "unhooking," especiallyif the first operationrolls are set too loose or if they are excessivelyworn. Therefore, a seamwhich is rolled too tight is more likely to leak than is one madewith proper pressure. Figure 51 iHustratesan incorrect secondoperation seam, which could be partially unhookedat some points.

81 Excessiv verlap verlap

Figure 50. Normal double seam and Figure 51. Wide or long double seam, overlap. short overlap.

The degreeof interlock of the cover hook and the body hook is known as overlap Fig. 50!. The integrity of the double seamis dependentin large measureon the length of this overlap. Insufficient overlap may result in leakage,particularly at the crossoverof a malformed seam,if the cover is then distorted due to internal pressureduring Sled can processingor when the double seamis disturbeddue to rough handling.

Tearing Down the Double Seamfor Inspection: The methodpreferred by most evaluatorsis to separatethe body and cover hook of the finished seam in the following manner: l. Use can openerto cut out center sectionof cover approximately3/8" from double seam Fig. 52!, 2. Use a nipper to remove remainderof the center cover Fig. 53!. 3. Cut through double seamabout 1" from lap, as shownin Figure 54, 4. Removestripped part of cover by gently tapping with nippers, taking care not to distort can body hook Fig. 55!.

82 Figure 52, Use specialseam evaluation opener to remove end of can.

83 Figure 53. Tear rem;ming center cover with nippers without distorting seam.

Figure 54. Cut through seamand can body.

Figure 55. Gently tap down strippedcover to unhook cover from body.

84 Visual Inspection of Internal Seam Visual inspectionof internal seamformation should include examinationfor such seam defectsas insufficient cover hook tightness,lack of evidenceof a pressureridge, jumped seam,excessive droop of the cover hook at the crossover,and body or end fractures. See Table 9 for causesof seamdefects and likely solutions.

Cover Hook Tightness WrieUe! Rating Seamtightness is judged primarily by seamthickness and the smoothnessof the cover hook. Percenttightness is expressedin terms of how far the wavesor wrinkles extend from the top edgeof the cover hook toward the baseof the cover hook. The percenttightness is determinedby the largestwrinkles present. Wrinkles or waves have three basic dimensions, Height, the distancethe wrinkle extends from the top edge of the cover hook to where it fades out towards the base; depth, the amount the wrinkle projects out from the face of the cover hook; and length, the width or distancethe wrinkle extendsaround the top edgeof the cover hook Sincea wrinkle or wave is graded only by its height, it is important to note that a true loosenesswrinkle has height, depth, and length. Often the profile of an ironed-out, first-operation wave with no depth will show on the face of the cover hook; this is incorrectly gradedas a loosenesswave. When a wrinkle extendsone-fourth of the length of the cover hook, the seamis rated 75% tight; when the wrinkle extendshalfway, the seamis rated 50% tight; etc. In hemminga straight edgeof plate, no wrinkles are formed. On curved edges, wrinkling increasesas the radius of curvaturedecreases. For this reason,different wrinkle ratings are specified for small diametercans as comparedto large diametercans. In small round cans, 300 diameterand under, it is important to note that ironed-out, first- operationfolds should not be confusedwith true seamwrinkles. The ironed-outfolds will be apparentonly in tightly rolled seams. Excessivesealing compound will sometimescause impressions on the face of the cover hook, which cannot be ironed out. These should not be confused with loosenesswrinkles, The presence of an unusual amount of compound on the face of the cover hook is usually evidenceof heavy compound. A heavy enamelcoating on the cover hook may interfere with judging the tightness, If this occurs, the enamelmay be removedto facilitate judgment.

85

Figure 58. Strippedcover hooks from loose seam top! and normal seam.

Pressure Ridge: The pressureridge is formed on the inside of the can body in the double seamarea as the result of the pressureapplied by the seamingrolls during the seaming operation. The practice of visually inspecting this point in the tom-down can serves as an additional check on the tightnessof the finished seam, The pressureridge should appearas an impressionaround the completeinside periphery of the can body. An excessivelydeep pressureridge shouldbe avoided, particularly on inside enameledcans and cans with aluminumends. It should, however, be presentand visible.

Figure 59 shows a cross- section of the finished double seam and a cross-section of a stripped seam, illustrating the pressureridge producedin making a good commercial

Crossover Droops: The extra Pressure Ridg thickness at the lap of the side seam of a soldered can causes a normal s1ight deformation of the Figure 59. Locationof pressureridge. cover hook at this point. Excessive droop at this point, Droop exceeding'8 the cover hook length Fig. 60!, requiresimmediate correction.

Jumped Seam: For soldered cans, the most critical portion of the double seamis at the crossover,the juncture with the side seam. The cover hook Figure 60. A droop on the cover hook. immediatelyto either side of the

crossovershould be examinedfor loosenessindicative of a jumped seam Fi . 61 . A j ~~~ seamis a double seamthat is not rolled tight enoughadjacent to the crossover;it is causedby jumping of the seamingrolls after passingover the lap. Thus, the location of a jumped seamwrinkle in relation to the crossoverwill dependon the direction of rotation of the seamingrolls.

Possible Causes of Jumped Seam 1.. Operation of closing machineat excessivespeed. 2. Slu gg' ish-actin - g, secondwperationseaming-roll cushion spring. 3. Secondoperation seamingroll cushioningtoo weak, 4. Broken cushion spring. 5. Can lap too thick at double seamarea.

Jumped Seam Area Can Body Side Adjacent To Lap impression Seam Lap Impression

Figure 61 View of coverhookat the crossover hp! of solderedcan.

88 Internal Seam Measurements The cansthat have beenpreviously measuredfor external seamdimensions, tora down, and visua11yinspected should be measuredfor body hook length and cover hook length. Opticalprojection and inspection of a cross-sectionof the seamat onepoint cannotbe substitutedfor measurementof the bodyand cover hooks at severalpoints around the seam. As indicatedunder "External SeamMeasurements," measurements should be madeat a minimumof threepoints around the periphery of the can, at least'h inch awayfrom the crossover. The highestand lowest readingsshould be recorded, Averagedimensions, derivedfrom two or moreindividual measurements, should not be used. This topic is discussedin more detail in the following section.

Double Seam Evaluation: Daily Testing and Records Gooddouble seams are essentialin insuringagainst spoilage from leakageand the ingress of oxygen, which result in internal corrosion and product deterioration, The best safeguards againstimproperly constructeddouble seamsare l. regular inspectionsby a qualified person using approvedmethods, and 2. the operationof the closing machineswithout deviation from the instructionsgiven by the can companies.

Examination of Cms Prior to Use Metal-can seamevaluation involves more than tear-downinspection of final seams. lt includes careful handling and inspectionof cans and lids prior to closing. Make certain that lid and body flangesare undamaged,that no sharpburrs are presenton body flange edges, and that lids delivered from the manufacturercontain uniform distribution of sealing compoundin the seamarea. Bent or burr-edgedbody flangesare particularly seriousdefects when a tinplate can body is fitted with an aluminum lid, since the body hook may crack the more brittle cover hook. Dented body flangescan sometimesbe straightenedwith a special crimping tool designedfor this purpose. When lids are stored, the sealingcompound tends to becomehard over time and is less likely to compensatefor slightly malformeddouble seams. This compoundis the glue that keepsout bacteria. When cansare closedwith lids containinggood, fresh sealing compound,the compoundwill look and feel tacky gummy! during manual seamtear-down inspection. Store lids in cool, dry storage.

89 Double Seam Evaluation When significant seamdefects are noted, closing machineadjustments should be made immediately, and all corrective actions recorded. The following is a recommendedschedule for the examination of can seams.

1. Visual Exaxnination:During regular production runs, a constantwatch should be maintainedfor gross maladjustmentssuch as deadheads,cut-overs, and other similar double seamdefects, Maintainingthis constantcheck may be accomplished in severalways, dependingon the typeof closingmachine, line speeds,and general equipment layout. It may bestbe performedby trainingthe c1osingmachine operator to recognizeirregularities by visualexamination. However, an adequatecheck program can be maintainedthrough use of othertrained personnel. The operator,can closure supervisor, or otherquaMed person shouldvisually examine, at intervalsof not morethan 30 minutesof operation,the top seam of a randomly selectedcan from each seamingstation, and should record his/her observations. Additional visual seaminspections should be madeimmediately after a can- jam in a closing machine, or after startupof a machinefollowing a prolongedshutdown. If irregularities are found, the action taken should be noted.

2. Tear-DownExamination: Tear-down examinations should be madeat a frequencyof at least 1 can per seamingstation every4 hours of operationor eachmajor fraction thereof, Such examinationsshould be madeas soon as possibleafter starting up following a shutdown,waiting only long enoughfor the machineto "warm-up." Cans for visual inspectionshould be taken during this warm-up period. The resultsof the tear-down examinations should be recorded.

3. Geaeral Observations:Following are someof the many factors that influence double seamquality: a. conditionof the seamingequipment: whether or not the mechanicaloperation and adjustmentof the closing machinegive the proper seamcontours. b. can materials.'variations in tinplate thickness. c. can size: roll contourschange with cansize to accommodatevariations in plate thickness. Other pertinent observationsshould be recorded, indicating the presenceor absenceof suchdefects as cut-overs, droops, etc. Regardlessof whether or not a seamscope or seamprojector is used, the double seam shouldbe tom down for examination, Tools required for seamexaminations are available from the can suppliersas well as from other sources.

90 Two measurementsshould be madefor eachdouble seamcharacteristic if a seamscope or seam projector is used. If a micrometer is used, 3 measurements should be made at points approximately 120' apart, beginning 1/2 inch from the side seam. The high and low measurements must fall within limits considered to be normal for the conditions.

Table 7. Essentialand OptionalSeam Measurements

Measurement

Qg.n~l Body Hook Scopeor Micrometer preferred! Cover Hook Scopeor Micrometer preferred! Overlap Scope Length Width! Scope or Micrometer Thickness Micrometer Tightness / Wrinkle Visual Observation

QptiLnal Overlap by calculation! Micrometer Countersink Micrometer

With regard to measurements,the cannershould follow the specificationsrecommended by the can supplier. Overlap length Fig. 62! can be calculatedby the following formula when a scopeis not available:

Theoretical Overlap length = CH + BH + T W Where CH = cover hook BH = body hook T"* = cover thickness, and W = seam width Theseare micrometermeasurements, usually!

Figure 62 is a cutawaydiagram of a doubleseam, showing the measurementsto be made and the terminology for the measurements.The completedseam secondoperation! diagram should be displayedin the plant area where seamsare to be examined. The formula for calculating the overlap length is listed as well.

*+In generalpractice .012 tnay be usedfor the alnminntnthickness and .010for tinplate.

91 rsink

rsink Width or Len Wi Ol

er

Can Bocfy

First Operation Second Operation

Minimum Measurements Calculation of Overla Len th Width not essential if overlap is Overlap length = Ck + BH + T - W measured optically! Where CH = cover hook Thickness desirable but not BH = body hook essential! T- = cover thickness, and Countersink desirable but not W =seam width essential! Body hook - In general practice 0.010 may be Cover hook* required if micrometer used for tin plate thickness and 0.012 is used! when aluminum tids are used. Overlap* essential if optical system is used! Tightness or wrinkle

*Essential Requirements

Figure 62. Seamfeatures commonly measured.

92 An exampleof a recommendedform is shownin Figure 63. It should meet recognized recordkeepingrequirements. Such forms shouldbe modifiiedas necessaryto meet the needs of individual companiesand must be appropriatefor eachcontainer used.

Stripping Seamsfor Inspection and Measurement Some examinersstrip the entire seam,while others find it preferableto leave about one inch of the double seamopposite the sideseam undisturbed. In the latter case, the cove~is left hinged to the unstrippedportion of the double seam. This methodof stripping has the foQowingadvantages: 1. The coded top and coverhook portion of the seamstay fixed to the can, assuring accurateidentification of the entire containerin caseit is to be inspectedby the can companyservicemen ar interestedcannery personnel. 2. It permits measurementof both hooks four points apart %F!, or at three points 2@! apart, either of which is usually consideredsatisfactory. 3. It permits good visual inspectionof the cover hook. 4. It permits inspectionand measurementof the undisturbedoutside portion of the double

seam. 5. It permits filing a notch through the undisturbedportion of the double seamto see if can and cover hook are properly abutted.

Figure 63. Recordingseam measurements on a form.

93 The most convenienttools for stripping seamsare: 1. a can opener Fig. 64! with a point on the end to pierce the center of the cover and act as a fulcrum, equippedwith an adjustableslide cutter to make a circular cut in the cover leaving 3/8 to 1/2 inch strip attachedto the seam;or a set of "Airplane" left- handsnips for example,the Wiss 8 in.! whichare easilyhandled when cutting the top out of the can 2. a pair of 6-inch end nippers for tearing the seamapart Fig. 64! 3. a hookgauge or can seammicrometer! for measuringthe can hooks Fig. 65! 4. a pocketsize magnifying glass or seamscope projector!for closeinspection of seams Fig. 66! 5. a seamsaw for use with seamprojectors Fig. 67!

Seamspecifications differ dependingon the can size and the manufacturer. It is not possible,therefore, to list measurementsthat would apply in all casesand for all sizes of cans, For this reasonit is recommendedthat double seamspecifications be obtainedfrom the can supplier. There are, however, the following fundamentalcharacteristics of a double

1. Thereshould be little or no "cut-over,"which may cause cans to leak causedby tinplate being rolled over the chuck!. 2. Double seamsshould not be rolled so tightly that they becomedistorted and stretched. An otherwisegood double seamcan be destroyedby rolling it too tightly. 3. Body and cover hooks should be about the sameheight and kept within a specified tolerancerange. 4. A good seamis one in which the first operationhas beenrolled just tightly enoughto produce the desiredlength of body and cover hooks, and the secondoperation tightly enoughto iron out the wrinkles in the cover hook without stretchingthe metal. A vrinkle is the degreeof wavinessoccurring in a cover hook. Wrinkles are classified ~Acrby percenttightness or by numberas follows Fig. 56!: Smooth, no wrinkles, Slight wrinkle. Wrinkles up to 1/3 distancefrom edge. :omewhatheavier wrinkle. Wrinkles up to 1/2 distancefrom edge. .rge wrinlde, Wrinkles more than 1/2 distancefrom edge.

94 Figure 64. Tools commonly usedto tear-downand measuredouble seams.

95 Figure 65. Use of a can seammicrometer to measurehooks.

96 Pigure 66. SeamScopes. Figure 67. Seamsaw used for sectioningdouble seams.

In 307 diametercans having wet seams,consistent No. 0 wrinkles indicate that the seams are on the tight side and shouMbe adjustedto producewrinkles not greater than No. 1. No. 2 wrinkle is the borderline betweena satisfactoryand unsatisfactoryseam, and when the wrinkles in the double seamapproach this point the seamshould be tightened. No. 3 wrinkles indicate a looseseam likely to give trouble. It is important to note that, in small cans under 307 diameter,ironed-out first-operation folds should not be confusedwith the normal wrinkle. Typical seamspecifications for 401 x 301 cans are given in Table 8.

Table 8. ExaInple SeajnDimensions for Steel401 x 301 Can Dimensions in Inches!

Aluminum End Tinplate End 85 lb.

Thickness .060 +- .002 .056 - .058 Width / Length .125 max. .115 - .125 Body Hook .080 +- .008 .080 +- .008 Cover Hook .080 +- .008 .080 +-,008 Overlap ,045 MIN .045 MIN Tightness 80 - 100% 75 - 100%

98 Testing Cansfor Leakage Detection of can leaks is an important, but often difficult, task in the study of spoilage. The pressuretest is the method most generallyused, althoughothers have been suggested. Pressure is applied by various means. One apparatusconsists of two metal plates facedwith rubber and held togetherby screw clamps. One plate has a pipe connectionto the center for the admissionof air. %ith this equipment the opened can should be against the gasket to which the air line is connected. This assemblyis then immersedin water and the air turned on. Leaks are detectedby air bubbles. Care should be taken to obtain a good seal againstthe rubber, especiallyif the double seamis at all irregular, becauseair leaks betweenthe rubber and the double seam make it difficult to see seam leaks. Another methodfor pressuretesting cans is to cut a small hole in the end of the can just large enough to remove the contents using an adjustable slide opener. Remove the can contents,wash out the can, and dry in an incubatoror warm oven. Solder a piece of metal over the hole. Puncturethe can and makea hole just large enoughto insert a piece of metal tubing. Solder the metal tube into the can and connect to an air pressure line. An alternativeis to solder over the hole a solderhernmedcap, and, through the center of this, attacha specialapparatus having a hollow triangular spur, a sealingclamp, and attached pressuregauge.! Immersethe can in water and turn on the air pressure. A maximum pressureof 20 psi is recommended.The pressureshould be increasedfrom zero in stages and the can observedfor leaks at each stage. A leak will be indicatedby the formation of air bubbles. This procedurecannot be usedwhen the entire can end has been removed. One objection to thesemethods is that can lealage normally occurs from the outside in, and the use of internal pressuremay produceor indicate leaks that would not occur in a normal can under slight vacuum. On the other hand, leaks that would occur under vacuum may be obscured. To obtain results more comparableto thosethat may occur naturally, a leak detectoremploying vacuum has beendeveloped by Bee and Denny, similar to that shown in Figure 33.

Alternative Packaging: Special Considerations Flexible Pouches and Bags Some seafoodprocessors pasteurize in pouches,bags, or tubes casing! designedto withstandthe temperaturesand stressesencountered in a heatprocessed, refrigerated, or frozen product. By definition, a pouchpossesses seals on all four sideswhen closed: three side sealsformed by the pouch manufacturerand a headseal formed by the processorafter

99

Table 9. Causes and Solutions to Common Double Seam Defects

DROOPS l. Baseplatepressure too great. Decreasebaseplate pressure. Check numberof spacersneeded for can size. 2. First seamroll operationtoo loose. Tighten first seamroll operation. 3. Food trapped in seam. Clean can edgecarefully before seaming. 4. Defective cans bent or dented!. Inspectcans for damagebefore using. 5. First seam roll worn. Replace sean roll,

1, Baseplate pressure too great. Decrease baseplate pressure, Check number of spacersneeded 2. First Seamroll operationtoo loose. Tighten first seamroll operation. 3. Food trappedin seam. Clean can edgecarefully before seaming. 4. First seam roll operation too tight. Loosen fiixst seam roll operation. 5. First sean roll worn, Replaceseam roll.

SHARP SEAM AND CUTOVER 1. First or secondseam roll operation Loosen first and/or second seam roll too tight. operations. 2. Food trappedin seam. Clean can edgecarefully before seaming. 3. Baseplatepressure too great, Decreasebaseplate pressure. Check numberof spacersneeded for can size. 4. Worn sean rolls and/or chuck. Replaceseam rolls and/or chuck.

CUT SEAM 1. First and secondseam roll operations Loosenfirst and secondseam ron operations. too tight.

INCOAGKETE SEAM l. Baseplatepressure too high or too Check sealerinstructions for number of spacers low. needed for can size. 2. Worn seamingchuck. Replace chuck. Seamrollers not rotating freely. Clean, oil, or repair seamrollers so they rotate freely.

101 3. Oil ox grea,seon seamingchuck Clean seamingchuck and/or turntable. turntable.

FALSE SEAM 1. Bent or damagedlid or can edges, Inspectcans and lids for damagebefore using. 2. Food trapl:ed in seamand/or can Clean can edgecarefully before seaming. overfilled. Check fill of can. 3. First seamroll operationloose. Tighten first seamroll operations. 4. Secondseam roll operationtoo Loosen second seam roll operation. tight.

LOOSE THICIPGSS seamtoo loose! 1. Secondseam roll operationtoo Tighten secondseam roll operation. loose.

TIGHT THICIVKSS seamtoo tight! 1. Secondseam roll operationtoo tight. Loosen secondseam roll operation.

LONG SEAM WIDTH 1. First seamroll operationtoo loose. Tighten first seamroll operation. 2. Secondseam roll operationtoo tight. Loosen secondseam roll operation. 3. Worn seamrolls. Replaceseam rolls.

SHORT SEAM WIDTH 1. Secondseam roll operationtoo loose. Tighten secondseam operation. 2. Baseplatepressure too great. Decreasebaseplate pressure. Check number of spacersneeded for can size.

DEEP COUNTERSINK 1, Baseplatepressure too great, Decreasebaseplate pressure. Check number of spacers needed for can size. 2. Incorrect chuck for can size Check sealer instructions for correct chuck being sealed. size. SHALLOW COUNTERSINK 1. Baseplate pressure too low. Increase turntable pressure. Check number of spacersneeded for can size. 2. Chuck worn. Replacechuck.

LONG BODY HOOK Fig, 68! 1. Baseplatepressure too great. Decreasebaseplate pressure. 2. Incorrect pin height setting. Check nuinber of spacersor pin height neededfor

3. Seaming chuck too low in relation to baseplate. 4. Mushroomedcan flange misshapen Check can flangesfar uniform shapeprior to curl!. filling.

SHORT BODY HOOK Fig. 69! l. Baseplatepressure too low. Increasebaseplate pressure. Check number of spacersor pin height neededfor can size, 2, Incorrect pin height setting. 3. Seamingchuck too high in relation to baseplate. 4. First seam roll operation too tight. Loosen first seamroll operation. 5. Second seam roll operation too loose. Tighten secondseam roll operation. 6. Iinproperly formed can flange, Check can flangesfor uniform shapeprior to filling.

Figure 68. Long body hook. Figure 69. Short body hook.

103 LONG COVER HOOK Fig. 70! 1. First seamroll operation too tight. Loosen first operationseam roll. 2. Baseplatepressure too low. Increase baseplate pressure. Check number of spacersneeded for can size.

SHORT COVER HOOK Fig. 71! 1. First seamroll operationtoo loose. Tighten first operationseam roll. 2. Baseplatepressure too great. Decreasebaseplate pressure. Check number of spacersneeded for can size. 3. First seam roll worn. Replaceseam rolls.

Figure 70. Long coverhook. Figure 71, Short coverhook.

SHORT OVERLAP Fig. 51! 1. Damagedcan or lid edges. Inspectcans and lids for damagebefore use. 2. First seamroll operationtoo tight. Loosen first operationseam roll. 3. Baseplatepressure too low, Increasebaseplate pressure. Check number of spacersneeded for can size.

LOOSE pronounced! WRINKLE I. Second seam roll too loose. Tighten second operation seam roll.

TIGHT no! %'RINKLE 1. Secondseam roll too tight. Loosen secondoperation seam roll. empty cans are stored in lofts, the tiers of cansclosest to the floor should be protectedwith paper or cardboard to prevent objects from being kicked or swept into the cans. When cans are received bagged, care should be exercised to prevent breaking of the bags prior to use. Bags of cans should be opened only as needed, and partial bags should be covered until the next use. Somecanners use plastic coversfor this purpose. Where cans are bright palletized and fed automaticallyinto the can liners, cardboardseparators should be left over the top of the open cansuntil they are fed into the distributing unit. Somecanners also use phstic covers for palletizedcans awaiting use. At the end of the day's operationall cansbeyond the can washeror invertor shouldbe removedfrom the can track, to prevent can contaminationduring the clean-upand shut-downperiod. Cans should be used for food and food only. This must be a hard and fast rule if product contaminationis to be avoided. Occasionally,maintenance men use cansas containersfor nails, bolts, electrical supplies,and cleaningcompounds, and workers on canning lines have beenknown to make them repositoriesfor watches,jewelry, and other personalbelongings. In addition, cans have beenused for measuringingredients, oils, and other materials. The possibility exists that thesedirty cans may find their way into the packing lines without bemg emptied or washed. In one caseseveral dollars in cashallegedly were found in a can with the product.

Container Washing Some, though not all, cannershave units installed in the empty-canhandling lines that are referred to as can washers. These are either commercial or homemade and of various designs. All of them have their faults, and cannersdo not regard them as completely satisfactory,Some state regulatory agents have recommended steam injection of the empty containeras a cleaningprocedure. The National Food ProcessorsAssociation employed an experimentalprocedure in an attempt to evaluatein the laboratory the efficienciesof can washing methods. In brief, the procedureconsisted of dying a mixedmicrobial contaminant and adding a measuredquantity of the dyed contaminationto the cansto be tested. The intensity of the dye was measured before and after the can washeras an index of remainingcontamination. The amount of dye reductionis a roughmeasure of the efficiencyof the washingprocedure. The results indicatedthat only one living sporeremained for each100 grams of food. The time to reducethe survivors by 90% the decimal reduction time [9-value]! was D~= 1 minute. Preliminarytests indicate that hot watercleans more efficiently than cold water,cold watermore efficiently than steam, and steam more efficiently than air blast. However, steamhas a tendencyto pastelarger particles of contaminationto the can rather than remove them. While water at 170-180'Funder 60 to 70 poundsof nozzle pressurewill do a good cleaningjob under laboratory conditions, the commercialapplication of this procedure presentsserious economic and engineeringproblems. In the caseof glasscontainers, suitable jar washersare available especiallyfor baby food jars. Alternateair blasts and vacuum havebeen used successfullyin cleaningglass containers. Glasscontainers also have the advantagethat they can be observedas they pass an inspection point and defects or extraneous material can be detected. Containersshould be rinsed or dipped with an approvedsanitizer most often chlorine! and drained immediatelyprior to filling with product.

107

Cooling Record As indicatedabove, record the time containersare immersedin the ice-water bath if not immediatelyfollowing the heatingstep! and the time they are removed. This can be done on the inspectionreport and shouldbe easily cross-referencedwith processdocumentation.

Distribution Records Recordsshould be maintainedto identify the initial distribution of the finished product to facilitate the segregationof specific codeswhen necessary.

Can Seam Evaluation Written records of all containerclosure examinationsshould specify the product code, the date and the time of containerclosure inspection, the measurementsobtained, and ail corrective action. Recordsshould be signedby the individual making the inspection.

Refrigerated StorageTemperature Documentation Since the production of safe, wholesomepasteurized crabmeat is dependenton proper refrigerated storage,it is important to maintaina temperaturelog of the storageroom. Daily readings,preferably in the morningsbefore the storageroom is openedand subjectto temperatureincreases, should be madeand recordedto insure that the temperatureis below 38'F. Regulatoryagencies suggest that thermometersbe periodically cross checkedwith a standardreference thermometer to insure accuracyin daily use. Annual check is considered adequate!.

Record Retention Since the anticipatedshelf-life of pasteurizedcrabmeat ranges from 6 to 12 months, the NBCIA standardscall for retaining records for a period longer than the reasonableexpected shelf-life of the product before discarding two yearsin most cases!. Keepingrecords of the various factors of the operationprotects the processor. If records are not kept and a problemoccurs, the processorhas little recourse. Consequently,a tremendousloss of both moneyand creditability may be needlesslyincurred. If adequate records are availablethis problem may be avoided. Even if the processoris liable, the extent of the problem may be minimized by accuratelyidentifying the implicated product lot s! ancUorby providing evidencethat may rule out the possibility of a health hazard, thereby avoiding a recall situation,

An idea for this different inspectionapproach was obtainedfrom a large multi- diinensionalfood processingfirm which had previously instituteda quality control system basedupon pin-pointing potentially troublesomeareas along the processingline and monitoring theseareas on a daily basisvia a strict recordkeepingsystem. This new control techniquewas designedto be preventivein nature. Its main objective wasand still is to bring potentialdangers to theattention of managementfor "Before-the- Fact" corrective action; that is, before a potentialhealth hazardbecame an actual health hazard. The new approachwas dubbedthe Hazard Analysisaiid Critical ContxolPoiiit HACCPj method. When regulationswere being proposedfor the LACF industry, it was recognizedthat there are many significant elementsin a manufacturingprocess which needto be controlled. Theseelements, moreover, could vary from inanufacturerto manufacturerand product to product. After considerablestudy, it wasdetermined that therewere certain critical elements inherent in every LACF process,a lack of control over which could cause,allow, or contributeto a microbiologicalhazard in the final product. From this deterininationit was decidedthat it was plant managemeiit'sresponsibility to: l. Identify suchcritical elementsor points CCP's! throughHazard Analysis; 2. Controlthem through the use of certainprocesses and procedures; and 3. Record the facts that suchprocesses and procedureswere performed. Factor3, above,is the only way managementhas of proving to itself as well as any regulatoryagency that critical control points on its processingline arebeing controlled on a day-to-daybasis. It shouldbe emphasized that it is moreimportant for managementthan the regulatoryauthority to receivesuch assurance, for managementis in a muchbetter position to effect immediatecorrective action, should it becomenecessary, When one producesa productwhich is subjectto a microbiologicalhazard, it is easyto seeproper record maintenancecan benefit a firm's over-all qualitycontrol program. Federalregulations governing certain record-keeping requirements for the LACF industry becameeffective in 1973and 1974. They were amendedin 1979. Among others, the recordsrequired were those pertinent to containerclosure integrity; delivery of thescheduled thermalprocess; regular measurement of product, container or equipmentvariables that could adverselyaffect the safety of thefinished products should they be outside certain specified limits; and handlingof processdeviations. These regulations, designated as 21 CFR Part 113,are notrequired of the pasteurizedcrabrneat industry, because pasteurized crabmeat is a refrigeratedproduct. To meetthe definition of a LACF,pasteurized crabmeat would have to be shelf-stableat room temperature,i.e. approximately7QV. The recordkeepingrequirements in Part 113would be of benefitas recommendationsfor thepasteurized crab industry. Accordingly, let us attemptto definewhat critical control

111 points might be inherent in a pasteurizedcrabmeat manufacturing process and seewhat types of recordscould benefit plant managementwith respectto controlling thesefactors on a continuing basis. The idea is to prevent a potential problem from ever developing.

Critical Control Points and a Pasteurized Crabmeat Process If a critical control point is defined as a point in the processwhere lack of control may cause,allow, or contribute to a hazardin the final product, what would be the critical control points along a pasteurizedcrabmeat line and how can they be controlled? A survey of a typical pasteurizedcrabmeat line indicatesthe following areas:

Container Integrity The first critical control point along the line is the proper sealingof the containers. 21 CFR Part 110.80 h! states: Packaging processesand materials shall not transmit contaminants or objectionable substancesto the product,shall conformto any applicablefood regulationand shouldprovide adequate protection from contamination The pasteurizedcrabmeat industry most frequently usesa technologically-standardround, three-pieceside-seam welded can or a two-pieceseamless aluminum container. Many, if not most, packersuse an aluminum end and a tin-plated, enameledsteel body for their 12 and 16 oz. containers. The purposeof the aluminum end is to miniinize the potential for rusting during the cooling phaseof the processand during storageprior to ultimate use. Some packersemploy an all-steel, three-piece,soldered side seamcontainer. Those packing 8 ouncecans may use an all-aluminum "drawn" two-piece containerwith a pull-tab type top. Regardlessof the type of containeremployed, the technologyinvolved is basically the same:the proper alignment of a filled containerwith a lid end, or cover, and the seamingof this lid onto the can body in two stagesor operations;hence the term, double seam. The componentsof a double seam,the proper alignmentof the components,and someof the seain defects that can occur are discussed in detail in Section 5. Thereare two basictypes of examinationthat shouldbe performedon a finished,filled containerto determinegeneral seamintegrity: 1. A visual exam for gross closure defects non-destructive! and 2, A tear-down of the completeddouble seamfor visual exam and measurementof components destructive!. Both of the above are requirementsfor the LACF industry. 21 CFR Part 113.60, pertinent to LACF products, recommendsthat a visual exam be performed on a containerfrom each

112 seaminghead at intervals not to exceed30 minutes. It also requiresthat a visual exam be performed immediately following a jam in the closing machine,after closing machine adjustment,or following a prolongedshut down. This regulationalso recommendsthat tear down examinationsbe madeat intervals not exceedingfour ! hours. Recommendationsmade specifically for thepasteurized crabmeat industry are: 1, Seamtear-down at start-upon eachday, approximatelyevery 1000 cans thereafter, and any time following a jam. 2. An "inspectionof can seams...at the start of the processand at intervals of 250 cans. AH results of containerclosure examinationshould be recordedon appropriateforms. Theserecords should contain the product code, the date and time of containerclosure inspections,the measurementsor other resultsobtained, all corrective actions taken, and the closure examiner's signatureor initials. They should also be reviewed by a qualified representativeof plant managementwith sufficient frequencyto ensurethat container integrity is being maintained. Additional information that could be recorded on the closure examination records is the empty containermanufacturing lot number both bodies and ends!, if known. This would be of benefit, for example, in the event of a leakageproblem along the side seamor end applied by the manufacturer, Another soundinspection step involves the periodic examinationof empty containersfor evidenceof bent or otherwisedainaged flanges. Lids shouldalso be examinedperiodically for appropriateamount of curl, damageto the curl, and sealingcompound deposition or distribution. A record should be madeof any abnormalitiesnoted, particularly if it should appearto be a problem involving manufactureof the can body or end. Such commentscould be included on the packer's seaminspection record or maintainedon a separateform. Finally a record should be madeof any maintenanceperformed on the seamer other than routine lubrication!. This record could be in the form of a maintenancelog book, a file folder containingdetailed receipts for servicesrendered by a supplier's mechanic,or on the packer's seamexamination records.

Pasteurization The secondcritical control point on the line wouM appearto be the pasteurizationprocess itself, 21 CFR Part 110.80 f! states: All food processing, including packaging and storage, should be conducted under such conditions and controls as are necessaryto miiiiniize the potential for undesirable bacterial or other

113 microbiological growth, toxin formation, or deterioration or contaminationof the processedproduct or ingredients. Bach batch must be pasteurizedaccording to a minimum specifiedtime/temperature schedule establishedby a recognizedprocessing authority. Pasteurizersin the crabmeatindustry are equippedwith sometype of indicating thermometer,such as a mercury-in-glass. The LACF industry is required to have suchan instrumentand, as it is the referenceinstrument for determiningwhether or not proper sterilizer temperaturehas been attained, it is required to be calibratedagainst a known referencethermometer upon installationand at least once a year thereafter1 CFR Part 113.40 a! ! ref.!. Records of such calibration are a recommendation to the LACF industry. The indicating thermometersfor the pasteurizersin the crabmeatindustry should also be calibratedagainst a known standardoften enoughto ensureproper operation. In the Blue Crab National Industry PasteurizationStandard NIPS, Appendix IV!, it is recommendedthat a representativeof the stateregulatory authority check both the indicating and recording thermometersupon installationand at leastonce eachoperating season Section 8, pMagraph A!. Manufacturersof indicating thermometers,such as mercury-in-glass,usually have a servicesection that will visit a plant and calibrate theseinstruments. The indicating thermometershould be the referenceinstrument, becauseit can be checked against a known standard thermometer, Readings should be taken from it during the cook and recordedon an appropriateform, Furthermore, a comparisonof indicating and recording thermometerreadings should be madeto determineif the recorder is in needof adjustment. Most, if not all, processorshave recording thermometerswhich are, in somecases, combined with the steam controller to form what is referred to as a recorder-controller, on their pasteurizationtanks, Such a deviceis a requirementin the LACF industry 1 CFR Part 113.40 a! ! ~f.! and would appearto also be extremely important to the proper processingof pasteurizedcrabmeat. A recording thermometer,or recorder, properly instrumented,installed, operated,and maintainedwiH give a completeand accuratewritten history of the processingof a particular batch. The chart should be identified with the pasteurizer'snumber, if applicable,the date,the operator's signatureor initials, and other necessarydata. With respectto "other necessarydata", Section 8, paragraph6 of the Blue Crab NIPS recommends recording within the confines of the pen markings the following additional information after the pasteurizationcycle is completed: 1. Quantity of each batch 2. Processor's code

114 3. If pasteurizationis being done for someoneelse, the customer'sname, address,and license of certification number 4. Any failure of the recorder to operateproperly and the corrective action taken 5. Indicating thermometerreadings and the time of the readings In somecases, inclusion of all of the aboveinformation on the recording chart in the area so designatedmight prove somewhatdifficult. Accordingly, it might be advisableto maintaina separatehand-written processing log on which would be recordedthe pasteurizer number, if applicable, batch number, batch quantity, code, time batch was placed in tank, time pasteurizerreaches scheduled process temperature, time the processends, time cooling cycle ends, comparative indicating and recording thermometer readings, and operator's signatureor initials. Additionally, any instanceof equipmentmalfunction or process deviation should be reported on the processinglog, along with any corrective action taken. Any of this information that is obvious from, and consistentlyproduced by, recording instrumentsneed not be duplicatedby handentry. The number of comparativethermometer readings to be madecan be determinedby quahfied plant managementbut should probably be madeat the beginningof the pasteurization cycle, that is, after the pasteurizer reachesproper temperature and stabilizes early in the processand once more prior to the end of the cycle. The purposeis to ensure that the recording thermometer is in agreement with the indicating thermometer. Also, the recording chart time should be aligned at the beginningof production to agreeas closely as possiblewith the time-pieceused to determinethe processtime recordedon the log. Generally, devicessuch as a wall clock with a sweepsecond hand or stopwatchwould be consideredacceptable time pieces, Mechanicalwrist watchesand pocket watchesare less desirablebecause they tend to run fast or slow after a period of time.

Storage Temperature The third critical control point in a pasteurizedcrabmeat process would appearto be storageof the processedproduct at proper refrigeration temperatures. As statedbefore, this particular storagecondition is what exemptspasteurized crabmeat from compliancewith the LACF regulations. 21 CFR Part 110.80 j! states: Storage and transportation of finished products should be under such conditions as will prevent contamination, indudiug developmentof pathogenicand toxigenicmicroorganisms, and will protect against undesirable deterioration of the product and the container. Most recommendationsfor proper storagetemperature appear to stipulatebelow 3'. The reasonfor this temperaturerecommendation is that C. botidinum Type E has been shown

115 to grow slowly at 38'F, A safe storagetemperature up to 36'F is therefore recommended NBCIA!. A processorshould be able to show, through records, that the proper storage temperaturehas been maintainedwhile the product was under his control. This can be accomplishedin one of severalways. IdeaHy,a properly calibrated, installed, and read indicatingthermometer, and a recordingthermometer located on a storageunit wouldgive the most completerecord of storagetemperatures on a daily basis. At the very least, a properly preparedhand-written temperature log shouldbe positionednear the storageunit andthe temperatureread and recorded at intervalsof sufficientfrequency to ensurethe proper temperatureis being maintained,on a day-to-daybasis.

Management Review of Critical Control Point Records The LACF industry is requiredto havescheduled process records reviewed no later than one ! working day after the actual processand before shipmentor releasefor distribution, by a representativeof plant managementwho is qualified by suitabletraining or experience. The recordsare to be reviewed for completenessas well as to ensurethat the proper scheduledprocess was delivered to the product. The date of the review and the reviewer's signatureor initials must be written on eachrecord page 1 CFR Part 113.100 b!!. Containerclosure recordsare required to be reviewedwith sufficient frequency to ensurethat containerintegrity is being maintained1 CFR Part 113.100 c!!. Many LACF processors review theserecords on a daily productionbasis. Managementreview of critical control point recordson a routine basis appearsto be an excellentmethod of ensuring that proper processesand proceduresare being applied in the pasteurizedcrabmeat plant.

Coding Requirements and Records of Initial Distribution Although not by itself a critical control point, proper coding of containersand inclusion of coding information on recordsof initial distribution, i.e. records covering shipmentof product from manufacturerto a direct customer,are important to a phnt's overall quality control program. 21 CFR Part 110.80 j! states: Meaningful coding of products sold or otherwise distributed from a manufacturing, processing,packing or repacking activity should be utilized to enable positive lot identification to faciTitate, where necessary, the segregation of specific food lots that may have become contaminated or otherwise unfit for their intended use. Records should be retained for a period that exceedsthat shelf-lifeof the product,except that they need not be retained more than 2 years.

116 The LACF industry is required by 21 CFR Part 113.60 c! to code its productsto indicate the plant where packed,the product packed, the year of the pack, day of the year of the pack and time of the day of the pack. 21 CFR Part 113.100 a! requiresthat records showing initial distribution be maintained,and 113.100 e! requiresthat all critical processingrecords be retainedat the plant or someother reasonablyaccessible facility for 3 years. The purposeof the above regulationsis simply to facilitate a recall of product for all concerned,should one becomenecessary. If a processorshould have a code identifying, for example, only the year of the pack, and a problem of potential health significance,or other type of violation, is traced to that particular 1ot, the processormay be faced with the necessityof recalling an entire year's production, If the code identifies the month of the pack and the problem is shown to be confirmed to one particular month, then a recall of the entire month's production may be nemmry. If, through the coding system,a problem is known to be confined to a particular day or batch only, then the firm may have to recall onI.y that particular day's production or batch. It is in the interest of the packer, consumer, and regulator to be able to trace, through sometype of distribution record, which customersreceived the suspectcode. Should distribution records not indicate which accounts received the suspect code, it may be necessary,in the interestsof public health, to contactall of a processor'scustomers.

Seafood HACCP Refer to AppendicesI and II for current seafoodprocessing HACCP conceptsand recommendations.Specific requirementsof the National Marine FisheriesServices' NOAA! voluntary HACCP-basedinspection program are availablehem that agency.

Summary In brief, adequatecontrol of critical procuring points along a pasteurizedcrabmeat line entails first, identifying thesepoints; second,establishing a recordkeepingprocedure for monitoring the operationof the line at thosepoints; and finally, ensuringthat the recordsare properlyfilled out, accuratelyreflect what occurs at the processingpoint, andhave been reviewed by qualified managementwith sufficient frequency, to ensurethat the firm's quality control program is being met,on a continuingbasis, Although there are no current federal regulationsrequiring the maintenanceof suchrecords, the institutionof sucha programby the pasteurizedcrabmeat processor would seemto be in the interestsof everyone. A more completeoutline of the stepsinvolved in developingan HACCP plan are describedin Appendix Il.

117 Finally, good, basicprocedures are an importantpart of a pasteurizedcrabmeat operation. Allowing the microbialload of the crabmeatto significantlyincrease prior to pasteurization could adverselyaffect the pasteurizationprocess. Allowing pasteurizedproduct to come into contactwith surfacesor media,such as coolingwater, with high microbialloads could adverselyaffect the finished product. It is necessaryfor management,therefore, to continue to ensuresanitary facilities and controls within the plant.

PROCESS AND CRITICAL CONTROL POINTS IN PROCESSING BLUE CRAB

Group B Report

The group reviewed the processes being used for blue crab products in the United States Participationwas primarily from East Coastprocessors. Softshellcrabs were included in the considerationsof the group. The following definitions were used for critical control points and control points, riti n 1 P in: Specific operational steps of a food manufacturing process, the failure of which may automaticallyresult in an unacceptableconsumer health or economic risk. Clldblllk S| fi p 6 1 f f d 8 g p h biological, chemical, physical, and/or economicfactors may be controlled. This group followed the terms of referenceor approachin the following order: l. The operationalsteps were defined. A strawmanflowchart for the processingof blue crab was provided as a basisfor discussion. The working group usedthis as a basisfor defining their sequenceof processing steps. 2. The hazardsthat arise at eachof the processingsteps were discussedand a consensuslist was developed. The hazardsrelated to safety, hygiene/sanitation,and consumerfraud that might arise from each process step were considered. 3. Preventive measures were identified for each of the hazards noted, and a consensus list was prep ired. 4. Monitoring procedureswere defined for the preventivemeasures. The emphasiswas on observationsor physicalmeasurements that couldbe readilycarried out at minimalcosts. 5. Relative importanceof the hazardswere then assignedbased upon a review of the steps and a discussionamong participants. Scoring from one lowest importance!to five highest importance!were recordedbased upon a group consensus. Extensivediscussions were required to resolve the relationshipsof applicationof critical control point scores and the record keepingand inspectionprocedure methodology. 6. Critical Controlpoints were defined as thosehaving scores of eitherfour or five in importance. By agreement,those steps which were critical and would have available machinegenerated records useful for monitoring were given scoresof five. Those which dependon humanobservations and recordings!were given four ratings. 7. Records to be made available for review for each of the critical control points were discussed, Major concernswere expressedon the types of records to be madeavailable to the regulatory agencyat inspection.

120 A total of eight critical control points Table 1A! were defined in the processto produce fresh blue crabmeat,pasteurized crabmeat, and to repack crabmeat. Three critical control points were identified in the stepsto producefresh blue crabmeat;four in the additional steps to pasteurizedcrabmeat; and one in the stepsin repackingcrabmeat. Prom the review of softshellcrab processing,no critical control points were identified for the receipt, storage,sorting, and shippingof live animals. The preparationand shipping of frozen softshellblue crabs was identified as having one critical control point Table 18!. The type of records to be kept and madeavailable for inspectionwas the focus of extensivediscussion, The needfor evidencethat the critical control points are actually under control during regular productionwas the basis for difficulty. The consequencesof revealing unusualoccurrences under NUOCA - Notice of Unusual Occurrenceand Corrective Actions! at inspectiontime seemto be multiple. While fulfilling the need for evidenceof processcontrol, theserecords expose the plant andrecorder to capriciousor punitiveactions by the regulatory agencyor personnel. The working group was led by Jack L. Amason, Sea GardenSeafood, Inc., Valona, Georgia; and facilitated by Lloyd Regier NMPS!, Joe Slavin NFI!, and Dona Ward, North Carolina State University.

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Theprinciples of HACCPas generally recognized for seafoodprocessing operations by the NationalFisheries Institute, the National Marine Fisheries Service, and the U.S. Foodand Drug Administrationare containedin the SeafoodIndustry Hazard Analysis Critical ControlPoint HACCP! Training Manual NFI, 1991!. Although riot officially adoptedto date, this manual providesa valuablediscussion of the conceptsand implementation of HACCP. The excerpts which follow are providedas an aid ta managersand employeeswho are contemplatingthe developmentof HACCP programs. ContactNFI, SeaGrant institutions, or an appropriate regulatory agencyregarding more completetraining programsand materials.

1.1 %hat Does HACCP Do? HACCP provides a more focused approach to the control of hazards in food than is achievableby traditional inspectionand quality control programs. It doesriot require continuous inspection. Rather, HACCP is a combination of industry self-inspectionand government monitoring. HACCP can be boi1eddown to the following: Th r m i n 'n nrl f v r n The ability to identify and to control potential hazards is absolutely fundamental to the successful implementationof HACCP. Oncethe potentialhazards are identified,HACCP allows you to focus efforts to control the hazardsat specific critica/ points in the process. Furthermore,since the hazardsare identified with regardto the end useof the product, more control and monitoring will be necessaryfor productssuch as cookedcrabmeat, which do not require additional cookin, than for fresh fish, which in all probability will be cooked. Simply then, what do you do underHACCP as a seafoodprocessor? You studyand critique your plant's proceduresfrom the receiptof raw materialsthrough shipmentof the final product. You determinewhich processingsteps are critical elementsin controllinghazards, and you assessoverall sanitation. Then you write your own HACCP plan identifying the stepsto be monitored and the records to be kept that will indicate compliancewith your plan. This is not as difficult as it may sound; there are documentsand aidsalready developed that will assistyou. The remainderof this chapter,as well as the other chaptersin this training manual,are designed to assistyou in identifying the potential hazardsin your specific processingplant and to assist in determiningeffective control and monitoring procedures.

1.2 HACCP The HACCP procedure was developed by the National Advisory Committee for Microbiological Criteria for Foods, an independentpanel of food safetyexperts convened by the National Academy of Sciences NAS! at the requestof federal food inspectionagencies. To understandand implement an effective HACCP program, you as a seafood processormust follow the steps in Table A-l,

127 Table A-1. Implementationof a HACCP Program

Process

Prepare a process flow chart. Assess the hazards associated with each operationalstep: growing, harvesting,using raw materialsand ingredients, processing, manufacturing, distribution, marketing, preparation and consumptionof the food. Identify the critical control points CCPs! where the identified hazardscan be controlled.

3. Set the critical limits that must be met at each CCP. Define monitoring proceduresto ensurecritical limits are met. Define corrective actionsto be taken when the monitoring proceduresidentify a deviation.

6. Devise record-keepingsystems that documentthe effectivenessof the HACCP plan. Establishverification proceduresto ensurethat the HACCP systemis working correctly, Verification measuresmay include biological, physical, chemical, and sensorymethods. Where they are needed,establish limiting criteria.

Initially, the process may seem unnecessaryand perhaps difficult, but it is absolutely essential. The reasonfor this perceiveddifficulty is that you will be askedto evaluateclosely your production processes. You are familiar with theseprocesses. Consequently,it can be diffiicult to stepback and view them with a critical eye. It may be helpful to imagine yourself as an outsiderviewing the processfor the first time and asking questions,especially "why' and "what if' questions.

128 HOW TO DEVELOP A HACCP PLAN

A. What Is a HACCP Plan? In this section,we are goingto describehow you, asa memberof the fishingindustry, can developyour own HACCPplan. This plan will not only be appropriatefor your own seafood processing operation, but will also meet the requirementsof the federal agency that will eventuallybe responsiblefor administeringa seafoodinspection prograin basedon the HACCP system. You will see that the proceduresfor developing a HACCP plan are quite straight- forward, involving only sevenbasic steps,all of which can ba accomplishedby you and your staK Before we get to theseseven steps, however, let's first define some terms so that you have a clear understandingof what we are talking about. As you know, "HACCP" standsfor "Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point." What does this really mean?

First, the term "hazard" as used here simply meansa chance for, or the risk of, an unao~table biological, chemical, physical, or economicproperty in a food product that could cause consumer distress or illness.

Next, the term "hazard analysis" meansthe processof identifying biological, chemical, physical, or economic fraud chancesor risks relative to a food product or manufacturing process,a process which takes into considerationthe intended end use of the food product. They key word here is end-use; it means that the conditions or situations that should be consideredhazardous are thosethat presenta risk only with respectto the ultimate use of the product. For example,the presenceof certainpathogens in raw materialswould not necessarily be consideredhazardous if the pathogensare destroyedduring processing. Suchis the casewith fully cookedproducts and thoseintended to be fuHy cookedby the consumerbefore being eaten. On the other hand, the presenceof glass in a product would obviously be considereda hazard whether it was eventually cooked or not.

A "critical control point" is an area or item of equipmentin the processingfacility where specific operationalsteps in a manufacturingprocess take place, and where the loss of control of suchsteps would automaticallyresult in an unacceptablesafety, hygiene, or economicfraud risk.

129 ~Fgd Sa~fey "Food safety" risks are thosethat could causeharm to a consumer'shealth or physical well- being. Safetyissues are usually addressedthrough biological, chemical,or physicalcriteria, and are distinct from issuesrelating to food hygieneor economicfraud.

"Food hygiene" refers to those characteristics of a product or process relating to wholesomenessor facility sanitation.

"Economic fraud" refers to thoseillegal or misleadingactions which defraud purchasers. Such actions include, among other things, speciessubstitution, short weight, overglazing, and short fill. Alsoincluded is the excessiveuse of so-calledapproved chemicals in processing,such as the overuse of sulfites to slow down decomposition, as well as the misuse of chemicals, such as sodium tripolyphosphate,originally intendedto minimize drip loss, for the expresspurpose of adding weight to the final product.

A "Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point" systemis a non-traditionalinspectional approach to controlling hazardsin foods. It is a two-part processdone on a commodity-by-commodity basis. The first part dealswith defining the consumerhazards within a specificfood commodity relative to the intendeduse of the product. The secondpart dealswith: 1! flow charting each operationalstep of a food manufacturingprocess and defining the hazardsassociated with each step; 2! assessingthe relative importanceof the hazardsand identifying the critical control points of the manufacturingprocess; 3! determiningthe appropriatepreventive measuresto be employed; 4! determiningeither by observationor by measurementthe monitoring procedures that are needed to ensure that the hazard is being controlled; 5! establishing the critical limits that must be met at each Critical Control Point and the corrective actions to be taken to return deviationsto acceptablelimits; 6! developingthe records necessaryfor monitoring that will ensurehazards are being controlled; and 7! establishingverification proceduresto assurean effective HACCP plan.

A "HACCP Plan" is a planning document and its related records which, under a HACCP- basedinspection system, would be required to be on file at each processingfacility. The planning documentand related records are establishedby the facility in conjunction with the regulatory agencyprior to the facility's admissionto a HACCP seafoodsurveillance program.

130 Sucha plan includes: 1! documentationof critical control points, 2! action taken when critical deviations occur, 3! disposition of product subjected to "critical" deviations, 4! clear designationof the records to be madeavailable for governmentinspections, and 5! provisions for their maintenance. Now that you have a clearer understandingof what a HACCP plan is all about, you are ready to developa HACCP plan to fit your own operation.

S. HOW A HACCP PLAN Is DEVEXDPKD Sincea fully developedplan would likely include much generalinformation that you already possess,such as organizational charts and responsibilities, company directives concerning pmduct manufacture,process specifications, etc. the componentsthat are essentialto a HACCP plan can be developedby you and your staff following theseseven basic steps:

1 - Prepareprocess flow charts and assesspotential hazards 2 Identify critical control points 3 Set critical limits that must be met at each CCP 4 Define monitoring procedures 5 - Define corrective actions 6 Devise a record keepingsystem 7 - Establishverification procedures

STEP 1 - PrepareProcess Flow Charts and AssessPotential Hazards. The first stepin starting a HACCP program is to preparea detailedprocess flow chart for your major processingoperation or charts for each distinct processingoperation! from which you will analyzeyour operations.

1.1 Develop the Flow Chart. The chart shouldlist in sequencethe specificoperational steps control points! of the manufacturingprocess of your foodproduct where microbiological, chemical, physical, and/or economic factors can be controlled see sample!, In addition to developing such flow charts, standardoperating procedures SOPs! should be written, if not alreadydone, and shouldbe followedby your firm. The SOPsrelate to the operationsthat mustbe accomplishedat each processstep in terms of both product-processingmethods and sanitationcontrols. Eachchart should begin with the "receiving"of freshand/or frozen raw materialsand end with the "shipping" of your product to the wholesaleor retail trade. The following example is a general processfiow chart for raw processedcrab meat. It identifiesspecific processing steps or control points where hazardscan be monitoredand

131 controlled. Of these control points, various steps are identified as "critical contxol points." How to determine such critical control points is discussedin "Step 2."

1.2 AssessPotential HazardsAt Each Step. Followingdevelopment of yourprocess flow chart s!,you are ready to beginto identifyand assesshazards that could occur at eachprocessing step control point!. Using your processflow chart as a guide, at eachstep in the processingoperation, ask yourself the following question:

~ What can go wrong at this step in terms of product safety, wholesomeness,and economic fraud?

The following are examplesof hazardsthat could arise at individual processingsteps for various seafoodproducts. You may determinethat one or more of thesehazards could occur at any single step in the processingof your product.

o ical! Chemical ~Phsical Economic

~ Fuel oil ~ Filth ' ~ ExCess n101sture ~ Pathogens ~ Insectjrodent ~ Excess glaze ~ Cross-contamination contamination ~ Short weights ~ Contaminated dip ~ Metal fragments ~ Mislabeling ~ Contaminated ice ~ Shell fragments ~ Misgrading ~ Decomposition ~ Other foreign ~ Masking country ~ Time/temperatureabuse materials of origin ~ Chemical contamination ~ Parasites ~ Incorrect product ~ Additive abuse ~ Freezer burn in package ~ Dehydration ~ Wrong proportions ~ Damaged packaging of additives, ~ Damaged product ingredients ~ Improper sealing of package

STEP 2 Identify Critical Control Points YOu muStnOw determinethe relative impOrtanCeOf the haZardSinVOlVed in the prOCeSSing of each of your products. It is here that the "Critical Control Point Analysis" phaseof the HACCP system takes place. Each hazard in each processing step must be evaluatedby

132 answeringthe question; "Does the critical control of this hazardoccur here or at anotherstep?" The is, if there should be a failure to control this hazard thi ifi in the manufacturingoperation, would it automaticaHyresult in an unacceptablesafety, hygienic, or economicrisk in terms of the end useof the product? Every and all stepswhere the answerto h db id A simple method of deciding whether a control point is critical is to follow the Critical Control Point Decision Tree contained in Figure A-l.

STEP 3 - Set Critical Limits That Must be Met At Each CCP, The third step in setting up your HACCP plan is to establishthe limits that must be met at each"critical control point." A critical limit is definedas one or moreprescribed tolerances that must be met to ensurethat the plan effectively controls a hazardor risk. There may be more than one limit for a critical control point. If any one of those limits is out of tolerance, the processwill be out of control and a potentialhazard or risk can exist. Examplesof criteria frequentlyused for limits are temperature,time, moisturelevel, amounts of preservatives,additives and ingredients,net weight, and fill of container. Many types of limit information may be neededfor control of a critical control point.

STEP 4 - Define Monitoring Procedures. Your next.step is to determinethe appropriate"monitoring procedures"to be usedwith the various preventive measures. Such proceduresshould be primarily observationsor physical measurementsthat can be readily carried out in terms of realistic time delays and costs. Examplesof such monitoring proceduresinclude the following:

~ Samplingand inspectionof fresh and frozen raw materials ~ Checksand documentationof temperaturesof raw materials ~ Checksand documentationof temperaturesof product ~ Checksand documentationof temperaturesof coolers/freezers ~ Checksof temperatureand humidity in dry storagerooms ~ Checks of inventory control ~ Checks of amounts of additives used for each batch/lot ~ Monitoring adequacyand potability of water supply ~ Product samplingfor bacterialanalysis ~ Periodic checks of net weights ~ Checks of labels used ~ Checksof production schedules

133 Example Blue Crab Processing Flow Chart

CP CP

Figure A-l.

134 ~ Periodic checksof processcontrol specification ~ Visual inspectionsof product and equipment ~ Checksof equipmentmaintenance ~ Supervisorycheck points throughoutthe processingoperation

STEP 5 - Define Corrective Actions and Preventive Measures to Control Hazards. The fifth step in setting up your HACCP plan is to determine,for eachprocessing step, the appropriate corrective actions to be taken when prescribed limits are exceeded, and the preventivemeasures to be employedthat will be effectivein controlling the potential hazardsyou identified earlier. Listed below are examplesof somecommon corrective actions and preventivemeasures that ail seafoodprocessors might consider:

~ Rejection of unsatisfactoryraw and finishedproduct ~ Physical separationof raw and finished product in storage ~ Using approved,potable water supply ~ Ensuring proper time/temperaturecontrol ~ Using approvedchemicals only ~ Using adequatescreens to keepout insects/pests ~ Ensuring proper removal of extraneous materials ~ Ensuring proper maintenanceand sanitationof equipment ~ Ensuring proper scalecalibration ~ Using visual and organolepticinspection of product ~ Ensuring proper packaging/labelingof product ~ Ensuring proper rotation of product in storage FIFO! ~ Using standardoperating procedures for plant ~ Using training programsfor employees ~ Ensuring good personalhygiene of employees ~ Employing good housekeepingpractices ~ Using trucks capableof maintainingproper temperatures ~ Ensuring proper loading of trucks ~ Developing a product recall system ~ Requiring individual accountabilityfrom supervisors

STEP 6 - Devise a RecordKeeping System. In addition to the "monitoring procedures"and "corrective actions" that you have already identified for each processingstep, the HACCP systemrequires that your plan include one

135 additional safeguard,particularly for those processingsteps you determined to be "critical control points." That safeguardis the inclusion of a suitable record-keepingsystem in your HACCP plan, The key to a successfulapplication of the HACCPinspection system is the ability of plant management,quality control personnel, and regulatory authorities to perform routine and meaningful examinationsof the processcontrols used, the level of plant sanitation, and the product itself throughout the entire processingoperation. Most of theseexaminations are, in turn, dependenton the examinationof the recordsmaintained by your plant in theseareas. Such recordsprovide severalvital functions: l! they documentthat the limits set for a critical control pointhave been met by recording the resultsof monitoring activities; 2! if critical limits were exceeded,they documentwhat action was taken to bring the critical control point back under control and the dispositionof the affected product; and 3! theyoffer product tmm4ility from start to finish. It is recognizedthat a plant, in the course of doing business,must keep records of many types and kinds of information. However, HACCP regulatory authorities will need~ those recordsthat verify monitoringresults, pinpoint problems,and provide product traceability. They wiH have ~n needfor any information that is legitimately of a proprietary nature! Recordscan be of different types, In most cases,they need not be complex. In fact, the simpler the better, as long as they provide the necessaryinformation. Examplesof someof the primary records of these types are:

~ Invoices of receipt of raw products ~ Raw product origin certification records Molluscan ISSC! ~ Incoming product inspectionreports ~ Product purchasingand processingspecifications ~ Quality control and assurancereports ~ Scale calibration records ~ Additives use logs ~ Timef temperature records ~ Unit and packageweight records ~ Shipping records, etc. ~ Logs of NUOCAs Notices of Unusual Occurrencesand Corrective Actions taken!

The NUOCAs come into existenceonly when deficienciesare found during the established monitoringprocess, and provide valuable supplementary information to your other routinely-used premising records,particularly thoserequired for critical control points. They serveto record what you found to be wrong, unusual, or unacceptablefrom a potential safety, quality, or

l36 economichazard standpoint during the course of a particularprocessing step...and what action s! you or your plant personneltook to correctit. NUOCAsmay be separateforms of your own design which record suchbasic information as the...

~ Date and time of occurrence ~ Processingstep involved ~ Problem identifiied ~ Corrective action taken ~ Other comments

...or they may simply be your inclusion of the above information onto another type of record you may be using, such as one of those indicated above. For example, the receipt of decomposedproduct by the ReceivingDepartment and its consequentreturn to the shippercould be noted on your copy of the receivinginvoice. That invoice would now serveas your NUOCA.

STEP 7 - Establish Verification Procedures. The seventhand final stepis to establishadequate verification proceduresto assurethat your HACCP plan is in fact being complied with and that it is effective. Both the producer and the regulatory agencyhave a role in verifying HACCP plan compliance. Verification confirms that all hazardswere identified in the HACCP plan when it was developed, Verification activities include: establishinentof appropriateverification inspectionschedules; review of the HACCP plan; review of records kept for critical control points; review of process deviations and product dispositions; visual inspectionsof operationsto observe if critical control points are under control; random sampling and analysis of products; and a written record of verification inspectionsthat certifies compliancewith the HACCP plan or deviationsfrom the plan and the corrective actions taken. There, we have the sevensteps for the developmentof a HACCP plan. As we said, these stepsare straight-forward, rational, and reasonablyeasy to accomplish. There are, however, two other important aspectsof a mandatoryHACCP systemthat you need to be aware of, and that needto be addressedin your plan. They are: Registrationand Certification of Plantsand a Product Recall System.

C. REGISTRATION AND CERTIFICATION OF PLANYS A mandatory seafood surveillanceprogram will likely require that all plants processing finished products for export or domestic trade first be registered for identification purposes only! and then certified in terms of plant processand sanitation controls. Sanitation plant

137 hygiene!will likely be assessedthrough use of an appropriatePlant SanitationCompliance Checklistsimilar to the examplefollowing that was developedfor the manufacturersof raw fish products, Suchplant sanitationcompliance checklists are comprehensiveforms intendedfor useon an intermittentbasis to determinethe generalsanitation compliance of a plant. They are not intendedfor useon a dailybasis and, in fact, cannotbe usedto determineif a plantwill produce a safe and wholesomeproduct during any day's run. Note that the sanitationcompliance checklistincorporates minor, major,serious, and critical deficiencyscores. The definitions of each of these scores are:

Onenot in accordancewith the requirements;however, is not major, serious,or critical in terms of deteriorationof product quality,

Onewhich inhibits general sanitation; however, the deterioration of productquality is not serious or critical.

One which preventsproper plant sanitation;may result in tainted,decomposed, or unwholesome product, but not considered critical.

Critical defect One which results in unwholesomeproduct; presents health and safety threats; is not in accordancewith Good ManufacturingPractices GMP!.

You shoulddetermine for your plant the maximumnumber of minor, major, or seriousitems acceptableat any one time. However, at no time should your plant operate with a critical deficiency.

138 Table 2. SamplePlant SanitationCompliance Check List

For SeafoodProcessing Plants

Check ~Min g I~fK Litter, waste,or improperly X stored equipment 2. Excessivelydusty roads, X parking lots.

Inadequate drainage X 4. Controls not in place to discouragepests suchas flies X and rodents

ING CON TR TI N Design, materials,or construction inhibits sanitation Ceilings over exposedproduct not free of peeling paint X

Exterior openings, where practical, not equippedwith screens, etc,, to prevent entranceof pests,etc. Air curtains, strip doors, and screen doors, if installed, must X be effective Processingarea opensdirectly without barriers! into living quarters, garage, or heavy maintenanceshop ~~Q 10. Li htin is inad uate X Lights in product, packaging, or ingredient storageareas not safety type and unshielded

139 Check g~mi:~ ~Min r M~aor Serious Critical I~fK

Accumulation of condensates over exposed product, 0 X packaging material, or in redients. 13. Mold is presentin processing or stora e area

14. a. Inadequatesupply of cold or hot water b. Water not accessible X X Water subject to contamination, e.g., siphomng,cross- X connection.

16. Freshwater not potable X Water not approved by appropriateauthorities for food X Ioces sin 18. Seawater not treated as s ified m HACCP lan 19. Seawaternot approvedby appropriateauthorities for food X

KR 20. Not made from potable water or appropriatelytreated X seawater 21. Not madefrom an approved water supply X 22, Not manufactured, handled, or used in a sani manner 23. Transferred and re-used on other raw products X F WA Liquid waste not disposedof in a sanitaryand timely manner X Check Pg mi~ ~Min r ~riticg ~lf K Dry waste not collectedin suitablecontainers conveniently located throughout the plant or X disposedof in a sanitaryand timel manner 26. Product waste not collected or disposedof in a sanitary manner 27. Absenceof functional washing facilities, tissues,soap, hot water, hand drying facilities, or signs directing employeesto wash hands. 28. Insufficient number of toilets as defined by USDA X uirements PAIR

29. Product contact surfaces of all equipment, containers, and utensils not constructed from suitable, impervious, non-toxic corrosion resistant material, with the exclusion of the re-use of woodenboxes holding round or gutted fish until appropriate rich is concluded 30. Design, construction,or location of equipment, containers, and utensils is such that it demonstrably contributes to contamination and cannot be cleaned nor effectively sanitized,with the X exclusion of the reuse of wooden boxes holding round or gutted fish until appropriate research is concluded 31. Equipment, containers,or X utensilsnot in good repair

141 Check Zemi ~Min r ~Ma'o Serious ~lf K 32. No demonstrated monitoring program to remove used or abused containers, utensils, and X equipment CLEANIN AND ANlTIZING

33. Equipment, utensils and X containers not cleaned and sanitized before use

Cleaning methodsdo not preclude product X contamination 35. Rooms and areas used for receiving, processing,and storing raw materials and finished product not maintained in a dean and sani manner 36. Absenceof effective in-plant sanitation program 37. Sanitation control of finished product not sufficient to protect the roduct from contamination X 38. Absenceof accessiblewashing and/or hand-di in stations

39. Birds and animals not excluded X from the plan 40. Insect & rodent control measures not effective

41. Insecticides or rodenticides not usedas prescribedby EPA or USDA 42. Chemicalsnot employedby approved methods or handled and stored in a safe manner 43, Chemicals, toxins, sanitizer, food additives not properly labeled or stored

142 Check !~ri >~ Unapproved chemicals and sanitizer used X

RA E FACILITIES

45. Shelves, cabinets, dunnage, and!or other methods not used where necessaryto inhibit contamination 46. Storing methodsdo not minimize deterioration 47. Storage facilities not clean, not sanitary, not in good repair: a. Product packaging and ingredient storage X b, Other stora e X 48. Plant management does not have in effect measures to restrict peoplewith known disease i.e., cuts, boils, X influenza, etc.! from contaminatin the oduct Personnel Cleanjiness- Specifiedpersonnel not maintaininga high degreeof personalcleanliness and conforming to hygienic practiceswhile on duty e.g., lack of clean outer garmentsor hairnets;presence of jewelry other than unadornedwedding bands!; chewinggum, drinking coffee, using tobacco,eating at the work station; storageof personal belongings at work station!

143

4. PRODUCT RECALL SVSTKM And finally, yourHACCP plan will berequired to includea suitableproduct recall system. Recall is an effective methodsof removingor correctingconsumer products that are in violation of lawsconcerned with thesafe manufacture of foodproducts in theUnited States and with their distributionto eitherdomestic or foreignmarkets. Recall is a voluntaryaction that takesplace becausemanufacturers and distributors carry out their responsibility to protect the public from products that presenta risk of injury or gross deceptionor are otherwise defective. The currentPood and Drug Administration's FDA! enforcementpolicy on productrecall is provided in Section21 of the Codeof FederalRegulations CFR!. It is likely that this policy wiH remainessentially unchanged under any future mandatoryseafood surveillance program regardlessof the federal agencychosen to implementit. In brief, a recallprocedure starts with an evaluationby FDA scientistsof the health hazard presentedby a product being recalled or consideredfor recall. Next, a recall strategy is developedby FDA and by the recalling firm for a firm-initiated recall to suit the circumstances of the recall. A recall may be either an FDA-requestedrecall or a firm-initiated recall. In either case, it must address: 1! the level in the distribution chain to which the recall is to extend; 2! a pubhc warning that the product being recalledpresents a serioushazard to health; and 3! checksto verify that aHappropriate consignees have received notification aboutthe recall and have taken appropriateaction. Becausea recall can disrupt a fiirm's operationand business,FDA provides the following guidanceconcerning the stepsa prudent firm can take in advanceto minimize the disruptive effect. They are: 1! prepare and maintain a current written contingencyplan for initiating a recaHin accordancewith the recommendedCFR; 2! usesufficient coding of regulatedproducts to make possiblepositive lot identification; and 3! maintainproduct distribution records to aid in locating the productsthat are being recalled.

145 APPENDIX III

Emmple~ lll of a ProcessingProtocol for Moderately Thermal-Processed Crabmeat

This outline servesas a brief operationsprotocol containing the essentialelements for producingsafe, high quality pasteurizedand moderatelythermal-pre~sed crabmeat. It representsconcepts which might be included in a plant's operations/qualityassurance plan, includingHACCP, Not includedare details of relatedGMP's, comprehensive HACCP analysis, or thermal processingprinciples and technologiesused by other plants such information is containedin severalmanuscripts that are referencedelsewhere in this document. This outline is provided for illustrative puiposesand doesnot representany existing operation.

Basis for Chosen Process The procedures followed at XYZ Seafood Corporation for producing pasteurized refrigerated crabmeat have and will continue to meet the National Blue Crab Industry Associationguidelines, entitled "National CrabmeatIndustry PasteurizationStandards, 1984," published by the National Fisheries Institute. These standardsassure a minimum process lethality of F ,'» = 31 minutes. This year, the National Advisory Committeeon Microbiological Criteria for Foods endorsed these recommendations. These standardswere also recognizedby the National Marine Fisheries Service and the seafoodindustry National FisheriesInstitute! in their draft blue crab HACCP report,988!. They identified four critical control points CCP's! for pasteurizationin addition to three for producing fresh crabmeat. Preventivemeasures, monitoring, and records were outlined for. 1. sealer operation 2. pasteurizer control can seam inspection, time/temperature process, and operator training! 3. adequateproduct cooling rate 4. assurance of 32' to 36'F storage. The XYZ Seafoodquality assuranceprogram has and will continue to monitor theseCCP's, The proceduresfollowed for processingcrabmeat in five-pound-netcook-in bags were developedby faculty at PangeaInstitute of Technologyjointly with the seafoodindustry and Vacfroze PackagingCorporation. They are currently implementedin at least five U.S. firms for processingfrozen seafoodin cook-in bagsor plastic pouches. The processwas established to meet an institutional market requirement for crabmeat that is guaranteed to be Lisreria free. The processtargets Lisreria and other potential vegetativepathogens and is not intendedfor

146 extendingrefrigerated shelf-life. Productsproduced by this methodat XYZ are storedand distributedonly in a frozenform. Theplastic film selectedby XYZ is widelyused in themeat industry and is durable over a broadtemperature range. In addition to the proceduresoutlined in the attachedprotocol, at least one individual responsiblefor pasteurizationat XYZ wiH receivetraining in moderatethermal processing principles through a recognizedinstitution. A letter from a recognizedprocess authority attached!states that if XYZ Seafoodfollows theseprocedures, they will producesafe, high qualitypasteurized and moderatethermally processedcrabmeat. Theseprocessing procedures develop heat exposures considerably in excess more than 40 decimalreductions! of whatis required to destroyListeria monocytogenes,other potentialvegetative pathogens, and Closrridium boculinurn type E at any level possiblypresent in crabmeat.

147 STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES FOR XYZ SEAFOOD September 1, 1993

I. Moderate Thermal ProcessingProcedures for Frozen Crabnieat

A. Filling/Sealing In the plant's packing room, codedcook-in bagsare placedone at a time on a scaleand hand filled with five pounds plus or minus one pemmt! of fresh crabrneat. The bags are wiped free of water and crabmeatin the seamingarea with disposablepaper towels. The filled bagsare ! laid individually in a chamberstyle vacuum-sealingmachine, ! the meatdistributed uniformly by manuallyshaping the bag and its contentsexternally; then they are vacuum sealed.

CCP: Sealing Operation 1, Head sealbonding must be sufficiently strong so as to be destroyedwhen film sides are forcibly spreadapart rather than releasingcleanly along the contact zone. This test shall be performed on two or more empty bags when setting up the sealing machineat the start of operation eachtime the sealer machineis turned on! and at leastevery four hours of operation. Additionally at least one test bag shall be filled with a small quantity of water, then sealedand hand squeezedfor signsof leakage. In additionto start up testing, all filled bagsshould be inspectedfor signsof vacuum loss prior to pasteurization. If the product warms after sealing, slight package looseningis expected, However, vacuumlevel should be adequateto resist lifting of the film off of the product surface. Suspectbags shall be openedand the meat repackagedas describedabove or further testedby submergingin water break-point chlorinated! and hand squeezed. The releaseof bubblesindicates leakage and the needto repackagethe crabmeatas before. These methodsare consistent,although notidentical, with guidelinesproposed by theNational Food Processors Association's Flexible PackageIntegrity Committee989!. 2. Prior to placing bagsin the pasteurizationbasket, a minimumof ten percentof filled bagsshall be inspectedto assurethat packagethickness is uniform to within 3/4 inch differential in any two locations in each bag evaluated. These bags should be selectedamong those a~ng to have the greatestthickness variation. 3. A HACCPreporting instrument form ¹XYZ-1! shallbe completedand filed with the processrecord, indicating that eachtest procedurewas followed as appropriate.

148 Management shall review the records for each code lot within 48 hours of

processlilg. 4. Corrective action involves repacking and reprocessingthe crabmeat following all procedures and records maintenance as described.

B. Thermal Process Includes Cooling! The filled bagsshall be carefully handlaid into the pasteurizationbasket. Bagsin each layer may touch eachother but shouldnot overlapby more than two inches. XYZ uses a shrink bag material that properly draws up during heating, reducing length by width dimensions. Processschedules account for this effect!. Up to approximately 385 pounds of crabmeat is placed in each basket.

Each layer is separatedby a rigid vinyl-coatedsteel perforated ,25 inch holes on 3.75 inch centers! spaceron which are attachedflanges that maintain 3.5 inch spacing. Theseassure waterbath circulation over and undereach bag layer. All basketand spacer surfacesshall be inspectedand maintainedto eliminate sharpedges or burrs.

The basket is submergedin either of two single-basketbatch pasteurizersat the plant, with the timed portion of the processbeginning when the waterbathreturns to 187K or hotter. The waterbathin the heatingtank is maintainedin the range of 18T-19' and uniformly agitatedby compressedair injection preset with a constantflow valve!. The current process of heating for a minimum of 120 minutes is based on initial meat temperatures I.T.! of 49'F or warmer. Colder I.T.'s require the establishmentof a new processby a recognizedprocess authority.

Continuouschart recorder/controllerson each pasteurizerrecord times and waterbath temperatures to document the heating portion of each batch, These devices shall be servicedand calibratedto assureclock and temperatureaccuracy and temperaturecontrol within the prescribed range. This service shall be conductedat least annually by a competent technician, MIG indicating thermometers are mounted on the tanks but read 2-4 F low, which is normal in submergedsystems. Temperaturereadings from a hand- held digital thermometerare comparedto the chart tracing as a check for accuracy attachment!. The portable thermometerwill be calibratedweekly againstagitated ice slush and rapidly boiling water, and against a standardreference MIG thermometer semi-annually.

149 After heating,the basket is transferredto vigorouslyagitated ice slushfor 120minutes prior to rackingand placement of the bagsin a freezer -20'F!. As before,bags shall be handledcarefully. Cooling water must be potable and break-point chlorinated. A heavyice slushshould be maintainedthroughout the coolingperiod.

CCP: Thermal Process 1. Confirm product I.T. at time of loading pasteurizationbasket within 15 minutes of placingin thepasteurizer. This will be performednondestructively by stackingtwo bags and laying between them a thermocouple or other calibrated temperature measuringdevice. 2. Indicate the following information on recorder charts: a. Times when baskets are submergedand removed from the hot waterbath pasteurizer can be markeddirectly on the chart tracing if not obvious from the tracing!. b. Number or pounds!and type of package, c. Date of processing. d. Lot code. e. The reading of the digital thermometerafter the recorder/controller set-point temperatureis reachedand during the holding period. f. Time that the batch is removed from ice slush. g. Signatureof operator.

3. When the bags are lifted from the basketfor placing, on the freezer racks aU shaH be visually inspectedfor evidenceof leaks e.g. water in bags! and, whele indicated, firmly squeezedto confirm integrity. The releaseof air or water indicatesa defect a critical limit!. Form ¹XYZ-2 shall be completedas verification that this check was performed. 4. Recordsshall be reviewedby managementwithin 48 hours, initialed and dated to indicate such, and maintainedfor two years from the date of processing. 5. Critical limits and correctiveactions involve the following: a. A thermal processdeviation occurs if hot waterbathtemperature drops below 187 F for more than five minutes after the waterbath has attained set-point temperature and stabilized. If this condition should occur for five to ten minutes, the controller set-point can be raised to 192 F and an additional 20 minutes added to the process40 minutes total!. Optionally a fuH 120 minute, 187'-19' process can be repeated, If this condition should occur for longer than ten minutes, a full 120 minute, 18T-190 F processmust be repeated.

150 b. Bag integrity failure requires that the crabmeat from the defective bag s! be repackagedand fully reprocessedin anotherlot. c. Any corrective action shall be performed by qualified personneland must be fully documented,and recordsretained with otherspertinent to the affectedlot.

H. PasteurizationProcedures 01x301 tinplatecans! Theseprocedures are well establishednationally and at XYZ. Theywill begiven less detail herethan was given to the cook-inbag process. The processschedules, CCP's, reporting instruments,review procedures,critical limits, and corrective actions are the sameas for moderatethermal processingin bagsexcept for the following:

A. Riling/seaming: Cans are filled with crabmeat6 ouncesnet! and closedon a seamerthat producesa double seam. At start-up, following a jam, and after seaming500 cans, one or more sealed cans shall be tarn down using acceptedcan seam evaluation procedures,as currently performedby the XYZ quality assurancemanager. Appropriatemeasurements shall be recordedand comparedto the containermanufacturers seam specifications. If seamsare found to be out of specification,appropriate adjustments shall be madeto the seamerand notedon the seamevaluation form. Any containersclosed subsequent to the last acceptableseam report shouldbe opened,packed into new cans,and re-seamed prior to pasteurization,

S. Thermal Processing: Cans are stacked into pasteurizationbaskets side by side in layers. Each layer is separatedby a perforated/8 inch holes on 1/2 inch centers!plastic divider.

The establishedprocess is basedon fresh-pickedcrabmeat at ambient temperatures.

CCP: Storage The refrigerated storage room should be maintainedat 36'F or below. Occasional ambient increasesto 40'-45'F shall not constitutea violation of a critical limit if storage temperaturereturns to below 36'F within 24 hours. A continuous, or at least daily, record of storageroom temperaturewill be retained,

151 National Blue Crab industry Pasteurization and Alternative Thermal ProcessingStandards

National Blue Crab Industry Association and Shellfish Institute of North America

Adopted November 8, 1993

Revised by

National Blue Crab Industry Association Gradesand Cooking StandardsCommittee

CooperativeExtension I SeaGrant programs at;

Virginia PolytechnicInstitute and StateUniversity North Carolina State University University of Georgia Louisiana State University

National Marine Fisheries Service'

Reviewed by the: U.S. Food and Drug Administration'

Legal and editorial assistanceprovided by: the law offices of Hyman, Phelps k McNamara, P.C. Washington, D.C.

' Does not imply endor sernent.

152 NATIONAL BLUE CRAB INDUSTRY PASTEURIZATION AND ALTERNATIVE THERMAL PROCESSING STANDARDS

National Blue Crab Industry Association and Shellfish Institute of North America

Adopted November 8, 1993

Revised by

NationalBlue CrabIndustry Association Grades and Cooking Standards Committee

Cooperative Extension / Sea Grant programs at:

VirginiaPolytechnic Institute and State University North Carolina State University University of Georgia Louisiana State University

National Marine Fisheries Service'

Reviewed by the: U.S, Food and Drug Administration'

Legaland editorial assistance provided by: the law offices of Hyrnan,Phelps & McNamara,P.C. Washington, D.C.

' Does not irrrply endorsernent. National Blue Crab Industry Pasteurization and Alternative Thermal Processing Standards

PREAMBLE

In 1984, the National Blue Crab Industry Association NBCIA! published guidelines for processors who pasteurize blue crab products: the National Blue Crab Industry PasteurizationStandard. They proposedoperating procedures and documentationexpected of the industry to assurethe productionof safepasteurized products of uniform quality. The standardwas widely acceptedand recommendationswere implementedby nearly all domestic and many foreign firms. It has also servedas a referenceby regulatory agenciesand for risk assessment NFI, 1988!. Since then, numerouschanges have affected the industry, including new packagingand equipment options, use of secondarythermal processingmethods other than pasteurization,an increase in imports, and new federal and state regulatory policies and inspection programs. Increasingly,markets are requiringpathogen-free products possessing quality and shelf-life propertiesthat can be predictedand definedin contractsbetween processors and buyers, At a meetingon February23, 1992,the NBCIA Board of Directors requestedthat a new set of standardsbe written which addressthe dynamic nature of processedcrab industries. This task was given to the NBCIA Mades and Cooking StandardsCommittee. Several institutions and agencies identified on the cover page! assistedwith the development of the standards that follow. The NBCIA Board of Directors officially adopted these revised standardsat a meetingin Williamsburg,Virginia on November8, 1993. This documentshould be usedby blue crab processorsas part of comprehensivequality assuranceplans, including employeetraining programs. It shouldbe referencedor incorporatedinto companystandard operatingprocedures for pasteurizationand other moderate thermal processing procedures. The NBCIA encouragesmanagers to developand implement Hazard Analysis Critical ControlPoint HACCP! programsfor their operations,and to basethem on thesestandards. In all cases, additional detail will be required specific to each facility. Managersmust recognizethat no thermal processwill eliminate existing filth or decompositionin finishedproducts. In certaininstances, these procedures are very usefulin conditioningcrab productsknown to contain pathogens,but only when the productsare otherwiseof high quality, and only after consultingappropriate federal and stateregulatory agencies. The standardsare divided into three parts: I! Definitions and Production of Picked Crabmeat; II! PasteurizationProcesses, and; III! ModerateTherinal Processes and Pathogen ControlProcesses. The first part I! containsa list of definitionsand crab cooking and picking guidelines.This part appliesto any of the thermallyprocessed products covered in partsII and I. Definitions and Production of Picked Crabrneat

A. Definitions of Terms as A lied to these Standards

Thermal Process: The application of heat to crabs or crabmeatproducts at a time and teinperaturesufficient to producethe desiredeffect while assuringfood safety.

Pasteurization: A thermal process short of commercial sterilization whereby blue crabmeatproducts are packedin hermeticcontainers, heated and cooledto achievea specific standard F," > 31 minutes!,and stored/distributedat refrigerated

temperatures.

Moderate Theimal Process; Any of several therinal processeswhereby crabmeat products are either 1! heat treated then stored and distributed frozen or 2! heat treated and packed in non-hermeticpackaging for refrigerated storageand distribution.

PathogenControl Process:Any thermalprocess which targetsthe destructionof one or more pathogenicmicroorganisms.

Herinetic: Packagingwhich is designedand intendedto be secureagainst the entry of microorganisms; implies anaerobicconditions, and therefore, maintains the integrity of its contents after pasteurization.

Plant Manager: An individual with firm management/ supervisoryresponsibility, includingresponsibility for compliancewith applicablefederal and/or state laws. ProductionLine Operator: An individual, responsibleto a plant manager,who is directly involvedin following processingprocedures, such as the operationof thermal processingequipment.

B. Process Establishment and Procedures

Section 1; Cooking.

a. Crreencrabs should be cookedas soon as possible after they are delivered to the processingfacility, andin accordancewith any applicablefederal and/or state laws governingoperations and/or time-temperature conditions.

b. Crabsnot cookedwithin approximately2-4 hoursafter delivery to theprocessing plantshould be refrigeratedin a livecrab cooler between 40-50'F.

Section 2: Cooling.

a. After removal from the retort or other acceptablecooker!, crabs should be cooled in the samecontainer in which they are cooked. Retortedor steamedcrabs generallyshouM be air cooled.If coolingwater is usedto coolboiled crabs, the water should be chlorinated or otherwise sanitized as necessaryto assure a measurable residual of sanitizer at all locations in the cooling canalsor recirculated water supplies. If not pickedwithin approximately 8 hours, they should be refrigeratedat 40'F or

below, b. Cooked and raw crabs must not be stored in the same cooler. NBCIA recommends that whole crabs or crab parts be stored in the same container in which they are cooked, It is importantthat cookedcrabs be protectedfrom contamination. Therefore, if continuous cookers are used,NBCIA recommendsthat the cooked crabs be stored in cleaned and sanitized non-porous containers.

Section 3: Crabmeat Picking and Packing.

The picking and packing operationsshould be performedin a mannerthat avoids contamination of the crabmeat. Crabmeatshould be delivered to the packing area as soon as possibleafter picking within approximately2 hours!. The containersshould be filled and sealed,as appropriatefor the selectedprocess, then placedin eitherrefrigerated storage less than approximately 40'F! or, alternatively, into the thermal process. II. Pasteurization Processes

A, Process Timetable

Blue crab meat that is to be thermally processedshould receive that process within approximately 36 hours of when it is picked,

B. Pasteurization Process

Pasteurization heating-cooling schedulesapplied to hermetically sealed, refrigerated products should be establishedto achievea thermal processof F > 31 minutes reference temperature = 185'F, z = 16'F! an expression of accumulated heat exposureor lethality at the product cold point normally the geometric center of the container!.The F,» ' = 31 minutesmore than exceedsthe ininimum processrequired for destructionof Clostridiumbotulinum type E spores F,»" = 4.2 minutesachieves approximately12 decimal reductions;Lynt et al., 1977! and potential vegetative pathogens Hackney et al., 1991!. Any pasteurizationtime-temperature combination which provides,at a minimum, F,»" = 31 minutes in a container acceptableto regulatory authority complieswith this recommendation.NBCIA recognizesthat processesgreater than F," = 31 minutes may be required to destroy certain thermoduric spoilage organisms. NBCIA recommendsthat proper determination of F- valuesbe performedby qualifiedindividuals or institutions.This recornrnendationdoes not precludea processingplant managerfrom usingcomputer-based equipment which hasbeen shown to properlycalculate temperatures and F-values. C. Process Standardization

All thermalprocessing equipment should be standardizedso as to assureattainment of the thermal process described in part II-B above. Time-temperaturerequirements should be determinedfor each plant manager's individual thermal processing system as well as for other variables, such as the initial temperature I.T.! of the crabmeat, and the size, shape and stacking configuration of containers. If at any time there is a substantial alteration of the equipment or change in operating proceduresthat may impact F-valuesor cooling rates, the proceduresshould be restandardized.Plant managersare advised that time-temperature schedules for onethermal processing system may not give satisfactoryresults for anothersystem. Hence, the pasteurizationprocess must be re-verified whenever a changein the processis made. This includes; initial temperature,container size, shapeor inaterial,physical alterations to the tank, and alterations that could affect the steam supply or consistencyof waterbath agitation. Although double seamedrigid cans and agitatedwaterbaths are prevalent in the industry,other methods which have demon~ated effectiveness can also be used. These other methods include, but are not limited to, hermetic semi-rigid and flexible plastic packaging,and steam-airretorts, cascading hot waterretorts and high humidity ovens.

D. Standardization Re ort

The standardizationreport establishingthe pasteurizationprocess scheduleand conditionsfor eachprocess should be kept on file by plant management,Thermal processingshould be performedto meetthe establishedprocess. E. Process Interru tion a. If an equipmentor production line operatorfailure interrupts the normal schedule, NBC!A recommends that all containers be removed from the thermal processingsystem and refrigerated. When all of this product has equilibratedto refrigerationtemperature it can be thermally reprocessedaccording to a schedule established for the corresponding product I.T. If this occurs in connection with pasteurizationcovered under this part II!, the product can be removed from pasteurizationpackaging and repacked as a non-pasteurizedproduct. b. Many plant managersachieve F-values exceedingthese standards. An interruptionof a company'snormal schedule constitutes a processdeviation only where such interruptioninterferes with achievingthe minimum conditionsset out in this document. c. The determinationof processdeviations and the appropriatenessof corrective actions other than as described in this section shall be conducted by qualified

individuals and institutions.

F.

a. Containerseams or sealswhich areapplied at the crabrneatprocessing facility shall be inspectedeach day at the startof the seaming/sealingprocess and again at least everyfour hours of machineoperation each machine! in accordancewith recommended proceduresfor examiningseams or seals,as appropriate,If the container seaming/sealingequipment malfunctions, corrective actions shall be takenand inspectionof containerseams/seals performed before resuming operations.

b. The plantmanager should maintain records of all containerseam/seal inspections for at least two years from date of processing. c. A plant managershould have at least one employeetrained to do container seam/seal inspectionsand at least one employeetrained in the adjustmentof container seaming/sealingequipment. NBCIA recommendsthat plant managersconsult with experts trained in container seaming/sealingequipment maintenanceand adjustment. The plant managershould review container seam/sealinspection records within one working day of container closure. All records should be dated and signed by the individual conducting the inspection and by the individual performing the review.

G. Coolin Refri eration and Stora e of Products a. The crabmeatshould be chilled to approximately 55'F or below as measuredat the containers' geometriccenter in 180 minutesor soonerafter completing the heating step. This is usually accomplishedby initial submersionin agitatedice slush, then placement in refrigerated storage. NBCIA recommends that cooling waters be break-point chlorinated or treatedwith an appropriateconcentration of another approved sanitizer. The plant managermay use any other cooling procedurethat achievesthe saine rate of cooling and provides adequateprotection from containination.

b, The crabrneat must be further cooled so as to reach 38'F or colder within approximately 18 hours. Plant employeesshould be aware that the stacking of cases and use of insulated boxes for storing pasteurizedcontainers may significantly affect the rate of cooling under refrigeration. c. Pasteurizedcrabmeat, whether in or out of shipping containers,should be maintained between 32'F and 36'F until shipped. NBCIA recommends that a record of refrigerationroom temperaturesbe maintained.Deviations from this guidelinecan be viewed as non-seriousor serious. A non-serious deviation occurs, for example, when storage temperaturesincrease to less than approximately 50'F for not more than 24 hours. A serious deviation would occur if storagetemperature exceeds approximately 50'F for longer than 24 hours. The determinationof storagetemperature deviations and appropriatenessof correctiveactions should be performedby qualifiedindividuals and institutions. NBCIA takes the position that shippers, wholesalers, retailers, and consumersare important in determiningproduct quality and are responsiblefor maintaining stored crabmeatbetween 32'F and 36'F.

H. Labelin for Pasteurized Products a. Every containerof pasteurizedcrabmeat should be permanentlyand legibly identified with a codeindicating, at a minimum, the day, month, and year of processing. Theprocessing period code should be changed with sufficientfrequency to enableready identification of lots during their sale and distribution. An establishment code is requiredwhen the processingfacility is not otherwiseidentified on the label. Further, some state regulatory agenciesmay require additional coded information. Managers alsomay wish to codeother information that is not requiredunder this guideline,such as can seamer number. b. Pasteurizedcrabmeat shall be clearly identified as such on all shipping and product containers, and invoices. c. Wherever the term "crabmeat" or its equivalent! appearson pasteurizedproduct labeling,the term "pasteurized" should also appear in immediateconjunction with it in typeof equalprominence. The term "pasteurized" should only be usedin conjunction with productsthat meetwith the minimumpasteurization schedule covered under section II. d, Refrigerationinstructions indicating hoMing temperatures of 38'F or coldershall be conspicuouslyfeatured on all shippingand product containers. The following two-line phraseshould be prominentlydisplayed on the label of all pasteurizedproducts:

~ Important * Must Be K.ept Refrigerated

This exact wording has been proposed for similar foods by several national organizations.'

e, NBCIA recommendsthat eachplant managerclosely review applicable federal and state laws concerningother labeling requirementsfor crabrneatproducts as they relate to producttype and form, net weight,use of productdescriptors, nutrition statements, additives, origin of product and similar factors.

Process Controls

Section I: Equipment Description.

a. Each thermal processing system should have both 1! a time-temperature recordingthermometer with temperaturecontroller combinedor separately!and, 2! an indicatingthermometer. The temperaturesensors of both thermometersshould be so locatedas to give a truerepresentation of the operatingtemperature of the heating medium.A qualifiedtechnician should check the accuracy of boththermometers when initially installedand thereafter at leastonce each operating season. Circular recording chartsshould span an intervalof at least12 hours and be at least10 inchesin diameter.

b. A processingplant manager may choose to useother controlling or recording

' National Advisory Committee on Microbiological Criteria for Foods; Association of Food and Drug Officials; Conference for Food Protection. devices,such as a computer-baseddatalogger/controller, that provides a permanentcopy of thethermal process which is consistentwith the recommendations of this section and is producedin accordancewith applicablefederal and state laws and regulations. If used,these instruments and their recordsthen replace recording thermometers, their constituentparts and recording charts where such appear in thesestandards.

Section 2: Recorder Operation. a, Therecording thermometer should be protectedfrown blows, vibration, moisture or otheroperating conditions that would interferewith its accuracy.

b. The thermometercase should not be openedduring the pasteurizingcycle except for temperaturechecks, or for emergencyadjustments or repairs.NBCIA recommends that a recordof eachsuch opening should be retainedwith othercorresponding process records for a period of approximateiy 2 years.

Section 3: Recorder Accuracy and Resolution.

Therecording thermometer should have a rangeof at least120'-220'F. It shouldbe accurateto within plusor minus1'F between160'F and 200'F. Thechart should be scaled at a maximum of 2'F intervals in the range of 160'F to 200'F.

Section 4: Indication ThermometerAccuracy and Resolution.

Theindicating thermometer should have an accuracyand readability of plusor minus 1'F between 160'F and 200'F.

Section 5; Recorder Clock Accuracy. a. The recordingthermometer should be equippedwith a reliable clock. The recordedelapsed time as indicatedby the chart rotation shouldnot exceedthe true elapsedtime shownby an accuratetime piece,

b. A qualified technicianshould check the accuracyof the clock as initially installed and thereafter at least once each operating season.

Section 6: Record of System Operation.

A thermal processingsystem must not be operatedwithout a recordingthermometer chartin place,the recording pen in contactwith thechart and an inked record made of theoperating time-temperature cycle. Thechart shouldbe positioned on therecorder so that the time of day pre-printedon most charts!approximately corresponds to the actual time of the processingcycle. Section 7: Parameters Included in Process Record. a. NBCIA recommendsthat plant managersretain a file of the used recording thermometercharts for at least two years from date of processing. After the thermal processcycle has been completed, the following information should be recorded. ! Date of processing. ! Quantityof eachbatch processed pounds of crabmeator numberand size of containers!, ! Batch code. ! Initialproduct temperature I.T,!, measured with a calibratedthermometer within 15minutes of placingproduct in thethermal processing system. Another record may be substituted for batch I.T. if that record shows that crabrneatis as warm or warmer thanthe I.T. on which the processis established.For example,if a processis basedon an I.T. of 45'F, documentationwould sufficethat only crabmeatexposed to ambient temperaturesdirect from the pickingroom is packedand placedinto the thermal

process. ! If crabmeatis processedfor anotherpacker, then that packer's name and license or certification nuinber must be recorded. Plant managers should check with appropriateregulatory agencies regarding state regulations and law that may apply to this practice. ! Timewhen heating process begins and time when heating process ends, if not obvious from the pen tracing. ! Theindicating thermometer's reading after the set-point target! temperature has been reachedand stabilized, and prior to end of the heating step. 8! Theoccurrence of any mechanical or power failure, or theopening of therecording thermometercase for adjustmentsor repairsduring a thermalprocessing cycle. 9! Coolingtimes, as appropriatefor the systemused, to assurecompliance with section II 6 suggested!, 0! Signatureof the productionline operator. b. All of the above information should, if possible,be recordedon the &ont of the chart within the confines of the pen markings. If necessary,some of the above informationmay be recordedon the back of the chartor on an attachedrecord.

Section 8: General System Design.

a. An automaticallyregulated steam control valve is requiredwhen steam is used

as a source of heat.

b, Baskets,dividers and cover plates must be perforatedso as to permit sufficient circulationof the heatingand cooling media. The heatingand cooling mediashould be mixed or agitatedin a mannerthat maintainsuniform temperature.

Microbiolo ical Standards

Plant managersshould familiarize themselves with, and conformto, applicable microbiologicalstandards established by appropriatestate and federalregulatory

authorities.

a. Plantmanagers should maintain records of examinationsand/or copies of suppliers' documentationthat verify compliancewith appropriatefederal and stateregulations, guidelines,or actionlevels for rawmaterials, food packaging materials, and finished food products.

b. Plantmanagers should maintain processing and production records of pasteurization processesfor a periodof approximatelytwo years. c. NBCIA recommendsthat records covered under paragraphs"a" and "b" of this sectionshould be retainedfor a periodof time exceedingthe shelf-life of the product or for approximately2 yearsfrom the dateof processing.

L. Trainin and Certification of "Pasteurization Technicians" a. Every plant pasteurizationfacility each location!should have at least one responsibleemployee certified as a "pasteurizationtechnician". b. To be certifiedas a "pasteurizationtechnician", an individualmust haveattended a thermalprocessing training program approved by the NBCIA. III. Moderate Thermal Processes and Pathogen Control Processes

A. Process Timetable

Blue crab meat that is to be thermally processedshould receive that process within approximately36 hoursof whenit is picked.

B, Patho en Control Process

a. When thermally conditioning crabmeatfor the purposeof destroyingpathogens, a thermalprocess must be carefullyselected. For example,a pathogencontrol process targetedat Listeria moriocyrogenesin a ready-to-eatcrabrneat product, should achieve an averageF,«" > l,0 second,and a minimumFis~" = 0.5 second Harrison and Huang,1990; Hackneyand Reimert, 1992!. Listericidalprocesses are alsohighly effective against other potential vegetative pathogens and most spoilage microorganisms.

b. Crabmeat packed in hermetic containers,then thermally processedand refrigeratedmust comply with therequirements for pasteurizationset out in sectionII. If it is necessaryto reconditionproducts due to the presenceof pathogens,NBCIA recommendsthat the plantmanager contact the appropriatestate and federal authorities to reviewprocedures applicable to a reconditioningplan prior to itnplementingsuch a plan.

C. Moderate Thermal Process

a. Somecrabmeat products are thermallyprocessed for purposesother than eliminatingpathogens of significanthealth risk; andare not pasteurizedas definedin this document.These include products processed from safe,wholesome crabmeat that 1! are packedeither before or after a thermalprocess, then frozen and maintained frozen until used,or 2! receivea thermalprocess prior to packing in non-hermetic containers for example,meat that is steamedthen packed in freshcrabmeat cups with snap-onlids!. Typically theseprocesses are developedto meeta marketrequirement anddo not inherentlyrepresent a healthconcern, They are not coveredunder sections II and III of these standards,and compliancewith these sectionsis optional. b. Managersare strongly cautioned that even apparently small differences from the moderatethermal processes described in paragraph"III C-a"inay require full adherence to sections II or III. If at all uncertain, an opinion should be sought from a qualified individual or institution.

D. Process Standardization a. All thermal processingequipinent should be standardizedso as to assure attainmentof the requiredthermal process as describedin part III-B above. Time- temperaturerequirements shouM be determinedfor eachplant manager's individual thermalprocessing system as well as for othervariables, such as the initial temperature I.T.! of the crabmeat,and the size,shape and stacking configuration of containersor traysof crabmeat.If at anytime there is a substantialalteration of the equipmentor changein operatingprocedures that may impactF-values or coolingrates, the proceduresshould be restandardized, Plant managers are advised that time-temperature schedulesfor onethermal processing system may not give satisfactoryresults for anothersystem, Hence, the thermal process must be re-verified whenever a changein the processis made. This includes;initial temperature,container size, shape or material,physical alterations to thetank, and alterations that couM affect the steam supplyor consistencyof waterbath agitation. Flexible plastic packaging and agitated waterbathsare mostcommonly used by the industry. Othermethods which have demonstratedeffectiveness can also be used, Theseother methods include, but are not limited to; semi-rigidplastic packaging,properly designed steam cabinets, steam-air retorts,cascading hot waterretorts and high humidity ovens.

b. Caution; hermetic packaging shall be used for frozen or fully pasteurized productsonly seepart III-C!.

E. Standardization Re ort

The standardizationreport establishingthe processschedule and conditionsfor each processshould be kepton file by plantmanagement. Thermal processing should be performedto meetthe establishedprocess.

F. Process Interru tion

a, If an equipinentor productionline operatorfailure interruptsthe normal schedule,NBCIA recommendsthat all containersbe reinoved from the thermal processingsystein and refrigerated.When all of this producthas equilibrated to refrigerationtemperature it can be thermallyreprocessed according to a schedule establishedfor the correspondingproduct I.T. Many plant managersachieve F-values exceedingthese standards. An interruptionof a company'snormal schedule constitutes a processdeviation only where such interruption interferes with achievingthe minimum

conditions set out in this document.

b. Thedetermination of processdeviations and the appropriatenessof corrective actions other than as describedin this section shall be conductedby qualified

individuals and institutions. a. Hermetic container seamsor seals which are applied at the crabmeat processing facility shallbe inspectedeach day at the startof the seaming/sealingprocess and again at least every four hours of machineoperation each rnachine!in accordancewith recommendedprocedures for examiningseams or seals,as appropriate. If the container seaming/sealingequipment malfunctions, corrective actions shall be taken and inspectionof containerseams/seals performed before resuming operations. b. The plantmanager should maintain records of all hermeticcontainer seam/seal inspectionsfor at leastone year beyond the expected shelf-life of theproduct. c. A p1antmanager should have at leastone employee trained to do hermeticcontainer seam/sealinspections and at leastone employeetrained in the adjustmentof hermetic containerseaming/sealing equipment. NBCIA recommendsthat plant managers consult with expertstrained in hermeticcontainer seaming/sealing equipment maintenance and adjustment.The plant manager should review hermetic container seam/seal inspection recordswithin oneworking day of containerclosure. All recordsshould be datedand signedby theindividual conducting the inspection and by theindividual performing the review,

H. Coolin Refri eration and Stora e of Products a. The crabmeatshould be chilledto approximately55'F or below as measuredat the containers'geometric center in 180minutes or soonerafter completing the heating step, This is usuallyaccomplished by initial submersionin agitatedice slush,then placement in refrigeratedstorage. NBCIA recommendsthat coolingwaters be break-point chlorinatedor treatedwith an appropriateconcentration of anotherapproved sanitizer, Theplant manager may use any other cooling procedure that achieves the same rate of cooling and providesadequate protection from contamination. b, The crabmeat shall be further cooled so as to reach 38'F or colder within approximately18 hours. Plantemployees should be awarethat the stackingof cases and use of insulated boxes for storing containers may significantly affect the rate of cooling underrefrigeration / freezing. c. Pathogencontrol processedcrabmeat, whether in or out of shippingcontainers, should be maintained between 32"F and 36'F non-hermetic packaging! or firmly frozen,until shipped.NBCIA recommendsthat a recordof refrigeration/ freezerroom temperaturesbe maintained.Deviations from this guidelinecan be viewedas non- serious or serious. A non-serious deviation occurs, for example, if following a Listericidalthermal process, frozen, hermetically packaged crabrneat thaws and attains temperaturesin storageof lessthan approximately45'F for not more than 24 hours, A serious deviation would occur if the product were to exceedapproximately 50'F for longerthan 48 hours,The determination of storageor producttemperature deviations andappropriateness of correctiveactions should be performedby qualifiedindividuals and institutions, NBCIA takesthe positionthat shippers,wholesalers, retailers, and consumersare important in determiningproduct quality and are responsiblefor maintaining appropriatecrabmeat temperatures. Labelin for Patho en Control Processed Products a. Everycontainer of pathogencontrol processed crabmeat should be permanentlyand legiblyidentified with a codeindicating, at a minimum,the day,month, and year of processing.The processingperiod code should be changedwith sufficientfrequency to enable ready identification of lots during their sale and distribution. An establishmentcode is requiredwhen the processingfacility is not otherwiseidentified on the label, Further,some state regulatory agencies may require additionalcoded information. Managersalso may wish to codeother informationthat is not required underthis guideline,such as package seater rnachine number. b. For hermeticallysealed &ozen products, instructions indicating the needfor frozen storageshall be conspicuouslyfeatured on all shippingand product containers. The followingphrase, or its equivalent,should be prominently displayed on thelabel of all such products:

~ Important ~ Keep Frozen Until Used Thaw Under Refrigeration c. NBCIA recommendsthat eachplant managerclosely review applicable federal and statelaws concerning other labeling requireinerits for crabrneatproducts as they relate to producttype and form, net weight, use of productdescriptors, nutrition statements, additives,origin of productand similar factors. Process Controls

Section1: EquipmentDescription. a. Each thermal processingsystem should have both 1! a time-temperature recordingthermometer with temperature controller combined or separately!and, 2! an indicatingtherrnorneter, The temperature sensors of boththermometers should be so locatedas to give a truerepresentation of the operatingtemperature of the heating medium.A qualifiedtechnician should check the accuracy of boththermometers when initiallyinstalled and thereafter atleast once each operating season, Circular recording chartsshould span an interval of at least12 hours and be at least10 inches in diameter. b. A processingplant manager may choose to useother controlling or recording devices,such as a computer-baseddatalogger/controller, that provides a permanentcopy of thethermal process which is consistentwith the recommendations of this section and is producedin accordancewith applicable federal and state laws and regulations. If used,these instruments and their recordsthen replace recording thermometers, their constituentparts and recording charts where such appear in thesestandards.

Section 2: Recorder Operation. a. Therecording thermometer should be protected from blows, vibration, moisture or otheroperating conditions that would interfere with its accuracy, b. The thermometercase should not be openedduring the pasteurizingcycle except for temperaturechecks, or for emergencyadjustments or repairs. NBCIA recommends that a recordof eachsuch opening should be retainedwith othercorresponding process recordsfor a periodexceeding the expected storage life of theproduct by approximately

1 year. Section 3: Recorder Accuracy and Resolution.

The recording thermometer should have a range of at least 120'-220'F, It should be accurate to within plus or minus 1'F in the operating range of the heating medium. This range should span approximately 30'F scheduled process temperature plus or minus 15'F!. The chart should be scaledat a maximum of 2'F intervals in this range.

Section 4: Indication Thermometer Accuracy and Resolution.

The indicatingthermometer should have an accuracyand readabilityof plus or minus 1'F in the operating range of the heating medium. This range should span approximately30'F scheduledprocess temperature plus or minus 15'F!.

Section 5.' Recorder Clock Accuracy, a. The recording thermometer should be equipped with a reliable clock, The recordedelapsed time as indicatedby the chart rotation shouldnot exceedthe true elapsedtime shown by an accuratetime piece, b. A qualified technicianshould check the accuracyof the clock as initially installed and thereafter at least once each operating season. Section 6: Record of System Operation.

A thermalprocessing system must not be operatedwithout a recordingthermometer chartin place,the recording pen in contactwith thechart and an inked record made of the operatingtime-temperature cycle. Thechart should be positioned on therecorder so that the time of day pre-printedon most charts!approximately corresponds to the actual time of the processingcycle.

Section 7: ParametersIncluded in ProcessRecord. a, NBCIA recommendsthat plant managersretain a file of the used recording thermometercharts for a periodexceeding the storagelife of the product. After the thermalprocess cycle has beencompleted, the following informationshould be recorded: ! Date of processing. ! Quantityof eachbatch processed pounds of crabmeator numberand size of containers!. ! Batch code. ! Initialproduct temperature I.T.!, measured with a calibratedthermometer within 15minutes of placingproduct in thethermal processing system. Another record may be substituted for batch I.T. if that record shows that crabmeatis as warm or warmer thanthe I.T. onwhich the process is established.For example, if a processis basedon an I.T. of 45'F, documentationwould suffice that only crabmeatexposed to ambient temperaturesdirect from the pickingroom is packedand placed into the thermal process. ! If crabmeatis processed for anotherpacker, then that packer's name and license or certificationnumber must be recorded. Plant managersshould check with appropriateregulatory agencies regarding state regulations and law that may apply to this practice, ! Time when heating process begins and time when heating process ends, if not obvious from the pen tracing. ! The indicating thermometer'sreading after the set-point target! temperaturehas been reachedand stabilized. and prior to end of the heating step.. 8! The occurrenceof any mechanicalor power failure, or the opening of the recording thermometercase for adjustmentsor repairs during a thermal processingcycle. 9! Cooling times, as appropriate for the system used, to assure compliance with paragraphIII H-a suggested!. 0! Signature of the production line operator. b. All of the above information should, if possible,be recordedon the front of the chart within the confines of the pen markings, If necessary,some of the above information may be recordedon the back of the chart or on an attachedrecord,

Section 8: General System Design. a. An automatically regulatedsteam control valve is required when steam is used as a source of heat. b. Baskets,dividers and cover plates must be perforated so as to perinit sufficient circulation of the heating and cooling media. The heating and cooling media should be mixed or agitated in a manner that maintains uniform temperature.

K. Microbiolo ical Standards

Plant managersshould familiarize themselveswith, and conform to, applicable microbiological standardsestablished by appropriatestate and federal regulatory authorities. L. a. Plantmanagers should maintain records of examinationsand/or copies of suppliers' documentationthat verify compliancewith appropriatefederal and stateregulations, guidelines,or actionlevels for raw materials,food packaging materials, and finished

food products.

b. Plantmanagers should maintain processing and production records of pathogen control processes.

c. NBClA recornrnendsthat records covered under paragraphs"a" and "b" of this section should be retained for a period of time exceedingthe shelf-life of the product or for approximately2 years from the date of processingof frozenproducts and 1 year from the date of processingof refrigeratedproducts.

M. Trainin and Certification of "Pasteurization Technicians"

a. Every plant pasteurizationfacility each location!should have at least one responsibleemployee certified as a "pasteurizationtechnician".

b. To be certifiedas a "pasteurizationtechnician", an individualmust have attended a thermalprocessing training program approved by the NBC1A. REFERENCES CITED

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167 21 CFR Part 110 .. 110, 112, 113, 115, 116 Canned foods 10, 34, 68 21 CFR Part 113 .. 111, 112, 114, 116, 117 155 A Casing . 99 Accidental freezing 23 CCPs 29, 128 Achromobacrer . 36 Certification 115, 122-126, 136, 137, 159 Additives 37, 39, 132, 133, 136, 142 CFP = Code of Federal Regulations Agitation 5, 18, 22, 30-33, 64, 125, 159 Chart Air spreader 64 . 60,63 Anaembic 8 speed .. 66 Analog 11, 59 Check valves . 33 Atmosphericsteam 39, 40 Chlorination 23 Chuck 71, 72, 75, 76, 94, 101-103 Circulation 18, 24, 30, 33, 38, 62, 64, 149 Bacteria Citric acid 37 other 36 Clock..., . 64, 66, 115, 149 spore-forming 36 Bags ...... 18, 99, 100, 106, 146, 148-151 Closing machines 23, 70, 72, 77, 80, 88-90, 113, 155 Baseplatepressure ...... 101, 102-105 Closrridium Batch See CLosrridium botulinum codes . . 108 Closrridiwm borulinum 10, 23, 28, 42-44, number . 115 67, 110, 115, 147 quantity . 115 42~ 18 . 69, 70, 93, 108-110, Bluing 33, 37-39, 105 113-117, 125, 145, 149, 150 Body Cold point ...,,,,...... 3, 8-10, 12, 21 flanges .... 77, 89, 105 Coliforms .. 40, 41 hook 73, 75, 80-82, 89, 91, 98, 103 Color,,...... I, I2, 37, 40-42, 100 Boil-in-bags 18 Commercial sterilization ...... 3, 34 Boiled crabs 34, 39 Compositionof the product ... 4, 11, 18, 38, 39 Boiling 34, 38, 39, 62, 122 Compressedair 33, 149 Botulism 11, 40, 43, 44 Computers 60 Container C. borulinum coding 116 See Cbsrridi am boialinum distribution 18 Compylobacrer 35, 36 examination .. 113 36 JtguBl integrity ...... 11, 18, 29, 82, Can . - .. 100, 105, 111-113, 1l6, 148, 151 68, 69 coding size, shape,and material...... ,... 18 . 106 conhunination ~g 106 examination 89 Containers 51-58 flange 75, 103 Contamination . 29, 34, 35, 37, 40, 48, 68, 105, handling 105, 106 106, 110, 112, 114, 115, 122-125, 132, 140-144 materials... 90 Control .... 112 82, 94 opener points...... 29, 110-112, 120, seam evaluation .. 68, 69, 89, 109, 124, 151 122-126, 128-133, 136, 137, 146 seam inspection 19, 30, 124, 146, 155 valves 66 ...... 23, 68, 69, 90, 113 Controllers 60, 66, 149 77, 80, 90, 94, 101-105, 108 pasteurization 66

168 Cooked odor .. 38 Cooling ...... ,..... 1, 5, 108, 112, 155 Economic fraud 129, 130 cycle .... 115 EDTA 37 rate ... 5, 18, 20, 21, 30, 32, 33, 100, 146 Enamel 38, 85, 105 record . 109 End plate 73 water ...... 23, 33, 118, 150, 153, 155 Enterobacter 36 Corrective action .. 23, 30, 90, 109, 111, 113, Equipment .. 23, 29, 51, 58, 61-66, 69, 90, 99, 115, 121, 126. 128, 130, 131, 135-137, 149-151 110, 111, 115, 122-124, 139, 141, 142 Countersink ...., ..... 77-79, 91, 102, 103 failure . 115, 155 Cover hook ... 74, 75, 80-82, 85-89, 93-98, 104 Error .. 8, 23, 45-50 Coxislla bttt7tetti ...10 limits of 49 Crabmeattemperature ..... 18, 31, 32, 63, 66 sources of... 50 Cracked plate 70 Esdterichia coli 35 Crawfish 1, 11 Ethy1enediaminetetrtuu~cacid Critical See EDTA controlpoints .... 29, 110-113, 115, 116, Excessiveliquid .. 39 .... 120, 121, 126-133, 136, 137, 146 Extension wire . 49,50 elements..... 111, 127 External seam 70, 77, 89 limits .. 126, 128, 130, 131, 133, 136, 151 Cross contamination , ...... 29, 123, 132 F-value ..... 3, 5, 6, 8, IO, 12, 17, Crossover ... 70, 72-74, 77, 80, 82, 85, 87-89 18, 24-28, 31, 41, 43, 66, 155 Cushion spring ...SS False seam 70, 75, 102 Cut Fecal coliforms 40 over 70, 71, 73, 90, 101 Federalregulations 110, 111, 117, 145 70, 73, 101 Fermented 44 D First D-value 3, 4, 6, 10, 35, 36, 43, 44, 106 operation 70-72, 75, 77, 80, Damaged . Sl, 85, 94, 98, 104 cau 77, 104 seam roll operation 101-104 lid . 102 Flavor 1, 23, 38, 41, 42 Darkening 38, 41 Flexiblepackaging ...... 64, 99, 100 Dataloggers ...... , . 58, 60, 66 Flowchart 120 Dead head 75 Food hygiene 130, 144 Decimal reduction time ...... 3, 44, 106 Free liquid 38 Deep countersink . 102 G Defects ...... 38, 39, 57, 70, 73-77, Generally Recognizedas Safe ...... 85, 89, 90, 101, 107, 112 See GRAS 38 non-microbial Glass containers Digital recording 60, 63 GMP = Good Manufacturing Practices... Discoloration 37-39 Good Manufacturing Practices Distribution record 109, 117, 145 See GMP Do wmentation 2, 23,64,67, Grittmess 39 108-110, 131, 133, 136 GRAS= GenerallyRecognized as Safe 37 Double seam . 70, 73, 74, 77, 79, 80, 82, 85-91, H 93, 94, 95, 98, 99, 100, 101, 108, 112, 151 HACCP ...... 23, 28-30, 42, 66, 110, 111, evaluation ...... 70, 89, 90 117, 119, 126-137, 140, 145, 146, 148 mspecnonrecord . 108 recommendations . 119 tear down 82 Hazardanalysis critical control points Drip 23, 35, 130 See HACCP Droop ...... 70, 73-75, 85, 87, 88, 90, 101 Hazards ...... Dryness 38, 39, 44 Headspace Duration 18

l69 Heat Lifter cIpo sure .....,, . 3, 6, 18, 147 plate 75 penetrationcurve ....,,... 6,7,13-16 p~ 75 resistance ... 4, 10, 2S, 35, 43, 44 Limits of error 46-50 transfer rates 18, 30, 32, 33 Lip 70, 74, 75 Heating ...... 1, 2, 4-6, 8-10, 18, 20, 24, 25, Lisreria 35, 36, 40-42, 146, 147 3541, 44, 64, 68, 100, 108, 149 monocyfogenes ...... 35, 36, 147 andcooling rates ...... 5,18,32,100 Long 24, 25, 38 body hook 73, 103 Hermetic 8, 40,70 cover hook 104 High seam width 102 humidity oven 41 Loose wrialde ...... 104 vacuum 105 Looseness 70, 85, 88, 98, 102 Hook gauge 94 Lot number 113 Low Ice -acid canned food, see LACF slush .... 13,24, 32, 33, 62, 108, 149, 150 vacuum 105 -water bath 20, 21, 109 Imitation crabmeat 11 19, 23, 66, 110, ill, Incipientmicrobial growth ...... 105 113, 117, 135, 149 Incompleteseam . . 101 Mercury-m-glass 62, 1 14, 149 Indicating thermometer... . 62%3, 66, 67, 10S, Mesophilic 3 114-116, 149, 157 Metals 37 Initial Microbial distribution records ..... 116 load 11, 1S, 26, 27, 34, 118 microbial population 25 population ll, 18, 25, 34 producttemp~ture .. 19, 24, 30 Microbiological temperature,see I.T. survivors . Injured bacteria 20 standards . 159 Iastalhtion 51, 56, 58, 60, 64, 114 Microcoecgs 36 Internal Microflora 23 28, 34, 40 seam inspo;tion 77 Micro-leaks .. . 68,69 seam measurements 89 Micrometer 77, 78, 91, 94, 96 Iron 37, 38, 46, 47, 94 Microorganisms .. 34, S-10, 20, 23, I.T. = Initial Temperature ...... 24,25 34-36, 110, 115, 144 MIG = Mercury-in&lass 62 Jumpedseam 85, 88 thermometer ..., . 62, 114, 149 Junction 49-51 Minimal processing ....., ... 10, 41 Juncture.... 70, 88 Moderatethermal processing 100, 147, 148, 151 L Moisture content 40, 41, 48 .... 120, 127, 128, LACF . 29, 62, 68, 110, 112, 114-116 Monitoring procedures 130, 133, 135 Labeling.. 124, 135, 156 Lacrobacilhrs 36 N Lap 70-74, 80, 82, 87, 88 National Leak detector 69, 99 Blue Crab IndustryAssociation, see NBCIA Leakage 23, 57, 75, 82, 89, 99, 113, 148 Crab IndusbryPasteurization Standards .. 152 Length 91 Fisheries Institute ... 29, 30, 119, 127, 146 Lethali ties 24, 39, 100, 122 IndustryPasteurization Standard ... 10, 114 Lid flanges 89 Marine Fisheries Service, see NMFS NBCIA ...... 10, 20, 21, 24, 28, 29, 62, 64, 69, 108, 109, 116, 124, 125, 146

170 Nippers 82, 84, 94 Psychrotrophic 3, 28, 42, 43 NMFS Pumps 33 Model Seafood SurveiIlance Project . 29, 121 R Non~roteolyticC, borulinum...... ,, . 42~ Random survival patterns 26 Notice of Unusual Occurrenceand Corrective Ready-to-eat 35, 42 Action taken, see NUOCA Recall 28, 66, 69, 70, 109, NUOCA ...., 30, 121, 136, 137 . 110, 117, 135, 137, 145 0 Receiving 2. 122, 131, 137, 142 38, 41, 43, 122 Record 82, 91, 98, 104, 149 keeping 63, 68, 93, 108, 110, P 111, 117, 120, 131, 135, 159 PaJang ...... 40, 105, 106, 110, 112, 116, retention ...... ,,..... 109, 135, 159 121, 123, 125, 148, 149, 153 Recorder controller . 114 Pasteurization .. 1-3, 8-12, 18-20, 23-30, 33-35, Recorders ...... 5841, 63, 66 37, 39, 41%3, 51, 6247, 69, 110, analog .... 59, 60 113-115, 118, 119, 124, 146-152, 154 chart ...... ,, 59, 60, 63, 64, 108, baskets...... 64 ,...... 114, 115, 124, 149, 150 60, 63 controllers 66, 156 digital tankhook-up 64, 65 Recording thermometer 62-64, 67, 108, Pasteurizernmnber 115 114, 116, 156 Pathogens1, 3, 23, 35, 40, 42, 129,132, 146,147 Records ... 23, 30, 59, 63, 66, 70, 89, 109-114, Phosphates... 37, 39 116, 117, 120-125, 127, 130, 131, Picking ..... 24, 29, 34, 35, 39, 123, 124, 153 136, 137, 146, 149, 151, 155, 157-159 Pin height ... 75, 103 rev18w 30, 116 Plate count 34, 40, 41 Reference thermometer,, 62, 67, 109, 114, 157 Pouches ...... 18, 33, 39, 41, 42, 53, Refrigeratedstorage . 12, 20, 21, 35, 67, 109, 151 54, 57, 58, 99, 100, 146 Refrigeration 20, 23, 42, 67, 115, 123, 155, 156 Retort 28, 29, 34, 122 plastic 41 Pouch integrity, . 100 Ridgedcontainers 41 Prematurespoilage 25-27 Rinsing 39 Pressureridge 85, 87, 105 Rusting 20, 47, 112 Preventive meLsures ...... 30, 120, 123-130, S 133, 135, 146 S. aureus,see Sraphylococcus aureus Process Safety .... 10, 21, 23, 28, 29, 35, 42, 43, 110, deviation .. 63, 66, 70, ill, 115, 137, 150 111, 120, 127, 129, 130, 132, 133, 136, 138, 139 documentation ...... , .... 64, 108, 109 Salmonella lethality ...... , 6, 8, 20, 146 senPenberg 36 steps 122-125 ryphimurium.. 36 Processing ... 1-3, 5, 10-12, 18-20,24, 27, 28, Salmonellae . 35 30, 32, 34, 35, 37, 38, 40-43, 51, 58-60, 62, 63, Salted 68, 70, 82, 100, 110, ill, 113-117, 119-121, Sanitationcompliance checklist ...... 138 127-132, 135-I37, 139-142, 146-151 Sanitizer 23, 107, 142, 143 authority..., 114 Sealing equipment 62 compound protocol 35, 146 operation Product Seam temperature...... 19, 24, 30, 34 eaunination records . 113 toughening..., ...... 23 failure 23, 28 traceability 125, 136 leak equipment, 99 Proteolytic 43 measurements 77, 80, 89, 91, 93 Pseudomonas...... ,,,...... 36 projector 90, 91, 94

171 Sears, continued Steam saw . 81,86,94,98 coatroUer 114 90, 91, 94, 97 spreader ...... , ... 29, 30, 33, 66 sealing .. 155 tunnel processes 39 thickness 77, 78, 85 Storage .... 3, 8, ll, 12, 18-21, 23, 28-30, 32, width 77, 91, 102 ... 34, 35, 37, 39, 40, 59, 67, 68, 89, 105, Seamer 19, 56, 72, 76, 77, 100, 113, 151 109, 110, 112, 113, 115, 116, 121, 122, Seaming 124, 125, 133, 135, 139, 140, 143, 151, 155 chuck.... -... 71, 72, 75, 76, 101-103 Storagetemperature , ... 11, 18, 23, 29, 67, 109, rolls 73, 75, 77, 87, 88, 101 115, 116, 151 Seams 23, 26, 67-70, 74, 77, 80, 81, Strippingseams 93, 94 85, 89-91, 93-95, 98, 113, 151 Struvite 39 Secondoperation ...... 70,71,73,81,88, Sulfates 37 91, 94, 101, 104, 105 Suppliers'guarantees 159 Servicing 66 Surimi . 1, 11 Shallow countersink 103 Survivor curve 3 Sharpseam . 71, 101 T Shelf Tank covers and insulation ...... 18 -life 1,3, 8, 10, 11, 18-20, 23-28, 30, Tear down , ...... 89, 90, 95, 112, 113, 124 32, 39-43, 109, 116, 147 Tenlperatufe -stableproducts 29 abuse 19, 132 Shigelkt dysenteria 36 limits...... 46 Shipping 121, 131, 136, 156 log,,,....,,...... , 109, 116, 125 Short measurements...... 4548, 51, 56, 58 body hook 103 records 23, 136 cover hook 104 sensor 58, 66 overlap . 82, 104 Testing seam width 102 methods 100 Shrimp ll records 89 Shrinkage 42 Texture 1, 12, 3841 Side seam.... 70, 73, 87, 88, 91, 93, 112, 113 Thermal Skid 70, 75 processing .... 1-3, 38, 100, 146-148, 151 Slip 75 resistance curve 5 Smoked 44 Thermocouples 37, 45-51, 53-59, 62, 63, 66, 150 fish 1, 11,12 Thermod uric Snips ., 94 bacteria 27 Sources psychrotrophicanaerobe ...... 28 of error 49 Thermometer ..., ., 62~, 66, 67, 108, 109, of nucroorganisms.. 34 114-116, 122, 149, 150, 157 Sous vide 1, 41, 42 charts . 158 Spixmer 70, 75 Thermophilicsporeformers ...... , . 3 Spoilage 3, 23-29, 32, 35, 40, 41, 68, 89, 99, 125 Thickness...... 54, 70, 73, 77, 78, 80, 81, lnlcroof gaul sms 35 85, 87, 90, 91, 100, 102, 148 Spongecrabs 34 Tight...... 50, 51, 55, 56, 70, 73, 80, 81, Spore-formingbacteria .. 36 85-88, 91, 94, 98, 101-105 Spores ...... 4,5, 10,20,43,44 wridde 104 Spreads 29, 30, 33, 64, 66 Tiine . 115 64 pieces 115 Standardizationreport 154 Time/temperature. 12, 30, 38, 64, 114, 123-125, Staphylococcusaureus 35, 36, 40 132, 135, 136, 146 Ste~xmtrol valve 64, 159 process . 12, 30, 146

172 Title 21 . 110 Trauung .. 30,68,90, 116, 123-125, 127, 135, 144, 146, 147, 159 Trays ..... 18, 40 Tri-State Seafood Committee 10, 20 Tubes 47, 48, 99 Type 8 ..... 11, 43, 44, 46-48, 110, 115, 147 U Under-procamng 24 Unhooking 81 V 11, 39A2, 46-48, 69, 76, 99, 100, 105, 107, 148 packaged 11, 41 V-droop . 74 Vee . . 101 Vegetative.....,, ., , 4,5,20,35,146,147 cells 4,5 Verification .. 66, 126, 128, 130, 131, 137, 150 Vibrio 35, 36 cholerae ., 36 Visual inspection ... 70, 77, 79, 85, 90, 93, 113, 122, 135, 137 W Waterbath .. 1, 5, 18, 19, 22, 24, 25, 30-33, 37, 38, 62~, 66, 149, 150, 157, 159 agitation ...... 64 circulation ..... 18, 30, 33, 38, 149, 159 temperature...... 18, 22, 24, 30, 38, 62-64, 66, 149, 150 Width 53, 77, 81, 85, 91, 98, 102, 149 Worn seam chuck .. 101 seam roll 101, 102 Wrinkle 85, 86, 88, 91, 94, 98, 104 rating 85, $6 Y Fersiiua eiirerocoliri ca 36 Yields 39

Z-value 3-5, 9, 10, 36, 44

1