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South African Photography of the HIV Epidemic

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South African Photography of the HIV Epidemic Strategies of Representation: South African Photography of the HIV Epidemic Annabelle Wienand Supervisor: Professor Michael GodbyTown Co-supervisor: Professor Nicoli Nattrass Cape Thesis presentedof for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of Visual and Art History Michaelis School of Fine Art University of Cape Town University February 2014 University of Cape Town The copyright of this thesis vests in the author. No quotation from it or information derived from it is to be published without full acknowledgementTown of the source. The thesis is to be used for private study or non- commercial research purposes only. Cape Published by the University ofof Cape Town (UCT) in terms of the non-exclusive license granted to UCT by the author. University This thesis is dedicated to Michael Godby and Nicoli Nattrass Abstract This thesis is concerned with how South African photographers have responded to the HIV epidemic. The focus is on the different visual, political and intellectual strategies that photographers have used to document the disease and the complex issues that surround it. The study considers the work of all South African photographers who have produced a comprehensive body of work on HIV and AIDS. This includes both published and unpublished work. The analysis of the photographic work is situated in relation to other histories including the history of photography in Africa, the documentation of the HIV epidemic since the 1980s, and the political and social experience of the epidemic in South Africa. The reading of the photographs is also informed by the contexts where they are published or exhibited, including the media, non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and aid organisations, and the fine art gallery and attendant publications. In addition to the theoretically informed analysis of the photographic projects, I interviewed the photographers in order to learn more about their intentions and the contributing factors that shape the production of their work. Interviews were transcribed and used to develop my analysis of their projects and working process. While a number of photographers are included in the thesis, the major focus is on David Goldblatt, Gideon Mendel, Santu Mofokeng and Gisèle Wulfsohn. This thesis is not a comparative study but rather seeks to differentiate between four very different approaches to representing HIV and AIDS in South Africa. I specifically chose to focus on projects that demonstrated alternative visual and intellectual forms of engagement with the experience of the HIV epidemic. The selection aimed to reveal the relationships between the working processes, the contexts of display and publication, and the visual languages the photographers employed. My interest lies in how and why the photographers documented this challenging subject. A close examination of South African photography reveals diverse and complex visual responses to the HIV epidemic. Importantly, some photographic projects challenge existing approaches and encourage alternative ways of looking at, and thinking about, the experience of the epidemic in the South African context. i ii Acknowledgements I would like to thank and acknowledge the following people: My husband, David Mercer, for his love and support. Santu Mofokeng for his wisdom and kindness. David Goldblatt for demanding that I clarify my thoughts. Gisèle Wulfsohn for generously sharing her work with me and agreeing to interviews at a time when she was not well. Mark Turpin for allowing me to access Gisèle Wulfsohn’s archive and for introducing me to colleagues of Gisèle’s that helped inform my understanding of her work. Gideon Mendel for generously making time to share his archive and experience with me and expanding my understanding of photography in relation to the media and NGO worlds. The photographers Pieter Hugo, Dean (Nadine) Hutton, Fanie Jason, Eric Miller, Oupa Nkosi, David Southwood, Paul Weinberg, Graeme Williams and Sue Williamson for agreeing to speak to me and giving of their time to engage with my project. Margaretha Vossie Goosen, Mary Crewe, John-David duPreez and Sean O’Toole for sharing material that widened my analysis. Paul Weinberg for assistance at the Visual Archives at the University of Cape Town. Kayleigh Roos for scanning additional photographs. The AIDS and Society Research Unit (ASRU), the National Research Foundation (NRF) and the Health Economics and HIV/AIDS Research Division (HEARD) for scholarship funding. My supervisors, Professors Michael Godby and Nicoli Nattrass, to whom this thesis is dedicated, without their support and mentorship this project would never have taken shape. iii iv Acronyms and Abbreviations AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome ARV antiretroviral AZT Zidovudine DFID British Department for International Development FET Further Education and Training FDC fixed-dose combination Global Fund The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria HAART Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy HCT HIV Counselling and Testing HSRC Human Sciences Research Council HIV human immunodeficiency virus MCC Medicines Control Council MSF Médecins Sans Frontières MTCTP mother-to-child transmission prevention NAPWA National Association of People Living with HIV/AIDS NGO non-governmental organisation PEPFAR President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (United States) PMA Pharmaceutical Manufacturers’ Association TAC Treatment Action Campaign TB tuberculosis USAID United States Agency for International Development UNAIDS Joint United Nations Program on HIV/AIDS UNICEF United Nations Children Fund US United States WHO World Health Organization v vi Contents Introduction 1 Image and context: how photographic meaning is made 4 The challenge of documentary photography 7 Social documentary photography and its critics 8 Documentary photography and photojournalism 11 Documentary photography and art 16 Research approach 19 Structure of the thesis 24 Chapter 1: Photography and the representation of Africa 27 1.1 Representation of the black subject 31 1.2 The representation of illness and suffering 41 1.3 Conclusion 49 Chapter 2: The HIV epidemic in South Africa 51 2.1 The rise of AIDS denialism and AIDS activism 53 2.2 Indigenous spirituality and healing in the time of AIDS: African Independent Churches and traditional healers 58 2.3 The problem of ‘choice’ and its impact on perceptions of traditional healing practices 63 2.4 Recent management of HIV and AIDS (2009 to the present) 65 2.5 Conclusion 68 Chapter 3: A brief history of photographing the HIV epidemic 69 3.1 Media coverage of HIV and AIDS in Africa 70 3.1.1 International media reporting on the HIV epidemic in Africa 71 3.1.2 South African media reporting on the HIV epidemic 76 3.1.3 Conclusion 87 3.2 Photography produced and used by NGOs and international aid organisations 87 3.2.1 Photographs used by international aid organisations 89 3.2.2 The use of photography by South African NGOs 96 vii 3.2.3 Conclusion 99 3.3 Fine art photography in response to the HIV epidemic 100 3.3.1 ‘AIDS art exhibitions’ in South Africa 100 3.3.2 Photographic exhibitions by solo artists 102 3.4 Conclusion 105 Chapter 4: Gideon Mendel: A twenty year trajectory (1993-2013) 107 4.1 Early days: photographing apartheid South Africa (1982-1990) 108 4.2 Middlesex Hospital and the Matibi Mission Hospital (1993) 110 4.3 A Broken Landscape: HIV and AIDS in Africa (1993-2002) 117 4.3.1 Text, testimony and the representation of people living with HIV 129 4.3.2 Negotiating NGOs and advocacy: challenges and rewards 132 4.3.3 The Exhibition of A Broken Landscape at the Iziko South African National Gallery (2001-2002) 136 4.4 Ten years: The Guardian newspaper (2000-2010) 144 4.5 Through Positive Eyes (2007-present) 155 4.6 Conclusion 162 Chapter 5: Gisèle Wulfsohn: a portrait of HIV and AIDS (1987-2007) 165 5.1 News and media: The Star, Style and Leadership, 1979-1986 165 5.2 Afrapix and ‘going freelance’, 1987-1990 166 5.3 The end of apartheid and the early days of the epidemic, 1990-1997 174 5.4 Johan van Rooy: one man’s story, 1990-1992 184 5.5 The Living Openly project, mid-1990s to 2000 192 5.6 Conversations: HIV and the Family project, 2004-2007 203 5.7 Conclusion 211 Chapter 6: David Goldblatt: the landscape of the epidemic (2003-2008) 213 6.1 The portrait of Victoria Cobokana 214 6.2 Intersections (2005) 218 6.3 Intersections Intersected (2008) 231 6.4 Conclusion 235 viii Chapter 7: Santu Mofokeng: alternative ways of seeing (1996-2013) 237 7.1 Beginnings (1956-1990) 238 7.2 ‘Metaphorical biography’ and the use of text 245 7.3 ‘The threshing floor of faith’: Mofokeng’s photographs of spiritual experience 248 7.4 Chasing Shadows: the ambiguities of faith in relation to the HIV epidemic 251 7.5 Child-headed Households: resisting the image of the ‘AIDS orphan’ 265 7.6 Conclusion 271 Conclusion 273 Photography and the ‘AIDS victim’ 273 South African photographers: rereading and resisting the African ‘AIDS victim’ 274 Reflections on the research method 280 An absence of images and the decline of the AIDS treatment movement 283 Bibliography 287 Appendix A 321 List of personal interviews 321 Additional personal communication 322 ix x List of figures Chapter 1 Figure 1.1 Gustav Fritsch. Sazini, first councillor of Anta, Mbalu, Windvogelberg. Source: Dietrich & Bank, 2008:34. Figure 1.2 Alfred Duggan-Cronin. A Venda Mother and Child at Sibasa. Source: Godby, 2010:69. Figure 1.3 William Lawrence and David McKenzie Selkirk. 1870-1871. Anthropometric study according to Thomas Huxley’s system of a man known as //Kabbo. Source: Pitt Rivers Museum, University of Oxford. Figure 1.4 Pieter Hugo. Tabalire Chitope, 30, is at Bottom Hospital, Lilongwe, with her guardian, Eletine Nedi. Figure 1.5 James Mollison. Polyshchauk is in his forties. Russian Federation. Source: Tuberculosis Advocacy Report (WHO, 2003:49&75).
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