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020 7490 7300 Fax: 020 7490 0080 Inquiries@Duckworth-Publishers.Co First published in 2008 by Gerald Duckworth & Co. Ltd. 90-93 Cowcross Street, London EC1M 6BF Tel: 020 7490 7300 Fax: 020 7490 0080 [email protected]. uk www.ducknet.co.uk Editorial arrangement @ 2008 by Patricia O'Grady The contributors retain copyright in their individual chapters. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 978 0 7156 3695 4 Typeset by Ray Davies Printed and bound in Great Britain by MPG Books, Bodmin Cornwall 12 Isocrates Contents Doug AI-Maini Contributors vii Acknowledgements viii Isocrates of Athens (436-338 BC) was a contemporary of Plato (429-347 BC), Introduction Patricia O'Grady 1 although Isocrates was both born earlier and lived longer than the famous 1. What is a Sophist? Patricia O'Grady 9 philosopher. Growing up in a wealthy family (his father Theodorus made a fortune 2. The Political Background of the Sophists at Athens 21 in flute production), Isocrates received a fine education, with reports coming down Steven R. Robinson to us of his studying with some of the famous intellectuals of the day, most 3. Protagoras Jonathan Lavery 30 probably with Gorgias, although Protagoras and Socrates are also mentioned as 4. Gorgias Colin Higgins 45 figures with whom Isocrates spent time. The family fortune was destroyed by 5. Hippias Patricia O'Grady 56 events following the Peloponnesian War, and Isocrates was forced to write 6. Prodicus Craig Cooper 71 speeches for use in the law-courts in order to earn a living. He continued to write 7. Antiphon Andrew Shortridge and Dirk Baltzly 83 speeches for the rest of his adult life, although he eventually rejected his early 8. Thrasymachus Daniel Silvermintz 93 courtroom speeches in favour of more politically and educationally oriented work. 9. Callicles Louis Groarke 101 As a result of these later speeches, Isocrates has come to be known as one of the 10. Critias Sabatino DiBernardo 111 'Ten Attic Orators', a canonical list of men who encapsulate the great rhetorical 11. Euthydemus and Dionysodorus Geoff Bowe 121 achievements of Athens. 12. Isocrates Doug Al-Maini 129 Public speaking was very important to Athenian political life and to Classical 13. The Anonymus lamblichi and the Double Arguments 138 Patricia O'Grady and Daniel Silvermintz Greek culture in general (Vernant 1982, 46-50); oratory is the name we give to 14. Minor Sophists Trevor Curnow 152 examples of discourse that are made with the intention of educating or persuading 15. Was Socrates a Sophist? Christine Farmer 164 people on some matter. Isocrates is best known for his contribution to this area of 16. Plato: The Sophist Paul Groarke 175 Athenian culture. Aristotle famously divides oratory into three categories: judicial, 17. Were the Sophists Philosophers? Trevor Curnow 185 which covers all speeches concerned with the courts; deliberative, which is 18. Law against Nature? Andrew Shortridge 194 concerned with proper planning generally and which finds its civic example in the 19. The Sophists and Natural Theology George Arabatzis 204 oratory that.takes place in the Assembly; and display, which can be understood to 20. Can Virtue Be Taught? Glenn Rawson 214 include every oration not belonging in an obvious way to either the jadicial or 21. The Case against Teaching Virtue for Pay Geoff Bowe 226 deliberative categories (Rhetoric 1.3). More helpfully, display (epideictic) speeches are 22. The Relevance of the Sophists Today Seamus Sweeney 241 orations that do not call for a specific action on the part of the audience, but rather are meant as depictions of oratorical skill or as amusements of some sort. It is to the last category, display pieces, that Isocrates made his greatest contributions. Map Bevin Boden 248 Isocrates' fame as a speechwriter was such that he was able to open a school in Index 249 Athens sometime around 392 BC (there are reports that, having been forced to flee Athens in 404 because of the Peloponnesian War, he established a school of rhetoric on the island of Chios at an earlier time). Education is a common theme in Isocrates' work, and it is important to v 129 realise that Isocrates characterised himself as a teacher of philosophy and his school while in the sophists' enterprise. In this chapter I wish to explore this. question of as a school of philosophy. Isocrates established his school before Plato set up the whether or not Isocrates qualifies as a sophist and what the arguments are on Academy, and though it is Plato's school that tradition associates with the origins of either side of the case. institutionalised higher learning, Isocrates would dispute this claim. The two schools Because of the breadth of Isocrates' endeavours, in order to confront this competed with each other, and it is clear that some of Isocrates' work is meant both question it will be useful to set the category of sophist off against the related terms to defend his own understanding of what philosophy consists of and to castigate of philosopher and speechwriter. As this brief introduction has shown, Isocrates other, more theoretically-based, notions of philosophy that are championed by Plato, has some reason to be considered as a member of all three of these professions. I among others. So we see that Isocrates, as well as being a speech writer, also has hope that the notion of what a sophist is will become clearer by means of this some right to the title of philosopher. comparison, and that seeing how Isocrates both conforms to and breaks the The fees charged at his school are now thought to have been very high, and are conventions of these three professions will give us both a better understanding of one source of the fortune he amassed. Life at the school was devoted to preparing his life and a better appreciation of the other figures in this book. In any event, it is for participation in civic affairs, and this meant being able to engage in public worth exploring Isocrates as a figure who exists on the fringes of the category of discourse. Isocrates could with some justification claim to be a trainer of speakers 'sophist': he provides an excellent test case that shows where the borders between and politicians generally, developing his students' skill at composing effective sophist, philosopher and speechwriter lie, and this is because of the way he arguments intended to persuade juries and assemblymen. Indeed, he worried that he combines his moral life with his chosen professional activities. would be known as someone who is 'able to make the weaker cause the stronger' To begin with, then, we shall approach Isocrates as a philosopher, a perspective (Isocrates, Antidosis 313), invoking the famous description of Protagoras the sophist. which, as we have seen, he himself was inclined to adopt. Famously, the word Furthermore, Isocrates is at home in the tradition of the sophists who extol pan- 'philosophy' itself comes to us from ancient Greek, combining the words philos Hellenic virtues. In other words, Isocrates champions the attitude of Greeks thinking meaning 'love' and sophos meaning wise. A philosopher is thus a lover of wisdom, of themselves primarily as Greeks, as opposed to the non-Greeks who surrounded and the overlap between our two categories of philosopher and sophist is apparent them (such as the Persians and the Egyptians), and possibly even more so than as from their etymology: they both are concerned with wisdom. The names also citizens of any particular city or polis. These descriptions of Isocrates' activities, indicate a certain humbleness on the part of the philosopher that the sophist does charging high fees for teaching others how to make clever speeches, pan-Hellenism, not share; thus the philosopher is only a lover of wisdom. Indeed, if we are to and especially the ability to invert the relative power of arguments are the hallmarks accept the assertion of Socrates in Plato's Symposium that all love is a desire for of a sophist. something of which one is in need, then philosophers are as good as admitting that However, Isocrates takes great pains to distance himself from the sophists. An they do not have wisdom (Plato has Socrates defend this claim about love being a early speech of his, entitled Against the Sophists, contains these lines: lack of something at Symposium 200a-c), while the sophist professes actually to be a 'wise one'. By Isocrates' time, the name 'sophist' had some disrepute attached to it Indeed, who can fail to abhor, yes to contemn, those teachers, in the first (e.g. Plato, Meno 91c), but it had not by any means become simply a pejorative place, who devote themselves to disputation, since they pretend to search for term; rather it is better to understand the term 'sophist' as taking on both positive truth, but straightaway at the beginning of their professions attempt to deceive and negative connotations. It seems that at this point in history the meaning. of the us with lies? (291). term 'philosopher' is still vague enough to be open to clarification. Indeed, recent scholarship has indicated that establishing a clearer meaning for the word It is fair enough to perceive in this castigation similarities with Hamlet's mother 'philosophy' was 'a valued prize well worth contending for' among the intellectual Gertrude who protested too much, and one question that arises when trying to elite of this time, and Isocrates was one obvious competitor (Ober 1998, 251n.7; understand the life of Isocrates is whether or not he is a sophist.
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