MIDDLE EAST ISLAMISM IN THE EUROPEAN ARENA By Reuven Paz*
An important new development has been the extension of Middle Eastern movements and ideologies to other parts of the world, especially Europe. This article evaluates how these groups and their ideas are extending the reach of Middle East politics to other parts of the world. This has been particularly true of the “jihad movement,” generally associated with Usama Bin Ladin but involving many other forces and doctrines. This change is also having a feedback into Middle Eastern issues which must now be taken into account in analyzing the region.
The development of new forms of Islamist Muslims to make them a factor in the region’s movements and ideologies, often called the political issues. These Middle Eastern activities jihadist movement, has brought Middle Eastern range from the development of radical Islamist doctrines and political groupings to other parts websites--now based in such countries as Italy, of the world, notably Europe. This factor was the United Kingdom, Germany, Denmark, both made more visible and intensified by the Sweden, and Poland (1)--to the development of September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks on entire political parties and intended “second America and subsequent events. Wide-ranging fronts” in fighting Middle Eastern conflicts. investigations uncovered a large infrastructure Equally, there is a question of how Muslim of radical Islamist terrorist cells, groups identity in Europe will relate to Middle Eastern supporting violence, and sympathizers for these issues. There are many factors involved in this viewpoints. process. A Muslim intelligentsia has slowly For many decades, of course, Western ideas emerged to call for recognition of the Muslim and organizations have been transferred to the presence, triggering debates in European public Middle East, but now this process has become a opinion. Coordination among Muslims in two-way street. Those who study the Middle Europe is perhaps encouraged by the East must now also take into account events, unification of Europe itself. Religious solidarity leaders, organizations, and doctrines which also bridges ethnic and national divisions have their feet solidly planted on European soil among them. Another aspect is an Islamist while their thoughts and actions are in large tendency paralleling that in the Middle East, part aimed at Middle Eastern outcomes. Indeed, what the French scholar Olivier Roy has called as will be shown below, the growth of Islamist the phenomenon of “born-again Muslims.” movements in Europe is in part due to the There is also, of course, a more moderate conscious efforts and ideological justifications “liberal” Islam which parallels the historical of their Middle Eastern counterparts. trend of Christianity in Europe but its influence On one level, this new feature can be related on Muslim publics in Europe seems relatively to the familiar realm of exile politics. Many of weak. The biggest-selling books in Islamic these groupings are in fact created and bookstores are those dealing with Islam’s influenced by individuals or political fundamentals in accordance with Salafi trends organizations which seek to have a direct in the Arab world. influence on events in the Middle East. At the Three distinct but interrelated trends have an same time, though, there is an attempt to impact on European Muslims as they do on mobilize and shape the activities of European Middle Eastern Muslims. First, there is Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 6, No. 3 (September, 2002) 67 Reuven Paz traditional Islam, which is accepted in some Albania, Kosovo, Chechnya, the Philippines, form or another by the relatively silent majority Indonesia, and Kashmir. of Muslims. Second, there is the politicized --The collapse of the Soviet bloc and doctrine of Islamic movements that seek a state discrediting of Communism and the renewal of governed by Islamic law (Shari’a). These old nationalist ideologies and conflicts. groups recruit support through political efforts --The failure of Arab nationalism to solve alongside social welfare and cultural activities. the problems of their societies or to win The most important of this trend is the Muslim victories over foreign foes. Brotherhood. Finally, there is radical Islamism --The shift of the center of gravity of which demands fulfillment of violent jihad as a Islamist activity from the Arab world to the duty, rejecting rival interpretations and making margins of the Middle East or to Europe war on governments even when their rulers are following the success of Arab governments to Muslims. counter this radical phenomenon in their homelands. THE CULTURE OF GLOBAL JIHAD --The liberal attitude of European The term Global Jihad characterizes the governments which accepted Muslim latest trend among Middle Eastern Islamist immigrants or refugees and tolerated their groups. While previously emphasis was usually religious and political activities without trying put on revolutions within specific countries to impose on them a set of demands for trying to overthrow their societies and regimes, assimilationist conformity. priority was now to be put on a direct struggle --The belief among some Islamist elements against the United States, Israel, and at times that focusing on an external enemy, which is European states. defined as the eternal fight between God and Among the important elements inspiring this the Devil, right and wrong, light and darkness-- development were: in Islamic terms between al-Haqq and al-Batil-- --The failure of revolutionary movements to would bring them victory. attain victory through staging revolutions in In many ways, this new approach can be different Arab states. called a counter-globalization in which Islam --Difficulties for both individuals and rather than Westernization is to be the dominant societies in coping with Western modernization force. The battle is to be waged by a and its values, both for Muslims living in the “brotherhood of the oppressed” (Mustadh`afin) West and those in Arab societies affected by it. against Western conspiracies and the “betrayal” --Relative ignorance on the part of many of secular-oriented Muslim societies and young Muslims regarding elements of Islam as nationalist regimes. a result of spreading secularism. This allowed One of the best definitions of Global Jihad them to accept claims that certain heretical was written by Omar Abu Omar, alias Abu ideas were actually the only proper form of Qutadah, a Palestinian living under the Islam. protection of political asylum in London since --The growing transnational links among 1993 and one of the phenomenon’s main different parts of the Muslim world, both in the ideologues. The Jihad movements are “those greater Middle East area and among groups and organizations that were established intermingled Muslims in Europe. This is partly in order to eliminate the evil (Taghutiyyah) the product of improved Western technology, heretic (Kafirah) regimes in the apostate especially communications. countries (Bilad al-Riddah), and to revive the --A series of conflicts which seemed to pit Islamic government that will gather the nation Muslims against non-Muslims in such places under the Islamic Caliphate.” (2) outside the Arab world as Afghanistan, Bosnia, In addition, Abu Omar claims true Jihad movements differ from other Islamic groups in
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Muslim countries that “seek political legitimacy Muslims today. There is Haman, too. of the ‘heretic’ regimes.” They do not seek to According to the author, “The two of them are reform the existing regimes but to eliminate two poles of evil, oppression, and corruption. them. What is most important, he continues, is Therefore, no one should wonder if Haman in not armed struggle in itself but having “the our days is the United Kingdom, such as comprehensive civilizational view that comes Pharaoh is the United States.” Haman is Great from the perception of the true unity [of Allah] Britain, which was also responsible for the (Tawhid)…the unity of serving (`Ibadah) and oppression of Muslims “in Iraq, Palestine, following (Ittiba`) the Lord.” Its vision is of a Afghanistan, and the rest of the Muslim world.” future “world totally controlled by Islam.” In combating this evil, the author continues, Abu Omar suggested in 1994 a new term to “The one who represents these days the eternal illustrate these themes, the “Jihad movement of truth is Sheikh Usama bin Ladin.” future hope” (Al-Harakah al-Jihadiyyat al- The conclusion is that the end of the United Amal). He defined this as “a movement of States is very close. Indeed, “the United States Salafi worldview, perceptions, doctrines, and will not exist to see the year of 2004!” And, way.” It would be “totally cleansed from any since the last Qur’anic chapter to mention remains of the wrong Sufi doctrine; does not Pharaoh is The Dawn (Al-Fajr), the author says belong to any school or trend besides that of the that “the destruction of the United States is Qur’an and Sunnah.” He did not think the going to be the dawn of the Muslim believers.” existing movements had achieved this goal “but Western civilization might view such writings they are in the right path.” To do so, the as nonsense. Yet this kind of literature became movements “should open new arenas for the popular in Islamic circles following the Jihad outside their countries.” This required September attacks, similar to the phenomenon unity to wage the battle under a single that happened at the time of Iraq’s 1990 commander, whom all other leaders should invasion of Kuwait and the war that took place serve. the following year. A short while after the September 2001 This booklet was the start of a series of attacks in the United States, a Palestinian books, articles, religious rulings, and other Islamist scholar published a paper entitled, forms of writings published primarily in “The Great Qur’an predicts the destruction of numerous websites over the Internet. That the United States, and the drowning of the source has become increasingly important in American army.” (3) The West under U.S. shaping the Jihadist movement. The most leadership, has moved, says the author, through prominent of them have been two books that a process of “Pharaohization,” based on the might serve also as fatwa--Islamic rulings--for Qur’anic story (of Biblical origin) of the evil the supporters of Global Jihad. One is “The Pharaoh. Egyptian Islamist groups at times base of legitimacy for the destruction that referred to Presidents Gamal Abdel Nasser, occurred in America,” by the Saudi radical Anwar al-Sadat, and Husni Mubarak as the scholar Abd al-Aziz bin Salih al-Jarbou`, “Pharaoh.” Thus, this terminology provides a published in November 2001. (5) useful symbol of the movement’s The other was by the above-mentioned transformation of the enemy from an internal to Palestinian radical scholar, Omar Abu Omar, a foreign foe. who dropped out of sight from London in The author writes that, according to one January 2002, and following their Qur’anic verse, (4) Pharaoh was only the first investigations, was later accused by the Spanish of his kind, a series that would continue in each authorities of being the political leader of al- generation until the day of resurrection. The Qa`ida in Europe. He was also linked also to present Pharaoh is the United States. But the attack on the old Jewish synagogue in the Pharaoh is not the only force oppressing island of Jerba in Tunisia in April 2002 in
Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 6, No. 3 (September, 2002) 69 Reuven Paz which 18 people, most of them German dominated by Arab thinkers and activists. Even tourists, were killed. In June 2002, the official the pro al-Qa`ida Islamist groups in non-Arab spokesman of al-Qa’ida, the Kuwaiti-born parts of the Muslim world--such as Indonesia, Sulaiman Abu Ghaith, announced his group’s Malaysia, Chechnya, western China, or responsibility for the operation. (6) Pakistan--use mainly Arabic in their messages In April 2002, Abu Qutadah’s fatwa, “The and even in their websites. Moreover, despite Islamic Legal Perception of the September 11th their conscious internationalism, the Egyptian, Events,” was placed on one of the radical Saudi, Algerian, Palestinian, Yemeni, and other websites of the Global Jihad culture. (7) His Arab elements in this culture of Global Jihad, main motive in legally justifying the September cannot really release themselves from focusing attacks was to present them as part of a on conflicts in their homelands. Global Jihad religious war between the Muslims and the then, even for European-based groups, West: constantly becomes oriented toward Middle Eastern issues and struggles. And when we define it as a religious This factor is illustrated in the book by the war, this is because the West does not Egyptian Islamist, regarded as the right-hand want to let Islam exist in the form of a man of Usama Bin Ladin, Ayman al-Zawahiri. state and power. Yes, they always repeat The book Knights Under the Prophet’s Banner that they are not against Islam, but what was at least partly written after the September Islam is the one they support and not attacks. (8) Zawahiri, who is also the leader of against? This is the false so-called the Egyptian Jihad group, argues that the Jihad moderate Islam, the kind of Islam that movement is the best way of promoting a accepts the submission to America and revolution within Egypt and for coping with to the West and is glad to live in that movement’s past failures. accordance with their way of life. It grants America the legitimacy to spread THE WEST AS A BASE FOR MIDDLE its hegemony over the entire world, with EAST ISLAMISM no protest or resistance. Yes, they want The effort to develop a Western base for the kind of Islam that approves the Middle East Islamist groups, free from the service of the American Muslim in the repressive activities of Arab regimes, is rather military forces in order to fight another ironic since the movement is based on the Muslim from the Muslim world. They notion of Jihad as a religious duty, a war aimed want an Islam that does not prohibit at a perceived Global cultural conspiracy what Allah and the Prophet forbade, and against Islam as a religion, culture, and way of the kind that does not deny their life. civilization, and their political, This interconnection is also furthered by an economic, and social values. emerging doctrine of the “non-territorial Islamic state.” This doctrine views Muslim The conflict is therefore, not just between communities as a kind of loose-knit Islamic this interpretation of Islam and Western culture, state, though without the Islamic territorial and but also between the two different Islamic religious mission of reestablishing a califate. interpretations of culture and worldview. Islamic scholars in the United Kingdom have Hence, it is not only a threat to Western or long provided a basis for this view by European societies, but to Muslim communities emphasizing the cultural, economic, and in the West including Europe, as well. political consolidation of these Muslim The general culture of a Global Jihad communities. movement is not unique to a certain state, Long before the establishment of groups like language, or community, though it has been al-Qa’ida, Islamic and Islamist movements
70 Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 6, No. 3 (September, 2002) Middle East Islamism in the European Arena regularly spoke of a conspiracy against Islam attacks and the Al-Qa’ida terrorist network has and advocated attacks on the United States, shown, this new doctrine resulted in a new Israel, and Western culture. Anti-Western and operational development--the establishment of anti-Jewish feelings have long proliferated in multinational and multi-organizational militant the Muslim world. What has been new, and terrorist cells among Muslim immigrants in however, was the new movement’s success in the West. Apparently, some of these cells in translating that doctrine into actual terrorist Europe were just as responsible for planning activity. The success of these efforts was, in and carrying out terrorist attacks as their turn, based on recruitment and preparation in commanders and leaders in Afghanistan. European Muslim communities and by fund- raising among Muslims in the United States. TERRORISTS OF ALIENATION While only a small minority have joined or Another emerging development among given direct support to violent Jihadist groups, Islamist groups is the radicalism brought on by what is equally significant is the ability of these social ills and alienation--that is, terrorism ideas’ advocates to plant their notion of a global motivated primarily by elements such as cultural war in Arab and Muslim societies, xenophobia (both by and against Muslims), convincing many in the region that Islam is growing unemployment, economic under attack. Thus, concepts synonymous in circumstances, difficulties in coping with Western political culture with terrorism or Western modernization, the changing and political violence--such as Jihad, Takfir dismantling of traditional values and family (refutation or excommunication), Istishhad ties, and so forth. For example, in an unsigned (Martyrdom, including by suicide), and Shahid 1991 article appearing in its main journal, the (Martyr)--are now viewed by many in the Palestinian Hamas, usually identified with Islamic world as religious duties. purely Palestinian concerns, offered the What is especially remarkable is that these following introduction of sorts to the doctrine concepts would not have been accepted, or of Global Jihad: were viewed quite differently, only a decade or so ago in Muslim societies and less than two The whole world is persecuting you and decades ago in even Islamist circles. Today, the the satanic powers ambush you. The central feeling among most Islamists--from whole world is your front, and do not those who carry out terrorist acts to those who exclude yourself from the provide a supportive atmosphere for such confrontation… The life of misery activity--is that of being under siege. Thus, all [keeps] you from the meaning of life means of self-defense are justified in their eyes, and [turns] your life into death. You live particularly when these means are granted as a dead man . . . We stand today in a religious legitimacy. crossroad: life or death, but life without Rather than undermine such notions through martyrdom [is] death. Look for death experience with the realities of Western society and you are given life. (9) and intentions, the interaction in the West between Muslim immigrants from various This rhetoric would clearly appeal to those countries, cultures and ideologies, has greatly already afflicted by a sense of hopelessness or facilitated the growth of this doctrine. Such resentment. The implicit alienation in such interaction has promoted both solidarity and a statements becomes all the more striking when shared sense of a global threat to Islam and the one considers that the September 11 hijackers Muslims. These factors have in turn led to the lived in relative comfort in the United States or doctrine of the culture of Global Jihad and to Europe for long periods of time before carrying the brotherhood felt by its adherents. As the out their operation, yet were apparently worldwide investigation of the September 11 undeterred from their plans. Of course, other
Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 6, No. 3 (September, 2002) 71 Reuven Paz groups of immigrants are susceptible to social to preserve in entirety their homeland culture, ills as well. Yet, the growing Islamist activity unlike previous generations which did their best among Muslim immigrants, along with their to adopt, or at least adapt, the cultures of their shared notion of Global struggle against the new environments. This element has in turn West, have encouraged a more rapid spread of facilitated the globalization of the Jihad. At the radical doctrines among younger Muslim root of this phenomenon lies the inability of generations, and mainly among those of Arab many individual Muslims to cope with the origin. (10) technological, cultural, social, or economic Furthermore, the profiles of many of the aspects of Western modernization. Rather than people arrested in the West following the any of a host of potential alternative scapegoats, September 11 attack--most on suspicion of this failure is then blamed on the secular links to Al-Qa’ida--are quite different from cultures and ideologies that have influenced those of the typical Arab extremists in various modern Middle Eastern regimes. Since Afghanistan or Chechnya. The former are orthodox Islam is identified with Islamic generally more educated and familiar with establishments whose source of power is these Western culture. Yet, instead of using this secular regimes, many Muslims now support familiarity for personal benefit and for greater those who represent the opposite culture: the integration with Western culture--as the radical activists who oppose the national state predecessors of this social type did in the past-- and its interpretation of Islam. these “terrorists of alienation” hold on to their Aside from these direct efforts of Islamist hostility and exploit the weaknesses of the involvement to expand their influence, their societies in which they reside. success in both the Muslim world and the West This process is not new in the Arab and is due to changes in what can be called the Muslim worlds. Some university students and Islamic “atmosphere”--that is, the often indirect graduates have always tended to adopt radical framework of support created by groups that Islamic positions and fight the regimes of their are not connected to political violence or homelands as a result of their strong social terrorism, some of whom even publicly awareness. In many cases they view themselves condemn such methods. These groups, mostly as social elites who must sacrifice themselves of the school of the Muslim Brotherhood or for the sake of their society. This sense does not Sufi groups, carry out the vast majority of change when they live outside their homelands. political, social, cultural and educational work Their radical positions are also a result of in the name of Islam, both in Muslim countries more recent interpretations of various radical and among Muslim communities in Europe and Islamist trends that developed in the 1960s and in the West. They may transmit attitudes and 1970s. During this period, under the influence interpretations of Islam in which more of the Egyptian ideologue Sayyid Qutb, social extremist and violent Islamist groups thrive; justice--or in Qutb’s words Al-`Adalah al- they serve as a greenhouse of sorts for radical Ijtima`iyyah--became the key criterion by groups and for the growth of views hostile which Islamists began to judge their ruling toward the West or Western culture. elites and to accuse some of facilitating Such behavior is not restricted to the realm Western culture’s conspiracy against Islam. of ideas. Some groups also provide--not Therefore, some of these radicals did not necessarily consciously or deliberately--an necessarily fit what was then the profile of the infrastructure of educational and cultural typical Islamist--that is, one whose religious institutions, printed materials, and financing observation is total. which also encourage support, provide cover, This sense of social mission is equally help recruiting, or even fund the operations of visible among Islamists who have left their terrorist groups. Within Arab countries, Islamic homelands. Many such emigrants have sought social work has long been a form of social
72 Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 6, No. 3 (September, 2002) Middle East Islamism in the European Arena protest against either secular Muslim regimes or Islamic one.” Yet he justifies such emigration: Western societies. “Since there is no true Islamic country in our A number of specific Middle Eastern times that could secure Islamic life in safety… religious scholars have paved the way for he is allowed in case of emergency to justifying the export of the Middle East to the immigrate to the infidel world….But he should West, and in particular of Islamist thinking to purify himself as much as possible from the Muslim communities there. Hasan al-Turabi in heretic culture of that world.” Sudan and the Tunisian Rashed al-Ghanushi Following the September attacks in the who lives in exile in London, led a line of United States, Abu Basir, one of the leading thought accepting Arab and Muslim emigration scholars supporting the ideology of al-Qa`ida, to Europe. But they were determined to create, published a book of Islamic rulings on issues of or recreate, those communities in their own immigration. (13) In his book of rulings, Abu ideological image. In this respect, the Basir uses the Islamic principle of “the development of the doctrine of the “non- necessities allow the prohibited.” Just as territorial Islamic state” was a useful tool. The Muslims can drink wine or eat pork in order to unspoken notion, however, was that the capital save them from starving, so they can immigrate of this “non-territorial Islamic state” would to the Western “infidel countries” to save remain in the Middle East and that the themselves from the oppression of the communities in the West would be subordinate governments of their homelands. But he goes to its needs and standpoints. They rejected any even further: immigration is allowed also “in idea of compromise with cultural or political order to enforce the Muslims and weaken the Western values by the new communities. (11) infidels. One of the goals of immigration is the In attempting to isolate Muslim groups in revival of the duty of Jihad and enforcement of Europe from the majority population around their power over the infidels. Immigration and them, these thinkers and movements not only Jihad go together. One is the consequence of indoctrinated them with Islamist views but also the other and dependent upon it. The created new and radical interpretations of continuance of the one is dependent upon the Islamic behavior. These had appeal to some continuance of the other.” youngsters whose knowledge of traditional normative Islam was deficient precisely CONCLUSIONS because they had grown up in non-Muslim Understanding the ideology and practice of societies. For example, the doctrine of Takfir-- the culture of Global Jihad and its movements excommunicating their secular or non-Islamic is no longer simply a matter of looking at environment--was based on radical individual groups attempting to topple regimes interpretations of orthodox Wahhabism. in their homelands. Until recently, one could An example for this new radical trend could still differentiate between such groups and other use a recent fatwa of the Saudi radical scholar Islamic trends, such as the various factions of Abd al-Mun`im Halimah Abu Basir on “The the Muslim Brotherhood, The Khilafah groups Rule of Seeking Political Asylum in the Infidel of the Islamic Liberation Party, and the World.” (12) According to him “This question Salafiyyah groups in various parts of the has occupied a growing number of Muslim Muslim world. Yet the changes that have been youth, which hate the [idea of] living in wrought on the Islamic map over the past few Western countries” and fear “losing their decades and during the post-September 11 anti- religion and belief” there but must seek refuge terrorism campaign, may lead at least part of there in order to save themselves “from killing the next generation of Muslims to seek more and torture” by Arab regimes. Moreover, he solidarity with the forces that lead the culture of continues, they know that “Islamic law orders Global Jihad. immigration from the infidel world to the The apparent “headquarters” of the Global
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Jihad movement can shift from Afghanistan to Jama`at-I-Islam in India, Pakistan, and the non- somewhere else. If in the past this center was Arab Muslim World--lost much of its appeal transferred from the Arab world to Afghanistan for these Muslims. They were searching for an and Central Asia, Western success in post- immediate improvement in their social September 11 campaigns in those areas may conditions and therefore readily adopted the lead to another shift: to the heart of the West, to notion of Jihad as a more effective--and marginal regions (e.g. the Philippines), or to unifying--response than revolutions in specific both. But a search for such a central location local countries. detracts from an understanding of the Being opposed to the existing states, the relationship between this broad movement and Jihad movement is not generally speaking state- those ideologues and groups in the Middle East sponsored. Focusing on direct and immediate which provide its basic justifications, support revolutionary activity, the movement’s main base, and often its recruits as well. groups (or factions of other groups which During the Middle Ages and later periods, support it) have purposefully avoided and Muslims tended to view the campaigns of neglected social welfare activity. To the extent Christian Crusaders as something akin to their that Hamas and Hizballah are involved in this own Jihad--that is, as a clearly spiritual duty broader movement, they are exceptions on both that did not distinguish between religion and of these points. Since their violence is directed politics. The perception of the Crusader era as a mainly against Israel, they have attracted triumphant phase in Islamic history has been support from Arab states and from Iran. They revived and emphasized in the last few decades have also engaged in extensive social welfare by Islamist movements. When Bin Laden work to mobilize their respective named his front the “World Islamic Front for constituencies. the Jihad against the Jews and the Crusaders,” Again, it should be emphasized that despite his meaning was clear to the entire Muslim the shift of some Islamist groups to more global World as providing both a definition of enemies activity, their goal still remained the and a belief in ultimate victory. establishment of what they perceive as the true Historically, one could argue, anti-Western Islamic state in the heart of the Muslim world. feeling in the Muslim Middle East has arisen Since the hardcore of the Global Jihad from a failure to cope with the effects of movement is composed primarily of Arab Western modernization. The growth of Western Islamists, the loss of the Afghan base might military power, economic systems, technology, bring them back to square one: their homelands. new ideas, and organizational methods, often This is what Zawahiri proposed in his book of defeated Middle Eastern societies, throwing memoirs summing up the experience of the them on the defensive. In the current era, this Islamist movement since the 1980s. He wrote: situation continues, though often with a more important role for cultural products. The jihad movement must come closer Apparently, the West keeps advancing in power to the masses, defend their honor, fend and even world hegemony, while the Arab and off injustice, and lead them to the path Muslim world--despite oil wealth and Arab of guidance and victory. It must step nationalism--have been unable to respond forward in the arena of sacrifice and effectively. excel to get its message across in a way The continuous sense of retreat felt by many that makes the right accessible to all Muslims during the second half of the twentieth seekers and that makes access to the century brought impatience that led to violence. origin and facts of religion simple and Over the past few years, the doctrine of long- free of the complexities of terminology term social revolution--expounded by the and the intricacies of composition. Muslim Brotherhood in the Arab World and by
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The jihad movement must dedicate
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6. The announcement was first published as an audio recording in
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