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The Subjective Side of Cognition: on the Development of Non-Cognitive Variables Influencing Cognitive Development Across the Adult Lifespan

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The Subjective Side of Cognition: on the Development of Non-Cognitive Variables Influencing Cognitive Development Across the Adult Lifespan Zurich Open Repository and Archive University of Zurich Main Library Strickhofstrasse 39 CH-8057 Zurich www.zora.uzh.ch Year: 2011 The subjective side of cognition: on the development of non-cognitive variables influencing cognitive development across the adult lifespan Mascherek, Anna Christine Abstract: Die vier Studien, die in der vorliegenden Doktorarbeit vorgestellt werden, beschäftigen sich mit der übergreifenden Fragestellung wie und mithilfe welcher Prozesse Individuen ihre eigene kognitive En- twicklung managen, regulieren und aktiv beeinflussen. Zwei Aspekte wurden in der vorliegenden Arbeit genauer untersucht: Erstens wurde die Entwicklung von interindividuellen Unterschieden im Ausmaß in dem sich Individuen gezielt und bewusst intellektuell betätigen und somit ihre eigene kognitive Leistung beeinflussen näher untersucht. Zweitens wurde die Entwicklung von interindividuellen Unterschieden in der metakognitiven Fähigkeit die eigene kognitive Leistung einzuschätzen und der potentielle Einfluss dieses Prozesses auf die kognitive Entwicklung untersucht. Nach der fundierten Darstellung des theoretis- chen Hintergrundes in Kapitel 1, werden in Kapitel 2 die folgenden Fragen detaillierter adressiert: Gibt es Unterschiede in Typischem Intellektuellem Engagement zwischen jungen und älteren Erwachsenen? Ähneln diese Unterschiede bekannten Alterseffekten in theoretisch verwandten Konstrukten? (Studie 1). Wie entwickelt sich Typisches Intellektuelles Engagement über fünf Jahre im höheren Erwachse- nenalter? (Studie 2). In Kapitel 3 wird die Genauigkeit von subjektiven Gedächtnisbeschwerden in einer Population von Individuen, für die das Management ihrer sich verringernden kognitiven Ressourcen entscheidend für ihre Funktionstüchtigkeit im Alltag sein mag, näher beleuchtet (Studie 3). In der unter- suchten Population von ambulanten Gedächtnisklinikpatienten könnte die Genauigkeit von subjektiven Gedächtniseinschätzungen den Prozess darstellen, bei dem besondere Anstrengungen initiiert werden, die schlussendliche ein unauffälliges Funktionieren im Alltag zu gewährleisten. An sich hoch automatisierte Prozesse benötigen im Lichte abnehmender Ressourcen eventuell nun explizite Anstrengung und den gezielten Einsatz von Ressourcen. Aus diesem Grund sollten diese Prozesse in einer Gruppe ambulanter Patienten salienter und besser erfassbar sein. In Studie 4 wurde die Frage adressiert ob der Zusammen- hang zwischen subjektiver und objektiver Gedächtnisleistung präziser erfasst werden kann, wenn das Aus- maß der gemeinsamen Veränderung über die Zeit analysiert wird. Die empirischen Ergebnisse aus Studie 1 und 2 zeigen substantielle interindividelle Unterschiede in Typischem Intellektuellem Engagement, die nicht mit etablierten Intelligenz- oder Persönlichkeitsmessinstrumenten abgebildet werden können. Studie 3 und 4 zeigen, dass subjektive kognitive Beschwerden stärker mit spezifischen kognitiven Domänen als mit globalen kognitiven Tests im Zusammenhang stehen. Zusätzlich ist der Zusammenhang zwischen subjek- tiven und objektiven Gedächtniseinschätzungen höher, wenn das Ausmaß der gemeinsamen Veränderung erhoben wird. Trotz allem bleibt der absolute Zusammenhang zwischen beiden Konstrukten nur moderat. In Kapitel 4 werden die Ergebnisse der vorliegenden Dissertation in eine übergreifende Diskussion inte- griert. Einschränkungen der durchgeführten Studien werden ebenso wie ihre theoretischen Implikationen diskutiert. Ideen für zukünftige Forschungsprojekte, die sich auf die funktionale Relevanz von kognitiven Funktionen, metakognitiven Fähigkeiten und Intellektuellem Engagement konzentrieren, werden disku- tiert und vorgestellt. ABSTRACT The four studies summarized in the present thesis were conducted within the overarching framework of asking how and by which means individuals manage and influence their own cognitive development. Two aspects were addressed specifically: First, the development of individual differences in the extent to which individuals deliberately engage in cognitive activities and, hence, influence their own cognitive performance. Second, the development of individual differences in the metacognitive skill of subjectively estimating one’s own cognitive performance and its potential in- fluence on cognitive development. Following the elaboration of the theoretical background in chapter1, in chapter 2, the following questions were addressed in detail: Are there age differences between young and old adults in Typical Intellectual Engagement? Are presumptive differences related to known age differences in related constructs? (Study 1). How does Typical Intellectual Engagement develop across five years in old age? Are there interindividual differences in the development of Typical Intellectual Engagement? (Study 2). Chapter 3 examines the accuracy of metacognitive subjective memory com- plaints in populations of individuals for whom the management of their lowered cognitive resources may be decisive for their everyday functioning (Study 3). In these populations of memory clinic outpatients the accuracy of complaints may be decisive to trigger extra-effort to ensure normal everyday functioning, because formerly highly automatized processes might then need deliberate effort and resource allocation. Due to that, the processes should be more salient in groups of outpatients and might, thus, be better assessable. In Study 4 the question whether the relation between subjective and objective cognitive performance is assessed more adequately by investigating commonalities in change was addressed. The empirical evidence of Studies 1 and 2 demonstrate substantial interindividual differences in Typical In- tellectual Engagement that are not captured by ability measures or potentially related personality trait measures. Studies 3 and 4 reveal that cognitive complaints are more strongly related to specific cognitive domains than to global cognitive measures. Also, the relation between the constructs is higher when taking a change-oriented approach. However, overall, it remains moderate. In chapter 4, all findings are integrated in an overall discussion. Shortcomings of the present studies and theoretical implications are addressed. Suggestions for future research directions focusing on the functional relevance of cognitive abilities, metacognitve skills and intellectual engagement are made. Posted at the Zurich Open Repository and Archive, University of Zurich ZORA URL: https://doi.org/10.5167/uzh-67038 Dissertation Published Version Originally published at: Mascherek, Anna Christine. The subjective side of cognition: on the development of non-cognitive variables influencing cognitive development across the adult lifespan. 2011, University of Zurich, Faculty of Arts. 2 The subjective side of cognition ± On the development of non-cognitive variables influencing cognitive development across the adult lifespan Thesis presented to the Faculty of Arts of the University of Zurich for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy by Anna Christine Mascherek of Germany Accepted in the fall semester 2011 on the recommendation of Prof. Dr. Daniel Zimprich and Prof. Dr. Mike Martin Zurich, 2011 ii iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First of all, I thank Prof. Dr. Daniel Zimprich who always fostered my academic interest with his enthusiasm. Prof. Dr. Daniel Zimprich devoted a great amount of time and effort into discussing ideas with me and supporting me. Thank you for your constant willingness to encourage me, to improve my work, and to share your knowledge with me! I also wish to express my gratitude to Prof. Dr. Mike Martin who always encouraged and supported me in any possible way throughout the years of my PhD. Thank you! I thank my colleagues at the Department of Psychology for the stimulating discussions and their friendly support. I am especially thankful to Florentina Mattli and Christine Sutter who significantly contributed to my personal and cognitive development. Thank you for making the time in the office worthwhile by creating a lively, supportive, yet always professional atmosphere! I am also indebted to the ,QWHUQDWLRQDO 0D[ 3ODQFN 5HVHDUFK 6FKRRO ³7KH /LIH &RXUVH (YROXWLRQDU\DQG2QWRJHQHWLF'\QDPLFV /,)( ´and its Fellows and Faculties for their input and their interest in my dissertation project. I am grateful to my family and friends, especially Maren Keller, for their constant support in so many ways. Lastly, I thank all students and interns who helped with the data collection and all participants who were willing to partake in the studies conducted. Without them, this thesis would not have been possible. iv ABSTRACT The four studies summarized in the present thesis were conducted within the overarching framework of asking how and by which means individuals manage and influence their own cognitive development. Two aspects were addressed specifically: First, the development of individual differences in the extent to which individuals deliberately engage in cognitive activities and, hence, influence their own cognitive performance. Second, the development of individual differences in the metacognitive skill of subjectively estimating one's own cognitive performance and its potential influence on cognitive development. Following the elaboration of the theoretical background in chapter 1, in chapter 2, the following questions were addressed in detail: Are there age differences between young and old adults in Typical Intellectual Engagement? Are presumptive differences related to known age differences in related constructs? (Study 1). How does Typical
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