Theory of Game

IV.Game Theories GameTheories . Pearce FlanaganBernstein ): : ;iitl:r''t:;t t i-l 1l!{a;; ;Ulj: MIT, where the first computergame - SpaceWar- Towardsa Game was createdas an independenthack by computer sciencePh.D. students, was one of the flrst placesto Theoryof Game embracegame design and gameculture as a subjectof CeliaPearce academicstudy. Here I will invoke MIT's own Henry Jenkins,who statedin his January2001 presentation Introduction:Why Game Theory at "Entertainmentin tle InteractiveAge," at the In mapping t}e trajectoryof popularmedia, we can see Universityof SouthernCalifornia, that the most a clearcorollary between theory and practice. significant evolutionary leap in the film craft occurred Literature, film, even popular music all beganto a when peoplestarted writing about it. certain extent as "folk" genresthat, once their cultural relevancehad beenproven lasting, caught the attention RepurposingTheory of theoristsand enteredinto academicdiscourse. Becausecomputer game theory is a relativelynew Sucha cycleis currently underwayvis-d-vis computer discipline,much of what has emergedthus far has come games.Thi.s medium is still erroneouslyconsidered to out of theoristsfrom other disciplinesabsorbing game be in its "infancy."(ln fact,it is just comingof legal theory into their purview. It seemsaxiomatic that there drinking agein somestates.) The evolutionof a body of must alwaysbe a phasewhere established media seek theory on computergames is an excitingprospect. As to "repurpose"their existing"assets" for usein the new with other media,it promisesto broadenand deepen medium.Most notably,film and literary theoristshave the discourseof the medium (we can start talking begunto discussgame theory within their own about somethingbeyond violence, for example).In idiosyncraticframeworks. These disciplines have much addition, if history is any indicator, it will also have a to add to the &scourseon games,particularly when the positiveinfluence on the practiceof creatinggames, discussionis centeredon narrative.However, they are just as the developmentof film theory in the sixties missinga fundamentalunderstanding of what games and seventiesdid on film craft.It is ironic that areabout. Because of this, they continucto struggleto academia,the birthplaceof games,has mostly shunned "fit a squarepeg into a round hole,"so to speak,by them until recently.It is alsoquite appropriatethat attempting to forcegames into their own notions of Responseby MaryFlanagan Pearcefollows in the stepsof cybertexttheorist CeliaPearces wake-up call for new ways of thinking EspenAarseth, who hasargued against "applying one's about gamesin her article "Towardsa GameTheory of favorite theory" such as literary, film, or television Game"is well-timed.Computer games, at leastthose of studiesto emergingforms. In effect,Aarseth argues, a commercialgenre, long agoreached their "adulthood." this combinationof theoriesreduces new me&a As a capitalist affirmation of "digitai cu-lture,"t}re phenomenato broad conceptualterms suchas gaming industry is now more profitable than box "interactive,""lab1z-inthine," and "worlds."The textuality office salesin the film industry (ticket saleswere just of a computergame whose materials are entirely 7.7 billion in 2000;Associated Press, 2001). In 2001, computer-basedneeds to be addressedin a way that gamesrepresented a $10.5billion dollar industry, brings the experiential,social, and materialaspects of growing 75 7oper year from 1997 IIDSA].Gaming is a such work to the forefronr. socialand technologicalphenomenon that has Although the application of old theories to new worldwide influence. forms can result in such linguistic muddling, to argue But. what will theories of and for gaming actually that we must define game studies devoidof knowledge look like? of other art and entertainmentforms is not Towardsa Game Theory of Game FIRSTPERSON CetiaPearce narrative and "text." To quote the old adage,"lf you have A Ptay-CentricApproach a hammer, everything looks like a nail." The result is a The first and most important thing to know about kind of theoretica,limperialism which thosein the gamesis that they center on PLAY Unlike literature gaming world are scarcelyaware of, Iet alone involved and film, which centeron STORYin games,everything with. A small handf-ulof significant theorists, such as revolvesaround play and the playerexperience. Game Henry Jenkins, J.C.Herz, and Janet Murray,have designersare much lessinterested in telling a story moved game tleory into its own realm by helping to than in creating a compelling framework for play. defineand articu-latewhat is unique to gamesand game If we begin with this fundamentalfact, it enablesus culture,even while comparinggames to other media. to look at narrativein a play-centriccontext, rather "storytelling" A number of debateshave been ngingabout the than a context.At its highestlevel, the definition and role of "narrative"in games.It seems functiono[ narrativein gamesis to engender only natural that peoplewho have considerable compelling,interesting play. The reasonthat narrative expertisein other narrativemedia would seekto bring gameshave gained such popularity is becausethey tleir own knowledgeto bear in this argument. borrow what is engagingand interesting about other However,it is very important to understandthat forms of narrativeand useit to enhancethe play narrative has a profoundly different function in games experience.Where interactivenarrative tends to fail is than it doesin other narrative'basedmedia. In games, where the model is basedon interactingwith a linear narrativestructures operate in a comparablebut at the narrativegenre, such as interactivemovies. Interactive "novels" sametime diametricaliyopposed way to that of have been slightly more effective from a critical traditiona,l narratives.And although there is much to be perspective,but they havemade virtually no impact on learned from traditiona.l narratives,and a great va-luein the mainstreamof interactivemedia. drawing comparisonsbetween the two, without Narrative, again,operates at a fundamentally understandingthe fundamentaldifferences, the different levelin gamestian it doesin otl'rermedia. A &scoursebecomes ultimately irrelevantbecause it game is most simply describedas framework for entirely missesthe fundamenta.lpoint of what games structured play.In most cases,this structure will areabout. include some type of goal,obstacles to tiat goal, and resourcesto help you achievethe goa1,as well as constructive.V/e must recognizehistorical contexts of play,but to developa cohesivestudy of computer gaming against the torrent of "novelty" rhetoric in gaming, scholarsmust look at a very wide range of "new" media by looking around us at our own human disciplinesand histories,some extremely popular and "iowbrow." history.Games have been important throughout time: Cultural studies as a theoretical discipline the Royal Game of Ur may be 5,000 year.sold, Weiqi (Go) has thankfully pavedthe way for the academicstudy of is saidto havea 4,000-yearhistory and varioussports popular culture, so that activities from kitsch havefascinated participants and observerssince before refuigeratormagnets to Barbie collecting can be stu&ed the Greeks."Modern" (or as Pearcenotes, with intellectual ferocity.Those who look at games postindustria-l)computer-based games utilize needto draw upon studiesof communitiesin sociology tra&tional sport and board gameelements, and other areas,cognitive psychology,and studies of dimensionalspaces, aspects of narrative,and other interactioirqLnd use patterns in fields suchas industrial aspectsthat eachhave historical contexts,bringing to design and architecture (areastiat have long the forefront the concept of play and fun over a.llother considered"the user/participant,"and havemade principles. multiple tracts/multiple motivations of users and a Gamingbrings elementsof other mediaforms into considerationofspace essentiai parts ofgood design) :.)\-: a - , j,:.:: i: IV. GameTheories GameTheories' pearce FtanaganBernstein l- ,i.,:ri ..;:r consequences,in the form of penaltiesand rewards Metastory.A specificnarrative "overlay" (whlch can often translateinto obstaclesand that createsa context or framework for resources).At its simplestlevel, these elernents create a the gameconflict. genericdeconstructed narrative structure of sorts.The author has identified six different narrative operators StorySystem' A rule-basedstory systemor that can existwithin a game;the first is clearlya kit of generic narrative parts that allows componentof all games,by definition. The second the player to createtheir own narrative through fourth can existin variouscombinations, or content;story systemscan exlst not at all: independentof or in conjunctionwith a metastorY. Experiential:The emergentnarrative that developsout of the inherent "conflict"of A goodgame, even one without an obvious"storyline" the gameas it is played,as experiencedby (or metastory),while being played,will tend to follow the players themselves. somethingthat resemblesthe emotionalcurve of a dramatic arc.A great exampleof this would be Performative.The emergentnarrative as basketball.At its heart is the dynamic "conflict" seenby spectatorswatching and/or betweenthe teams,and subconflictsamong t-Lre interpreting the gameunderway. individual players,including playerswithin a team. This is the expeientialaspect, the narrative that emergesas a Augmentary:Layers of in formation, product of the play itself, between the players.To the interpretation,backstory,

Load more