IV.Game Theories GameTheories . Pearce FlanaganBernstein ): : ;iitl:r''t:;t t i-l 1l!{a;; ;Ulj:
MIT, where the first computergame - SpaceWar- Towardsa Game was createdas an independenthack by computer sciencePh.D. students, was one of the flrst placesto Theoryof Game embracegame design and gameculture as a subjectof CeliaPearce academicstudy. Here I will invoke MIT's own Henry Jenkins,who statedin his January2001 presentation Introduction:Why Game Theory at "Entertainmentin tle InteractiveAge," at the In mapping t}e trajectoryof popularmedia, we can see Universityof SouthernCalifornia, that the most a clearcorollary between theory and practice. significant evolutionary leap in the film craft occurred Literature, film, even popular music all beganto a when peoplestarted writing about it. certain extent as "folk" genresthat, once their cultural relevancehad beenproven lasting, caught the attention RepurposingTheory of theoristsand enteredinto academicdiscourse. Becausecomputer game theory is a relativelynew Sucha cycleis currently underwayvis-d-vis computer discipline,much of what has emergedthus far has come games.Thi.s medium is still erroneouslyconsidered to out of theoristsfrom other disciplinesabsorbing game be in its "infancy."(ln fact,it is just comingof legal theory into their purview. It seemsaxiomatic that there drinking agein somestates.) The evolutionof a body of must alwaysbe a phasewhere established media seek theory on computergames is an excitingprospect. As to "repurpose"their existing"assets" for usein the new with other media,it promisesto broadenand deepen medium.Most notably,film and literary theoristshave the discourseof the medium (we can start talking begunto discussgame theory within their own about somethingbeyond violence, for example).In idiosyncraticframeworks. These disciplines have much addition, if history is any indicator, it will also have a to add to the &scourseon games,particularly when the positiveinfluence on the practiceof creatinggames, discussionis centeredon narrative.However, they are just as the developmentof film theory in the sixties missinga fundamentalunderstanding of what games and seventiesdid on film craft.It is ironic that areabout. Because of this, they continucto struggleto academia,the birthplaceof games,has mostly shunned "fit a squarepeg into a round hole,"so to speak,by them until recently.It is alsoquite appropriatethat attempting to forcegames into their own notions of
Responseby MaryFlanagan Pearcefollows in the stepsof cybertexttheorist CeliaPearces wake-up call for new ways of thinking EspenAarseth, who hasargued against "applying one's about gamesin her article"Towards a GameTheory of favorite theory" such as literary, film, or television Game"is well-timed.Computer games, at leastthose of studiesto emergingforms. In effect,Aarseth argues, a commercialgenre, long agoreached their "adulthood." this combinationof theoriesreduces new me&a As a capitalist affirmation of "digitai cu-lture,"t}re phenomenato broad conceptualterms suchas gaming industry is now more profitable than box "interactive,""lab1z-inthine," and "worlds."The textuality office salesin the film industry (ticket saleswere just of a computergame whose materials are entirely 7.7 billion in 2000;Associated Press, 2001). In 2001, computer-basedneeds to be addressedin a way that gamesrepresented a $10.5billion dollar industry, brings the experiential,social, and materialaspects of growing 75 7oper year from 1997 IIDSA].Gaming is a such work to the forefronr. socialand technologicalphenomenon that has Although the application of old theories to new worldwide influence. forms can result in such linguistic muddling, to argue But. . . what will theories of and for gaming actually that we must define game studies devoidof knowledge look like? of other art and entertainmentforms is not Towardsa Game Theory of Game FIRSTPERSON CetiaPearce narrative and "text." To quote the old adage,"lf you have A Ptay-CentricApproach a hammer, everything looks like a nail." The result is a The first and most important thing to know about kind of theoretica,limperialism which thosein the gamesis that they center on PLAY Unlike literature gaming world are scarcelyaware of, Iet alone involved and film, which centeron STORYin games,everything with. A small handf-ulof significant theorists, such as revolvesaround play and the playerexperience. Game Henry Jenkins, J.C.Herz, and Janet Murray,have designersare much lessinterested in telling a story moved game tleory into its own realm by helping to than in creating a compelling framework for play. defineand articu-latewhat is unique to gamesand game If we begin with this fundamentalfact, it enablesus culture,even while comparinggames to other media. to look at narrativein a play-centriccontext, rather "storytelling" A number of debateshave been ngingabout the than a context.At its highestlevel, the definition and role of "narrative"in games.It seems functiono[ narrativein gamesis to engender only natural that peoplewho have considerable compelling,interesting play. The reasonthat narrative expertisein other narrativemedia would seekto bring gameshave gained such popularity is becausethey tleir own knowledgeto bear in this argument. borrow what is engagingand interesting about other However,it is very important to understandthat forms of narrativeand useit to enhancethe play narrative has a profoundly different function in games experience.Where interactivenarrative tends to fail is than it doesin other narrative'basedmedia. In games, where the model is basedon interactingwith a linear narrativestructures operate in a comparablebut at the narrativegenre, such as interactivemovies. Interactive "novels" sametime diametricaliyopposed way to that of have been slightly more effective from a critical traditiona,l narratives.And although there is much to be perspective,but they havemade virtually no impact on learned from traditiona.l narratives,and a great va-luein the mainstreamof interactivemedia. drawing comparisonsbetween the two, without Narrative, again,operates at a fundamentally understandingthe fundamentaldifferences, the different levelin gamestian it doesin otl'rermedia. A &scoursebecomes ultimately irrelevantbecause it game is most simply describedas framework for entirely missesthe fundamenta.lpoint of what games structured play.In most cases,this structure will areabout. include some type of goal,obstacles to tiat goal, and resourcesto help you achievethe goa1,as well as
constructive.V/e must recognizehistorical contexts of play,but to developa cohesivestudy of computer gaming against the torrent of "novelty" rhetoric in gaming, scholarsmust look at a very wide range of "new" media by looking around us at our own human disciplinesand histories,some extremely popular and "iowbrow." history.Games have been important throughout time: Cultural studies as a theoretical discipline the Royal Game of Ur may be 5,000 year.sold, Weiqi (Go) has thankfully pavedthe way for the academicstudy of is saidto havea 4,000-yearhistory and varioussports popular culture, so that activities from kitsch havefascinated participants and observerssince before refuigeratormagnets to Barbie collecting can be stu&ed the Greeks."Modern" (or as Pearcenotes, with intellectual ferocity.Those who look at games postindustria-l)computer-based games utilize needto draw upon studiesof communitiesin sociology tra&tional sport and board gameelements, and other areas,cognitive psychology,and studies of dimensionalspaces, aspects of narrative,and other interactioirqLnd use patterns in fields suchas industrial aspectsthat eachhave historical contexts,bringing to design and architecture (areastiat have long the forefront the concept of play and fun over a.llother considered"the user/participant,"and havemade principles. multiple tracts/multiple motivations of users and a Gamingbrings elementsof other mediaforms into considerationofspace essentiai parts ofgood design) :.)\-: a - , j,:.:: i: IV. GameTheories GameTheories' pearce FtanaganBernstein l- ,i.,:ri ..;:r consequences,in the form of penaltiesand rewards Metastory.A specificnarrative "overlay" (whlch can often translateinto obstaclesand that createsa context or framework for resources).At its simplestlevel, these elernents create a the gameconflict. genericdeconstructed narrative structure of sorts.The author has identified six different narrative operators StorySystem' A rule-basedstory systemor that can existwithin a game;the first is clearlya kit of generic narrative parts that allows componentof all games,by definition. The second the player to createtheir own narrative through fourth can existin variouscombinations, or content;story systemscan exlst not at all: independentof or in conjunctionwith a metastorY. Experiential:The emergentnarrative that developsout of the inherent "conflict"of A goodgame, even one without an obvious"storyline" the gameas it is played,as experiencedby (or metastory),while being played,will tend to follow the players themselves. somethingthat resemblesthe emotionalcurve of a dramatic arc.A great exampleof this would be Performative.The emergentnarrative as basketball.At its heart is the dynamic "conflict" seenby spectatorswatching and/or betweenthe teams,and subconflictsamong t-Lre interpreting the gameunderway. individual players,including playerswithin a team. This is the expeientialaspect, the narrative that emergesas a Augmentary:Layers of in formation, product of the play itself, between the players.To the interpretation,backstory, and contextual spectator,this translates into a performativedrama frameworksaround thc gamethat which the viewer experiencesin the third person,but enhanceot}er narrativeoperators. which alsohas an equalamount of dramaticimpact. This aspectof the narrativeis enhancedby the DescriptiveThe retelling oI description of augmentarycontent of journalisticreportage that the gameevents to third parties, and the spectatorhas accessto before,during and after the culturethat emersesout of that. game.This content takesthe forms of the numerous
Unfortunatcly,calling for new languageand sL'emto be filled with options for thosewho needto methodologieswith which to considercomputer games break the levels.Participatory, skill-based, emotional, is not the samething aswriting them. Now we begrn addictive,often competitive,instinctual, frequendy the "dirty work" to articulate exactly what tlpes of violent,yet at the sametime, immersive,creative, intersectionsof theorieswe can useto exploregames. sharing, rewarding, empowering,and frequently Certainlyquestions concerning authorship, individual community-building,gaming occupies a critical cultural and collectiveaction, game world time, perception,and niche.We must learn how to talk about it. positionsin betweenaudience and participant needto - be better articulated perhapseven new words FromMark Bernstein's Ontine Response: inventedto developand enhancethese sites and "AndBack Again" positions.Just to be troublesome,I'll end this response 'A with a quote from Barthes. text'sunity liesnot in its To assumethat gamescannot hold a mirror up to origin but in its destination"(Barthes 1988, 171). In nature,that they cannot move us or changeus, is other words,the best gamesare the onestightly woven almost to assumethat they are hardly worth discussing around the user'sdesires, seamless, caterinq, which Children play games,but the gameswe study are not Towardsa Game Theory of Game FIRSTPERSON CetiaPearce subplots that are layeredover the game itself, such as room for the player to bring it to fruition. This is one of conflicts between teammates,personal narratives of the primary flaws of applying literary or film tleory to players,city rivalries,etc. The desciptive aspectof games;the authorial control, which is implicit in other basketball,which is caphrredprimary through genres,tends to undermine the quality of the user postgamesports coverage,operates in the retelling of expenence. tJregame afterward. Somegames, while rife with Somegames are pure structure wit} no metastory.For narrative suspenseduring game play, may tend to lose uample, TiclTaclToeis a simplegame that has a clear somethingin the translation.As J. C.Herz has pointed structure that results in a very compressednarrative arc out, golf may be fun to play,but it doesn'tmake much on the experientiallevel. Needless to say,both its of a story after the fact.In basketball,t}e descriptive performative and descriptiveproperties are somewhat element is almost alwaysaccompanied by augmentary thin. And it has no metastory whatever.Battleship,ot elements,which tend to carry through before,during the otler hand,can be deconstructedin terms of its and after the game itself. These capture the personal, pure logical construction (the positioning and targeting behind-the-scenesnarrative, "the thrill of victory and of objects in a grid), as well as its metastory,a batde the agonyof defeat." between fwo seafaringfleets. Note the level of Although basketballprovides an excellentexample of abstraction of the narrative in Battleshin.Also note that the first four narrative operators describedpreviously, tlere are no characters.In typical narrative texts, botl it includesneitler a metastorynor a story system.It's hterary and cinematic,characters are central to the important to reaJizethat in many games,particularly conflict. You cannot reallyimagine a story without precomputergames, narrative operates on a much more characters.In a game,on the other hand, lt is quite abstract level than it doesin other narrative media. In possible,and often desirable,to have a narrative with no board games,for example,the metanarrative generally "characters"whatsoever. And in fact, well-developed functions as a metaphorical overlay for a mathematical charactersoften get in the way.Games tend to favor or logicalstructure. Thus, a gamecan be deconstructed abstractedpersonas over "developed"characters with for its "pure" structure, as well as its narrative overlay dear personalitiesand motivations. More abstracted or metastory.They key to game narrative is that it is, by charactersleave more room for the piayer,and are definition,incomplete. It must be in order to leave therefore better suited to support a play-centricmodel.
childs play (and child'splay, to children, is deadly 24, andif no poppiesbloom in the DeadMarshes, we serious).Children like to dressup as kings and to still recognizethe muck and thirst of Flanders refracted undress,but drama is not merely playing house or through the memory of the Burma Road and plapng doctor. Stalingrad and That Fucking Island, the land even Tolkien doesindeed hold an important placein t}e Marines would not name.) developmentof computergames, but Pearceutterly Gamedesigners who seeonly SherlockHolmess misunderstands TheLord of the Rings.Tolkiens puzzle soiving are missing the point, just as game importance has little to do with the maps that adorn designerswho think the story of war is the struggle his endpapers.Yes, Tolkien spoke of writing as a betweentwo generalshave forgotten the lessonsoflast journey through imaginedworlds, but this perception two centuries.They haveforgotten The Nakedand the is not uncommon.Neither is it necessarilyhelpfrrl in Dead and Catch'22,or, for that matter, Run Silent,Run understanding either Middle Eart} or interactive art D eep andAp ocalypse N 0w... Yes,he kept eiaboratenotebooks. This is not uncommon, either: we know many of the War Poets jcbookreview.com/thread/fi through their notebooks.(Tolkien on The Sommewas http://www.electron rstperson/bernsteinrl .; ai:.a.:1. ? isi
In chess,the dramaof the experienceresides in the 12.1.The chessset of King EdwardII, Towerof London. strategicconflict betweenthe players,not in (Photoby CetiaPearce) empathizingwith characters,as in Macbeth.The As you can see,the distinction has profound metanarrative operatesat a highly abstractedlevel, implications in terms of narrative. Although both creatinga context for this intellectualcontest. It is techniquesinvolve projection of the player/audience interestingto note that this conflict betweenthe into a characterspace, they do this in profoundly playersis playedout entirelywithout the benefit of different ways. Empathy/mimesis requiresthe dialogue.Conversation often has a role in games,but in development of hrghly constructed and authored chessit is minimal. It is hard to imagineMacbeth characterswith which viewers developan empathic without dialogue.Chess replaces the classicfuistotelian bond.Agency creates a containerfor playersto inhabit techniquesof mimesis and empathy with tle game- Avatars must by definition have a certain level of specifictechnique of agencyby giving the player ambiguity in their charactersin order to allow the "avatars"that serveas representativesfor his or her playersto transposeor projectthemselves into them. own actions. Part of the technique of game designis making
PearceResponds Gamesdo not askthe playerto constructor interpret what t}le author is trying to "tell" them. Rather they tunction as a kit of parts that allows the player to construct their own story or variation thereof. http://www.electronicbookreview.com/thread/firstperson/pearcer2 Towardsa GameTheory of Game CeliaPearce FIRSTPERSON
strategicdecisions about how much and what sort of gaming, are various proceduralforms of narrative, room to leavefor the player. which combine various levelsof metastory and story In addition, chesshas an ambiguous ideology or systems.I am going to look at two genresin particuiar morality. There is no clear "good "bad guy"or guy." which have causedconsiderable groundswell, and by Macbethtoo employsa technique of ambiguous looking at them from a play-centric point of view, gain morality: although we know that Macbeth is someone some perspectiveas to why they have been botl critical we would not necessarilyaspire to be like, we and popuiar successes, empatfiizewith his struggle nonetheless.But the way The first genre Id like to look at is the massively these ambiguities are conveyedis very different. Chess multiplayer onJinerole-playing game, or, in game has a sort of "Zen" quality of syrnmetry, "MMORPG." equaiity and culrure parlance The two mosJpopular of fair play.It is interesting that more recentgames of these are Atima Online and Evereuest,and second-tier military strategy,such as Ruk, and its computer gamesinclud e Baldur'sGate, Asheron's Call, andDiablo. relativessuch asAge of Empiresand Civiltzitfon, utrfize AJthough they differ in some significant ways,what all an asymmetrical structure in which players all do not thesegames have in common is that they createfantasy start witl-r equal assets.This technique can tend to story worlds in which playersimprovise narratives in enhancethe drama,as well as the potential variations real time. Thesegames, all of whlch sharethe common in the emergentnarrative. theme of medievalfantasy, represent the evolution of about forty yearsofpopu_lar culture RecentExamples converging on the computer.They canbe tracedback to J.R.R.Tolkiens To illustratemy points in terms of contemporary TheHobbit, and its sequels,which causedwhat can onlv computer games,I would like to highlight two game be called a pop culture phenomenon starting in t}re genresin particular that I think have been successfi.il 1960s.This highly elaborateimaginary *o.ii rv^. becausetheyare basedon a play centric modelof tailor-made for interaction because,in Tolkien'sown narrative. Beforedoing so,however, I want to take a few words, the stories were developedas a means to explore moments to ponder the drawbacks of narrative within the worlds. From this emergedthe analog role-playing games. gane Dungeonsand Dragons,first introduced by TSR, Whereasnarrative theorists, academics,and those Inc in the mid-i 970s,and its online text-based engagedin a critique of gamesare obsessedwitl descendents,MUDs (Multi-UserDungeons). narrative, many gameplayers tind narrative quite many respects, !n the medieva_lfantasy genre problematic.The largestconrroversy has to dt with the MMORPG 'tut-scenes," 'tinematics." is a graphica-lMUD and most of them still useof alsoknown as These rely heavily on text for dialogue,although what used to are linear segmentswithin a game that are used to be handled through textual descriptioni (e.g.,"you are createa narrative context, or "reward" the player for stran&ng outsidethe castle,facing north"),ls now done havingcompleted a missionor achieveda subgoal in visua-lly.This hybrid visuaTtext form has developeda the game.While often beautifirlly rendered(si,rce small but adamant following, and although by game rypically they are not renderedin real time, thev have salesstandards they aresomething of a n1cheri".k.t, theluxury of higher graphical quality), -*y pLy"r, t}ese gameshave a great enough that they find cut'scenesto be egregiouslyinterruptive "rrdi".r." io their manage to at the very least support themselvesas play experience. It seemscounterintuitive to use commercial endeavors. passivity as a reward for play.Many game players The MMOMG combinesa metastory,primarily in associatethe idea of "narrative" with this twe of tie.form of a predesignedstory world and various plots enforcedlineariry which is a throwback to cinema. within it, with a story system that allows playersto What are much more interesting, and I think are evolvetheir own narratives within t.hegame's "kille, story proving to be the so-called of narratrvein framework. "pps" The central piay mechani. of th" Jenkins ivlcKet-rzie[skelinen iuul ito Pearce IV. GameTheories GameTheories > pearce FlanaganBernstein ZimmennanCravyfordJuuI
strategiesyou choosein enactingyour innate tajents and acquiredskills engageyou in a processof real-time charactercreation. In addition, you can acquire property, including weapons,tools, magic amulets,and evenreal estate, which will all becomepart of your charactersunique personality. Some players choose to act out in an antisocial way. In many cases,these playersare penalizedby gameoperators, but just as often, they are penalizedsocially. For in theseworlds, reputation is the most valuablecurrency. Thesegames, because they are highly improvisational in nature,require constant attention from their Wffiffiq operators.EverQuest, for example,has a Command 12.2.Screenshot lrom EverQuest: The Shadows of Luclin. Central at its San Diego headquarterswhere its (Verant,Sony 0n[ine Entertainment) customer senricestaff wanders about the virtual game MMORPG is what I refer to as social storytelling, or world assistingplayers, and creating narrative events, collaborativefiction. The idea is that the story emerges conflicts and missions for playersto engagein. They as a &rect result of social interaction. As wit} tne carefully watch what playersare doing and constantly Renaissance (aiso Faire a huge commercial success evolvethe game,the game rules, and the game narrative throughout the US.),players enter a fully con.structed accordingly.Again, a play-centric modei, in which the three-dimensionalworld. Rather than selectingfixed player is reveredand constantly accommodated. characters,they selectparticular characterroles. These The result is an emergent narrative, a story that aresomewhat generic,but allow playersto configure evolvesover time as a result of an interplav between unique characterscomposed of varioustraits, which rulesand players.In addition,there is th" they can then "-.rgu.,t evolveover time into a fully developed infrastructure that is constantly reformulating itself, persona through a system of improvisational evolving, and adapting, much like an ecosystem,to the collaborativenarrative (frgure 72.2) piayer behavior.Most of thesegames work on a In traditiona-l narrative, a classicview of character product-plus-subscriptioneconomic formula: you development is that charactersare what they do. It is purchasea CD at the software store, tlen pay a the actionsof the characters that not only tell us who nominal monthly fee (seldom more than $20) for they are,but also determine who they are. The choices unlimited play.Although at present the audiencefor tley make in a senseconfigure their personalities.In thesegames is relatively small compared to the the MMORPG genre,this dpramic is put in the hands mainstream,their fan baseis extremely committed of the player.Players take actions that construct their MMORGs requirea largetime investmentbecause they characterson the fly. For example,depending on your are strongly skills - and relationship-based.It requires roie, you may be endowed with certain innate traits or a commitment of at least ten hours a week to maintain talents, such as strengtl or intelligence or magical ongoing engagementin tlese games,and many players powers.You also have the opportunity to acquire skills. put in well abovethat. Interestingly, most of the In gameslil sequelsand enhancements,is The Sims,designed by major feature is the catalogueof humorously described Will Wright of Maxis. The Simsevolved out of an household items and enhancements(figure 12.3).The entirely different tradition and genre in games,that of subtext is tlat charactersneed things to make t}em the simulation garne.I want to note that tlere are two h.ppy,but over time, t}re things begin to own them. A distincdy different types of gamesthat are referred to larger house requiresmore cleaning time. You can hire a as simulations. One is the training-basedsimulator, maid, but the higher expensesrequire that you which comesout of the military world, and puts the maintain a certain earning power.As your characters playerinto a first-personrole centeringon mechanical evolve,they form various relationships witl eachot}er. control of a vehide,e.g., a flight or tank simulator.The Some can even fall in love and form domestic other is a simulation that dlmamically models an entire partnerships, even same-sexpartnerships. system.This tradition comesfrom a variety of sources, The Simsis a crossbetween a dollhouse,a but was used extensivelyin paper-and-pencilform in Tamagotchi,and the television program Bg Brother. In the socia-lsciences, history and economicsin the 1960s BigBrotheacontestants inhabit an enclosedhouse for and 1970s.SimCity was one of first computergames to eighty days,eliminated one-by-oneby audiencevote employ techniquesof this type of simulation in a game until only one roommate is left stan&ng. As in Brg context,and at the time it was released(1989), it Brother the Simsplayer is a voyeur with an all-seeing revolutionized the game experienceand business.Since eye and definite influence on the characters,even then, this genrehas been expanded into a rangeof though tley also have their own "free will," so to speak. metastorycontexts, including Maxis'SimEa rth, SimAnt, You must maintain a constantvigil over t-hemor as well as RollerCoaster Tycoon by Microprose. calamity might result.Characters without adequate The Simshas been described as a human behavioror cooking skills can perish in kitchen fires, and children psychologicalsimu-lator. Rather than employing purely can be taken from negligent parents by social services. player-inhabitedcharacters or purelyautonomous Sirnscharacters are built from a kit of characterparrs characters,the game puts playersin the role of t}at indudes various physical (mosdy having to do influencingsemi-autonomous characters. They are with appearance),as well as personal traits. The semi-autonomousbecause while they have their own emphasishere is more on personaliry tl'ran skills, innate behaviors,they depend on player influence to however(figure 12.4).You can constructyour own &ctate their actions.The viewpoint is isometricraLher configurationofsuch traits as neatness,friendliness, than first person,allowing playersto have a god-like etc.,or you can selectan astrologicalsign that will rriewover the gameterrain. automatically configure a personaliry for you. Basedon The Simsis a story systemdescribed as a kind of this, the characterwill have certain natura-lqualities narrative Lego.Designer Will Wright himself describes and aptitudes. Your characterscan a-lsoacquire skills it as a sort of virtual dollhouse.The original prototl?e t}rat wijl enablethem to avoid things such as kitchen was createdas a physicalmodel using model railroad fires,or improvetheir job performance,thereby earnlng materia-ls.The Simsuses the emergent narrative model, promotions at work. but leavesthe metastoryrelatively open-ended The Simsare very moody and when they aren'tgetting original SimsGame, which hasnow spun offinto a their needsmeant, they will throw tantrums, shaking variety of add-onsand enhancements,is basicallya their fists and calling to you in "Sim-ish,"a combi.nation domesticdrama, or a sitcom,depending on how you of verbal gibberish and symbols that appear in comic play.You createa family and placethem in a house that book bubblesover their heads.Images such as food, you can then enhanceand occupywith a variety of kissing,and recreationalactivities provide indicatorsof items to better the Sims'lifestyleand comfort level. what Simswant or what they areconversing about. There is a stronganticonsumerist satirical subtext to The Simshas taken a radica-llydifferent approachto the game.I referto it as the IKEA game,because a narrative than most of the gamesthat precededit. In Jenkins I\4cKenzieEskelinen IV. GameTheories GameTheories , ;::;.. lil"t";i.,r,,",, Zimmer:ran CrawfordJuul 'author." addition to a story system that results in an accurately,a shift in the definition of The experiential narrative, The Simshas a built-in descriptive creationof meta-storiesand story systemshas become component (a feature it shareswith some of the a new form of authorship that is a sort of author/ MMORPGs) in the form of a "Family Album" fearure nonauthor role. It is somewhat ironic in light of the that allows playersto take snapshots of their game "death of the aut-hor"debate tlat has raged in underway.They can then make descriptivestoryboards poststructuralist literary theory, fzom Barthes to and post them on The Simsweb site for others to view. Foucault to LDieaux, tiat it is games,rather than As a result, a new play trend has emerged,in which literature, that havebeen abie to fina-llydispense or at playershave transformed the game into a storyboard least significantly reframe the author's role as creator of authoring tool (figure 12.5).Players have used it to content. recreateautobiographical or even news stories. The Simsis a story system that lets t}e player drive In ad&tion, playerscan upload their gamesonto the the story experiencewithin a set of carefully crafted site so that otler playerscan continue the gameplay.In rules,processes, and constraints.It blurs the hne other words, if you createa family, you can put it up on between audienceand author in the sameway the The Simsweb site, and another player can pick it up MMORPGsdo, but with a more open-endedstory where you left off. Thus, there might be multiple framework. Furthermore, Maxis is developingeven versions of your family, having been taken in different more interesting ways to blur that line. In his keynote directions by different players. addressat "Entertainment in the Interactive Age,"Will The game also allows for skinning, which the Wright presenteda diagram showing the role of players MMORPGs sometimes (but not always)allow for. in content creation.His "pyramid"content scheme Skinning is the practice of pulling your own assetsirto statesthat if the 10% of playerswho occupy the top the game.Most of t}e time, it consistsof placingnew level of the pp-amid are defined as expert storytellers, texture maps on game environments or characters. then for every million playersthere are 100,000 people Maxis encouragesthis sort of thing and has even creatinghigh-level game content. The ideahere is that createda trading post within the web site where players the "author" shifts into a role as facilitator, and the can exchangeskins and other custom-built game audiencenow takes over the role of storytelling features. Maxis is currendy looking at ways to reward this top Part of why it is interesting to look at the lnAeSims in I0% of player/creators,eitler financially or with free terms of narrative fiction overall is that it reDresentsan game subscriptions,updates, etc. At this writing, Maxis abdicationof authorial control, or, perhapsmore is in development with The SimsOnline, a massively 12.3. Buitd modein lhe Srms,aka The 12.4.Character kit in lhe Sims. (Maxis, ElectronicArts) (Maxis,Electronic Arts) Towardsa GameTheory of Game FIRSTPERSOP,I CeliaPearce Petethe Lawn Gnome makes an Thefirst of severaLfailed Withthe helpof an armyof Tonyis destinedto spendthe rest "anonymous"catt to reportthe attemptsat kil.tingBob's drunken ptasticpink flamingos, Pete of his davsas a lawn ornament. deathof Bob,his lonely but son.Tony, who has inherited the succeedsin incineratingTony. devotedowner. house. 12.5. Scenesfrom "A LawnGnomes Revenge" [sic], a ptayer- createdstory using lhe Srms.(Maxis,Etectronic Arts) The number one reasonis that the function of characterin eac,l'rmedium is diametrically opposed The multiplayer Simsworld that playerscan co-inhabit. contrast between Macbeth and t.hechess king sheds Here playerswill be able to start their own businesses light on why MarioBrothers,DungeonsandDragons, and and devisetleir own entertainment for other Sims TombRaider have made &sappointing films. One only characters. has to imaginechess as a stageplay to understandwhy This notion of authorial abdication is essentialto these transitions consistendy fail. In the game Tomb understandingwhere game narrative divergesfrom RaiderLara Croft is a partially formed character;she is other narrative media. Other narrative media focus on in essencea cartoon who servesas an avatar onto "text,"and text as a signifier of authorial autloriry The which the player is meant to project her - or more text is fixe4 and it has a single aut}oritative source.In often, his - own interpretation. It is important that somecases, that authoritativesource might be a the characteris incomplete,because if the characteris communiry but nonetleless, the text is fixed. It may be too developedthere is nothing compelling for the open to a range of interpretation, and I will here take player to contribute. I frequently liken game design to exceptionto those who say that all narrative is having a good conversation:in order for it to work, you interactive.If we use the term as defined in the have to listen, which means leaving gaps for the other dictionary interactive is by definition responsive.In person to fiIl. Taking a caricature t}at has been created other words, it must have a visibly different as a vehicle for piayer projection and trying to develop manifestation with eachuser's individual input. A it into a full-blown cinematic characteris a dangerous nonLinearbook may arguably fall into this definition by game to play,so to speak. virtue of t}re fact tiat the reader assemblesits sequence Reverseadaptations have been slighdy more ashe or shereads. But a Linearstory doesnot allow for successfu.l,but it's important to understand why. any variablemanifestations, and t}erefore,by Generallya gameversion of a film characterwill need definition, it cannot be interactive. to be streamlined Some characters,such as Indiana Looking at t}e &fferentiations betweengame-based Jones,are cartoony-enoughthat they can easily and other forms of narratives can give us somevital transition rnto game characters.In Blade Runner,the dues as to the pirfalls of transitioning between the two. designersat Westwood Studios chosenot to use the Repeatedly,filmmakers have attempted to leveragethe main characterin the movie, but developeda new popularity of video and computer games.But if we characterbroadly based on tle film. Becausethe Blade review someof the points made above,we can easilysee Runnercharacter is mysterious and ambiguous to begin why the game-to-movieadaptation has repeatedlyfailed with, this was an easierstunt to pull than taking a Jenkins McKenzieEskelinen IV. GameTheories GameTheories";::1."lll,tnlji.,,,',..,. ZimmernranCrawford JuuI highly articuJated,nuanced character and trying ro and consumers.In film, television,theater and literary developit for a game.On the other hand, it may simply forms, there is generallya very dear line between be that all charactersplayed by Harrison Ford are producer and consumer.However, in thesenew forms particularly well-suited for game narratives. of interactive narrative, particularly those that employ In fact, a deeper ana-lysisreveals that certain story story systems,this line has becomeblurred The genresare more innately gameliketo begin with. These consumer is now becoming a producer/consumer. indude mysteries,mission or goal-basedadventures, or Computer gamesare really the first medium that combat scenarios.James Bond andMission:Impossible blurs this boundary between author and audienceso are two examples of gamelike film genres t}rat have completely.As such,it undermines some of the transitioned into critically and popuJarlysuccessful fundamental tenets of postindustrial (e.g.,printing games.In any case,it seemst-hat games are weaker at press,film projector, television) narrative, which is characterdevelopment, whereas they excelat basedon a mass-production,one-to-many "broadcast" adventure,mystery and action. Even non-movie-based model. With the computer as a two-way, dynamic gamesbased on these themes,such as Thief andDeus medium, t}ose engagedin game designare creating an Ex,have been the more popular among gamest-hat entirely and radically new ideology about narrative. employ a more literal metanarrative. They are not so much storytellers as context creators, The other sort of narrative genre that doeswell in a and what tley are doing is nothing short of game fiamework is the world-basednarrative. Tfte revolutionary. As such,I believethat t}ey have earned Hobbit was an examplecited earlier.[n fact, Tolkien t}eir own unique and indigenous theoretical discourse. himself spent many yearsdeveloping the world, its cultures and languages,and the story was really just a References:Literature way to describeand explore t}e world. Any book that Aarseth,Espen (1997). C\bertext: Perspectives on Ergodic has a map in it is likely to be good material for a game, Literature.BaLtimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. becauseit is ciear that tl-regame is about the AssociatedPress (2001), "Video Game Industry Reports Growth." relationship between the charactersand tle world TheTimes of India0nline, May 1, 2001.