This study was undertaken by the Academy for Educational Development (AED) with the technical and financial support of USAID/ under the Indefinite Quantity Contract (IQC) for , Training and Human Resource Development (HNE-I-000- 00-0076-00). The opinions expressed herein do not necessarily reflect the point of view of the Agency for International Development of the United States of America.

AED wishes to acknowledge the valuable collaboration of the Ministry of Education of El Salvador and of numerous Salvadoran educators for their contributions to the study, and the assistance provided to the team by the EXCELL project.. We recognize the excellent work of the consultant team comprising Fernando Reimers, Ernesto Schiefelbein, Renán Rápalo Castellanos, Richard Kraft, José Luis Guzmán and Anabella Lardé de Palomo, as well as the leadership of Carmen Siri and overall coordination by Paula Gubbins,

AED is grateful to USAID, in particular to Kristin Rosekrans and Ronald Greenberg for their guidance in shaping the study, and their extensive review that helped to strengthen the analysis.

Finally, we acknowledge the contributions of translators and editors Hernán Rincón, Mariella Sala, Fiorella Sala, Paula Tarnapol Whitacre and Thomas Lee for their assistance in completing the published study. CONTENTS

Abbreviations and acronyms 3 I. Introduction 7

Principal Argument 7 Low Levels of Learning for the Majority of the Population 9 Educational Efforts in El Salvador within the Context of Efforts in the 9 Americas Looking Back at the Past Ten Years 10 Current Status of and 12 Second Generation of Reforms 15 Policy Recommendations 16 A Vision of Education for the Consolidation of Democracy and Freedom 18

II. Methodology 22

III. Salvadoran Education in a Global and National Context 24

IV. Main Findings: Progress, but not enough 26 Coverage 26 Equality 29 Quality 30

V. Conditions Associated With Educational Development 34

Preschool Education 34 Teacher Performance and Classroom Practices 35 Quantity and Quality of Investment in Education 37 Institutional Modernization and Decentralization 40 Evaluation Systems 43 Institutional Coordination 45

VI. New Options For El Salvador 48

References And Bibliography 50

ANNEX ANNEX 1. 54 Persons Interviewed, Centers Visited, And Focus Group Participants

ANNEX 2A. 56 Summary of Conclusions And Recommendations Of Roundtable Discussions

ANNEX 2B. ROUNDTABLE PARTICIPANTS 60 ANNEX 3. 63 Results Of The Survey Conducted At The Roundtables

Annex 4. 64 Recommendations For Orienting an Educational Reform And Impact On Equity And Quality

Annex 5. 65 Preschool And Primary Education Policies And Programs In El Salvador

Annex 6A. 67 Preprimary And Primary Enrollment Rates In 12 Latin American And Caribbean Countries In The 1990s

Annex 6B. 68 Gross Secondary Enrollment Rate And Illiteracy Of Youth (aged 15-24) In 12 Latin American And Caribbean Countries In The 1990s

Annex 6C. 69 Children’s School Attendance (aged 7-12) In Urban Areas AccordingTo Income (1999) By Quintile Of Income

Annex 6D. 70 Latin American Countries: Education Budget As Percentage Of Gdp 1999- 2000

Annex 6E. 71 Various Latin American Countries Combined Gross Rate Of Enrollment And Education Budget As % Of GNP

Anexo 7A. 72 International Cooperation Projects In Process (Bilateral & Multilateral), 2003

Anexo 7B. 73 Projects In Execution With Private Sector And Ngo Cooperation, 2003

Annex 8. Educational Goals In An International Context 74 Annex 9. Comparison Of Early Childhood Goals 75

ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

ACE Asociación Comunal de Educación [Community Association for Education] APREMAT Proyecto de Apoyo al Proceso de Educación Media Técnica [Technical Support Project] ARENA Partido Alianza Republicana Nacionalista [Nationalist Republican Alliance Party] CDE Consejo Directivo Escolar [School Management Council] CECE Consejo Educativo Católico Escolar [Catholic School Education Council] CEEC Coordinadora Educativa y Cultural Centroamericana [Central American Educational and Cultural Coordinator] CEPAL Comisión Económica para América Latina y el Caribe [Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean] CONACYT Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología [National Science and Technology Council] CRA Centro de Recursos Tecnológicos para el Aprendizaje [Center of Technological Resources for Learning] DIGESTYC Dirección General de Estadísticas y Censos [Department of Statistics and Censuses] ECAP Prueba de Evaluación de Competencias Académicas y Pedagógicas [Academic and Pedagogical Competencies Assessment Test] EDI Evaluación al Desempeño Educativo Institucional [Institutional Educational Performance Evaluation] EDIFAM Early Childhood Family Education EDUCO Programa Educación con Participación de la Comunidad [Education with Community Participation Program] EDURED MINED’s educational portal for teachers EHPM Encuesta de Hogares y Propósitos Múltiples [Multi-purpose Household Survey] FANTEL Fondo de Privatización de ANTEL (Ex Asociación Nacional de Telecomunicaciones) [ANTEL Privatization Fund] FEPADE Fundación Empresarial para el Desarrollo Educativo [Private Sector Foundation for Educational Development] FIDES Fondo de Iniciativas para el Desarrollo Educativo [Fund for Educational Development Initiatives] FMLN Partido Frente Farabundo Martí para la Liberación Nacional [Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front] FUNDAEDUCA Fundación Amigos de la Educación [Friends of Education Foundation] FUNDEMAS Fundación Empresarial para la Acción Social [Private Sector Foundation for Social Action] FUSADES Fundación Salvadoreña para el Desarrollo Económico y Social [Salvadoran Foundation for Economic and Social Development] GOES Government of El Salvador HIID Harvard Institute for International Development IDB Inter-American Development Bank [Banco Interamericano de Desarrollo – BID] IFI International Financial Institution INED Instituto de Educación a Distancia [Institute of Distance Education] IPIES Institutos Pedagógicos en las Instituciones de Educación Superior [Pedagogical Institutes within Institutions of ] ISNA Instituto Salvadoreño de la Niñez y la Adolescencia [Salvadoran Institute for Children and Adolescents] MINED Ministerio de Educación de El Salvador [Ministry of Education] NGO Nongovernmental organization OEI Organización de Estados Iberoamicanos PAEBA Programa de Alfabetización y Educación Básica de Adultos Adult Basic Education and Literacy Program] PAES Prueba de Aprendizaje y Aptitudes para Egresados de Educación Media [Learning and Aptitude Test for Graduates of ] PREBAD Programa de Educación Básica a Distancia [Distance Program for Basic Education] PROES Programa Escuela Saludable [Healthy School Program] SABE Strengthening of Achievement in Basic Education Project (USAID) SINEA Sistema Nacional de Evaluación de los Aprendizaje [National Learning Evaluation System] SNEC Sistema Nacional de Educación de Calidad [National Quality Education System] UCA Universidad Centroamericana José Simeón Cañas UDB Universidad Don Bosco UNDP United Nations Development Program [Programa de las Naciones Unidas para el Desarrollo – PNUD] UNESCO United Nations Organization for Education, Science and Culture [Organización de las Naciones Unidas para la Educación, la Ciencia y la Cultura] UNICEF United National Children’s Fund [Programa de las Naciones Unidades para la Infancia y la Niñez] UNICO Universidad Católica de Occidente USAID United States Agency for International Development [Agencia de los Estados Unidos para el Desarrollo Internacional] WFP World Food Program

I. INTRODUCTION Fernando Reimers

El Salvador has advanced a set of to be done. Time is pressing and including the challenge to become policies and programs that have without profound and sustained competitive in the global economy. contributed to significant efforts, the majority of The objective of the study was to improvements in access to basic will not be competitive in a global identify the main strengths and education and have led to changes economy in the 21st century. weaknesses of basic education in meant to improve quality. Efforts El Salvador, to analyze results of carried out over the past ten years Principal Argument past educational policies, and to contrast sharply with the neglect formulate recommendations to of the educational system during The principal argument of this study develop policies and interventions the civil war of the prior decade. is that education is one of the for educational improvement. Given the level of abandonment, primary methods by which Another purpose of the study was disintegration, and deterioration of Salvadoran society can reduce to help USAID/El Salvador define the educational system at the end persistent structural poverty, further its new plan to support the of the war, the importance of consolidate peace, and improve Salvadoran education sector (2005- educational efforts over the past quality of life, democratic 2009). decade cannot be underestimated. development, and labor force productivity. Education provides This study of basic education in El Nevertheless, educational reforms society with the tools to run Salvador was carried out between implemented over the last decade businesses in a market economy September and December of 2003 are far from sufficient to achieve that will lead to improvements in by a team of researchers.1 the goals established ten years ago: the competitiveness of the national to continue responding to the economy. Preschool and primary The publication has two parts: growing challenges of consolidating school are at the foundation of El • First, this introduction democracy and promoting Salvador’s efforts to improve its addresses the main findings of the competitiveness within an overall human capital. For the study and proposes education policy increasingly global and nation’s future, it is fundamental priorities for the next reform effort interdependent economy, and to that all children complete a basic • The second part presents a maintain parity with other nations education of high quality. summary of the original study of in the hemisphere. In other words, basic education. although the educational situation Consequently, the underlying in El Salvador would have been premise of the study is that a A Spanish-language CD attached to worse without the reforms made population with more and better this publication includes the over the last decade, much remains education can better face the complete eight chapters on which challenges of national development, the summary is based. Chapter One

1 Undertaken with the technical and financial participation of the United States Agency for International Development in El Salvador and coordinated by the Academy for Educational Development, the study was one of a set of research studies and assessments coordinated with the Ministry of Education of El Salvador (MINED) in 2003–2004, to provide a comprehensive view of all levels and modalities of El Salvador’s education system. The findings presented here formed part of this broader effort and were incorporated into the integrated assessment coordinated by MINED and completed in September 2004.

7 by Ernesto Schiefelbein examines This report focuses specifically on documented that with each extra educational coverage and efficiency preschool and primary education, year of schooling, an individual’s and their evolution over the past as well as on subsystems that affect earnings increase. Educational decade. It also discusses options educational quality at these levels: attainment also improves income that can serve as catalysts to teacher training, educational distribution, thereby improving improve educational quality. Chapter financing, and educational equity, and it decreases the chances Two by José Luís Guzmán discusses management, with special attention that people will remain in poverty. educational policies implemented to and the Importantly, developing countries, over the past decade with respect definition of standards. In addition, due to their relative scarcity of to the challenges caused by the report analyzes educational human capital, have higher rates of globalization. Chapters Three and policies applied over the past decade return at all education levels. Four by Richard Kraft analyze basic in response to demands on the Investments in basic education, education (including preschool country imposed by globalization. however, yield the highest rates of education and the three cycles of Finally, it examines the contributions return. This is because, except when primary education), and discuss the made by donor agencies to a country’s basic education coverage teaching profession in El Salvador, education in El Salvador. is already near universal and of good with special attention to the quality, the unit costs of providing selection and professional In the 21st century, education will basic education are small relative development of, as well as support be the principal competitive to the extra lifetime income and for, teachers. Chapters Five and advantage of nations. Growth will productivity that comes with Seven by Renán Rápalo Castellanos result not only from conventional literacy. Moreover, the equity impact cover the system used to define investment, but also from is highest for basic education. Recent quality standards, the system used development of human capital estimates show that El Salvador to assess such standards and other through investments in education, receives higher returns on its available evidence about students’ training, and work experience. It is investment for basic education than learning levels, and institutional widely accepted that education is it receives for either secondary or modernization and decentralization the basis for creating, adapting, .3 within the education sector. developing, and disseminating Chapters Six and innovation and technological Eight by Anabella Lardé de Palomo development. Furthermore, analyze educational spending—its education that develops a capacity evolution, levels, and distribution— for innovation creates a and examine mechanisms for cadre of more productive workers coordination among different who increase the competitiveness agencies (public, private, donors) of entire societies.2 that support educational Evidence for “education as development. economic investment” is widespread. It has been well

2 Alfredo Sarmiento, Capítulo 1, La educación en el contexto social y económico, nacional e internacional. MINED, Integrated assessment of education in El Salvador, draft, 2004. 3 George Psacharopoulos and Harry Anthony Patrinos, Returns to Investment in Education: A Further Update, World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 2881, September 2002.

8 Low Levels of Learning for As a result of these deficiencies in in the skills and competencies of the Majority of the quality at the foundation of the graduates. These deficiencies are Population educational system, an insufficient cumulative: failure in early grade number of Salvadorans have levels sets the foundation for Deficiencies in quality at the attained a secondary and higher subsequent and continuous failure, foundation of the educational education (only 40% of those over and, eventually, school dropout or system have direct consequences 25 years old). Not surprisingly, the receipt of a diploma unrelated on the educational profile of the Salvadorans with a secondary to students’ capabilities. Salvadoran population. Many education enjoy greater economic children in early grades fail to benefits than those with only a This persistent underperformance acquire the fundamental primary education. Given that those of the education system in El competencies that allow them to who increased their average Salvador, which translates into complete primary school educational level during the past limited educational opportunities successfully, and there are decade belong to higher income for its poor children, is one of the insufficient opportunities to attend groups, gaps in earnings and income most pressing education problems secondary school. The limitations will grow in the absence of facing the country. The challenge faced in acquiring competencies deliberate policies to expand access for the new administration is to and the overall low education level to secondary school. An increasing demonstrate true commitment to of the population restrict income gap is likely to weaken social the education of the poor. The opportunities for the country’s cohesion and contribute to an priority of providing better economic, social, and political increase in crime and violence, and education was clearly indicated in development. Among those over could undermine governance. For the carried 25 years old, 60% have completed these reasons, overcoming the out 12 years ago.5 Except in the only primary school or received barriers to access to secondary expansion of access to primary even less education. This represents education is crucial. But such access grade levels, it is clear that policies an advance compared to a decade cannot be merely a formality, applied over the past decade have ago (when 75% had only a primary consisting simply of awarding not placed a high enough priority or lower level of education). diplomas to graduates without on providing quality learning However, achievement of an ensuring that they acquire superior opportunities for poor children. educational level considered in most cognitive competencies. countries in the hemisphere as a Educational Efforts in El minimum for social inclusion a In this sense, it is important to learn Salvador within the Context century ago is clearly insufficient from the lessons of the last decade of Efforts in the Americas for the demands of the 21st century. about expansion of access to The number of years of schooling primary education. It is of little good Most countries in the Americas of the Salvadoran population aged to enroll more students in school implemented educational reforms 15 or older averages 5.6 years, 3.6 if their education does not translate in the past decade, including 4 in rural areas. DIGESTYC, 2003. into the ability to acquire attempts to improve quality and to Within Latin America, only competencies that increase their improve the educational Nicaragua, Honduras, Guatemala, life opportunities. While increasing opportunities of lower income and Brazil have populations with access to low-quality secondary groups. In Mexico, for example, lower levels of schooling than El education would be relatively easy, efforts included development of a Salvador. it would not lead to improvements new curriculum and textbooks; free 4 DIGEST, 2003. Encuesta de Hogares de Propósitos Múltiples. 5 Reimers, F. (Coordinator). 1995. La Educación en El Salvador de cara al Siglo XXI. Desafío y Oportunidades. San Salvador. UCA Editores. Pages 48, 51, 62-65.

9 distribution of textbooks to all gaps include the yet unmet have been more limited among children; on-the-job professional challenges to universalize basic lower income groups. This development for teachers; incentives reading, writing, and math skills, as demonstrates that in a society in for teachers’ professional well as to develop competencies which there are clear advantages performance; and compensatory for the 21st century such as higher- to being educated, and in which programs specifically targeted to order and complex thinking skills, there are significant inequalities in marginalized children. In Chile, ability to work effectively with income and education, these programs were implemented to others, and lifelong learning. inequalities are sharpened as each strengthen pre-service teacher Competencies for the 21st century family attempts to transfer its education; improve the quality of must be aimed at developing expert respective social advantages to its schools attended by lower income thinking and complex communication5, children. students; and improve education which are the basis for generally through reviews of strengthening economic The expansion in access to curricula and provision of competitiveness and participation preschool education between 1993 educational materials, teacher in a democratic society. In the new and 2002, for example, was far support, and performance global economy, people will need greater among families with higher incentives. not only to master basic reading incomes, thus widening the gap in and writing skills, but also to develop access to preschool (a level of Compared with these and other understanding of complex education critical for stimulating educational reform efforts carried information in the different early child development and out in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, and disciplines. They must be able to preparing children to benefit from the United States, efforts interpret information critically, subsequent schooling). In 1993, 9% implemented in El Salvador during rather than simply memorizing. of those in the poorest quintile the last decade were modest. Furthermore, they must be able to attended preschool compared to Without doubt, the conditions in engage in complex communication 11% in the wealthiest. In 2002, more El Salvador are different—its needs with others, which is basic to of each group attended preschool, are many but its resources working in teams. With computers but the gap widened, with preschool dedicated to education are more now performing many routine tasks enrollment levels of 27% of the limited than those of other once performed by unskilled labor, poorest and 70% of the wealthiest countries with larger economies those who do not acquire more quintiles. and higher per capita investment in complex skills will not have access education. These differences help to higher earning jobs. These The fact that upper income groups to explain the differences in competencies are also fundamental benefit disproportionately from educational levels between El to the consolidation of a democratic educational gains underscores the Salvador and other countries of the society, as discussed later in this necessity for educational policy to region. introduction. set priorities to reach the most vulnerable groups, in terms of both The challenge for the next Looking Back at the Past spending and efforts to support generation of reforms in El Salvador Ten Years innovation and qualitative is to close the gaps in educational improvement. opportunities between different Over the last decade, advances have groups, not only internally, but also been made in access to preschool Low quality in education, as well as between El Salvador and other and primary school. Gains in levels low family income, influences countries in the hemisphere. These of educational attainment, however, retention. As described in Chapter

6 Frank Levy and Richard Murnane, “Education and the Changing Job Market.” , October, 2004.

10 One, 95% of children currently on national examinations of 7. Use of technological resources enroll in first grade, although only academic performance. to support learning 89% enroll at the age of seven. Nine 8. Food, health, and basic services of ten children are enrolled in Based on poor student for schools in low-income areas school for six years, and 85% for performance, it appears that 9. Creation of multi-grade and eight years. These important teachers are barely able to develop accelerated education services achievements in initial and timely even the most basic competencies and curricular models to prevent access to primary school are in their respective curricula. For school dropout, reduce grade undermined, however, by the low example, there was very little repetition and decrease the quality of education received by change in reading comprehension number of over-age students many children, which translates into levels between tests administered 10.Consolidation of public schools, high rates of failure and retention in 1993 and in 2001. Half of third- and support for school-level beginning in the first grade. grade students cannot understand quality management the meaning of a simple four-line 11.Rehabilitation of school Because teachers have neither the text. Studies show that performance infrastructure preparation nor the conditions to at each educational level is in part 12.Creation of and support for provide differentiated and effective a function of mastering . attention to repeaters, many of competencies acquired in prior these children repeat several times levels; thus, the consequences of The previous Government’s (one of every two children has inadequate teaching quality are priorities for education policy, while repeated two or more times). cumulative. Students in higher levels arguably on target, were—in Eventually, many repeaters abandon of basic education show even lower hindsight— insufficient to achieve school before completing the sixth levels of achievement with respect the desired improvements in grade. As a result, only one of every to curricular objectives. teaching children to read and write. four students completes the nine The results of these efforts were grades of basic education. From the Educational policies of the last to improve educational analysis of student repetition and decade were oriented toward the management by decentralizing it to dropout patterns, it follows that an following objectives: the local level, improve increase in the percentage of infrastructure, ensure basic inputs students with secondary education 1. Expansion of preschool and basic (curricula, standards, assessment will only be possible if the number education services in rural zones tests, textbooks), and promote of Salvadorans who complete 2. Promotion of local-level innovation in the education of primary education increases. participation through the teachers and the support for However, simply opening new creation of school management educational quality (with secondary schools will not increase councils with parental experiments such as the Escuela the number of students who enroll participation and the transfer of Diez). if students are not ready to handle school resources the more advanced subject matter. 3. Curricular reform and the As discussed below, this study The high rates of repetition in basic elaboration of educational proposes that the Government education are a result of the low standards lower the priority of reform in quality of teaching. In surveys of 4. , incentives, school-based management (since it families, three of four assert that and standards appears to have achieved its main their children repeat because they 5. Provision of educational objectives) and instead focus on are not learning. Four of five parents materials for teachers, students, reforms geared to improving quality. say that when their children repeat, and parents In this sense, it is recommended that it is because they fail the grade level. 6. Development of assessment specific initiatives be advanced to These low levels of learning are systems: standardized tests and develop reading / writing skills, corroborated by students’ results school evaluations motivation, and engagement; to develop 11 tolerance and civic education; to between desired objectives and improve the situation. A new policy improve school effectiveness; and to practice, with practice lagging for early childhood and preschool strengthen support systems for pre- severely behind the intended is pending approval. The Early service education and continuous objectives of the preschool Childhood Family Education Activity professional development of teachers. curriculum. In addition, private (EDIFAM) funded by USAID has preschool teachers emphasize pre- also achieved important results in Current Status of Preschool reading competencies more than the quality of teaching, in and Primary Education their colleagues in public preschools. coordination efforts among public In spite of these gaps, the institutions, and in an awareness Half the children between four and researchers observed more campaign promoting the importance six years old are excluded from appropriate teaching practices in of investing in the area. preschool education, and those preschools than in primary schools, from zero to three receive even specifically in regard to organizing In primary education, efforts have less coverage. Lack of coverage is children in groups for learning and increased initial access to first grade, greatest in rural areas and among other interactive teaching strategies. but the quality of teaching is those sectors with lower incomes. deficient, especially in the teaching In addition to limitations related to Thus, preschool in El Salvador is of reading and writing. In addition, access, there are disparities related currently at the root of unequal as documented in a qualitative study to the quality of education offered. learning opportunities faced by by MINED, emphasis on In some cases, the conditions under children of differing social origins, constructivist education has been which services are provided (with not only because access reduced to slogans and jargon, groups of 45 to 50 students per disproportionately favors children rather than effectively translating teacher in rural zones of whose parents have higher levels policy into classroom practice. Ahuachapán, La Libertad, and of education, but also because According to the MINED report: Sonsonate, for example) make it private preschools focus more on very difficult for preschools to offer promoting children’s cognitive Educational quality continues sufficient adult attention to ensure development than do public to be a concern and a challenge. adequate care and education, let preschools. Intentions to modify life in the alone to stimulate child classroom and school with new development. At the root of these Problems in preschool education approaches—where learning serious deficiencies is the lack of a include low coverage, unequal becomes a relevant activity for strategic framework to guide efforts access, gaps between the quality of students because it takes into at this level, as well as insufficient public and private education, account their prior experiences allocation of resources to preschool inadequate teacher education, and the needs that arise in and early childhood education. disparities in the quality of teaching, society—have not been and a lack of coordination between achieved in the classroom. Analysis at the preschool level different initiatives and efforts. These shows that curricula are strongly problems point to an enormous The Ministry of Education has oriented toward fostering gap between the country’s legal implemented several initiatives integrated child development. obligations as declared in the law to improve educational quality. Except with respect to goals related and actual policy implementation The results obtained to date, to language development, little and results. however, are not wholly emphasis is placed on the encouraging. Learning development of pre-reading Starting in 2005, an improved achievement tests show…that competencies or of thinking and curriculum for early childhood and children in the first and second problem-solving skills. Researchers preschool education will be cycles of basic education are on the assessment team who visited implemented in all formal and non- not able to master even the preschools found significant gaps formal centers and may help basic objectives evaluated, 12 demonstrating more difficulties (preferably writing free-form essays The study also questions the in the subjects of language and and using other forms of creative excessive emphasis in El Salvador mathematics…. A tendency writing instead of copying from the on the development of standards toward decreasing academic chalkboard or textbook). It is and assessment as the main performance is seen as students recommended that the use of instruments for improving quality, approach the final stages of student learning guides be noting that there is no evidence in basic education. encouraged and that models for any country that such “alternative” (multi-grade) interventions—without serious This study shows that the main classrooms and effective schools efforts to support the development challenges in the immediate future be supported, along with models of professional competency among are to provide quality education supporting reading and writing (such teachers—translate into improved universally and to guarantee as reading clubs or structured learning opportunities for students. fundamental competencies to all reading instruction programs). Based Salvadorans. Focusing on quality on the analysis of the final cycle of In order to develop a reading implies identifying the purposes of basic education (middle-school level, culture, it is essential to improve education, for quality is defined with or grades 7 to 9), it is recommended teacher education. Analysis of the respect to educational ends or that teachers incorporate learning education and professional support goals. One of the most valuable mechanisms that help to integrate for teachers shows that pre-service lessons learned during the past the school with its surrounding education is excessively theoretical, decade of reform has been that community. that MINED fails to retain the best educational quality is not generated teachers because of poor working spontaneously as a result of The chapter on basic education conditions and isolation, and that institutional or managerial reforms. underlines the importance of on-the-job training is not sufficiently On the contrary, quality must be textbooks. Although textbooks are practical to be useful. Significant actively promoted through specific among the few (or perhaps the inequalities are also found in the initiatives oriented toward only) materials supporting the opportunities for teachers in urban improving the competencies of development of reading and rural schools to pursue courses teachers, well-structured teaching competencies among low-income offered through their respective and learning materials that allow students, visits to schools showed schools or in professional students gradually to acquire basic that they are seldom used and that development centers, institutes of abilities such as reading and writing, teachers often have students copy higher learning, or . This and a school administration that information from the chalkboard. chapter recommends viewing supports quality instruction. teacher education as a process Moreover, the study finds the limited rather than an event and giving The analysis of basic education and inadequate use of instruction voice to teachers in the definition emphasizes students’ low time to be a serious obstacle of their training needs and in achievement levels on performance undermining students’ learning. A decisions about reforms. It also tests, as well as the enormous gap massive program to review and re- recommends professional between teacher discourse, the edit textbooks is not development modalities that intended curriculum, and the recommended, although a promote collaboration among curriculum being used. Based on classroom library program that professional development centers, the analysis, it is recommended to increases the number and variety universities, schools, other increase instructional time, of reading materials available to institutions, school and teacher especially time focusing on all forms children is presented as highly networks, distance education of literacy at early grade levels, desirable. A review of the value of systems, and micro-centers. allowing students to read silently the textbooks as teaching and for pleasure, to listen to reading, instruments is also recommended. The report highlights the efforts and to write stories and essays that MINED and pre-service 13 teacher education institutions have disconnected from pre-service be necessary to reallocate financial carried out: new curricular design teacher preparation. resources. Although public spending for pre-service education; specific on education has increased standards for pre-service education Results of the ECAP show that significantly over the last ten years of teachers (which have brought those studying to be teachers are (158% in real terms between 1993 about improvements in conditions not developing sufficient teaching and 2003), El Salvador still lags of service in authorized institutions); or academic competencies to behind most Latin American significant improvements in material perform well in the classroom. countries in per capita funding for and administrative conditions in While commending the government public schools. El Salvador spends teacher education institutions; for forging strong links between 3.3% of its gross domestic product introduction of enrollment and theory and practice with its school- to finance education, surpassing graduation criteria (the Evaluación based practice-teaching only the percentages of GDP de las Competencias Académicas y requirements, the report urges that allocated by Ecuador, Guatemala, Pedagógicas, known as ECAP); a greater percentage of time be and Uruguay and equaling that spent monitoring and assessing teacher spent during pre-service teacher by Peru. Other Latin American education, and supporting processes preparation in liberal arts and countries earmark at least 4% of for the professional development academic disciplines. The report their respective GDPs for of teacher educators. It concludes proposes a comprehensive policy education. that, despite the magnitude of these to support the professional efforts, pre-service training is still development of teachers. Such an Moreover, a significant portion of not producing adequately trained effort will require developing a social the financing of El Salvador’s teachers. and political consensus, with education reform during the last participation by teachers, their decade came from external The report points to important institutions, and the public at large. cooperation or loans; consequently, advances promoted by MINED with the financial sustainability of these respect to teachers’ ongoing As stated above, secondary reforms is vulnerable without a professional development, including education is a critical area for steady increase in the education the decentralization of training additional investment because of budget. Public spending on through financial transfers to the low levels of coverage and low education disproportionately schools and the contracting of quality. No international benefits the middle 60% of the external services and pedagogical comparisons of performance have population based on distribution; consulting. The effectiveness of these been made at this level, and the quintile of highest income efforts has still not been evaluated. therefore it is not possible to receives only 16% of spending, due One deficiency in the professional determine how the competencies to the prevalent use of private practice of teaching is that most of students in El Salvador compare schooling, and the quintile of lowest teacher educators work only part- with those of students in other income receives only 18%. The most time in this capacity. Curriculum countries. However, the Learning regressive spending is in secondary design in institutions of pre-service and Aptitude Tests for Graduates education, where 20% of the teacher education is fragmented of Secondary School (PAES) households with the lowest income and confined to single courses, illustrate inadequate achievement receive only 8% of the government’s rather than a comprehensive or by secondary students. The report education resources, whereas the integrated program. There are not strongly emphasizes expanding three quintiles of highest income sufficient courses focused on access to and improving the quality receive 23%, 25%, and 27%, teaching specific disciplines. Teachers and relevance of secondary respectively. Nevertheless, the do not graduate from these education. education budget is more equitably institutions with adequate academic distributed than overall income preparation, so in-service education To implement the changes distribution, and consequently ends up being remedial, as well as recommended in the study, it will education spending contributes to 14 long-term improvements in income budget requirements. and ethical frameworks at all levels distribution. of Salvadoran society. Achieving Second Generation of these goals would allow more Education policy for school-based Reforms Salvadorans to reason and act management, advanced over the ethically, as well as to participate past decade, promoted community The strengthening of educational fully in a diverse democratic society participation in school management efforts over the next decade must and a market economy. through the EDUCO program, and build upon the education reforms fostered social participation in of the last decade. Wiping the slate It is proposed that the second processes such as hiring and firing clean would only waste resources generation of reforms in El Salvador teachers and making decisions on and experience, and carry a great focus on: spending for schools. The study opportunity cost in a country where • developing pedagogical recommends establishing needs exceed the resources competencies in preschool and permanent mechanisms for civil available. The continuation and primary teachers society participation in the definition strengthening of educational • providing high-quality reading and and evaluation of educational improvement efforts must be writing, as well as teaching policies, as well as delegating well- supported by what was learned materials defined responsibilities to through the first generation of • strengthening efforts to build a departmental offices and schools. reforms, such as targeting efforts solid reading culture in the The study also recommends to improve student learning in country analyzing the effectiveness of the reading and mathematics. • supporting improved retention fund for teachers’ professional and learning conditions in development as a decentralized The second generation of preschool and primary school, means of training, including revising educational reforms must improve especially for the poorest 40% eligibility criteria so that this the quality of education, emphasizing of the population. mechanism promotes professional the acquisition of basic cognitive development systems that are and meta-cognitive competencies A great majority of Salvadorans integrated with pre-service that enable people to learn understand and agree that education and that benefit all throughout their lives. A significant educational institutions potentially schools equitably. part of this report addresses ways serve to transmit the best of to promote a reading culture, as national culture to new generations, The report’s final chapter underlines well as to develop skills and interest providing them with opportunities the importance of maximizing the in reading and writing as the basis to build a better nation. A recent impact of donor cooperation for communication and lifelong report on productivity and through development of a single learning. competitiveness identifies the low sectoral policy that serves as a levels of skills of the labor force as framework to coordinate assistance Specifically, the development of a one of the structural factors limiting programs, in order to address reading culture in El Salvador—with the country’s potential. As a result priority needs, prevent duplication, a series of shared practices and of the Salvadoran economy’s limited and maximize the comparative meanings—will require use of a competitiveness and unequal advantages of each donor and the wide variety of means to support income distribution, more than one- synergies between different children and their families. In the third of the population continues programs of external cooperation. second-generation reform efforts to live in poverty, and half of those The previous ten years’ experience to improve quality in the classroom, in rural areas are poor. In order to with donor coordination was the report also recommends setting meet the Millennium Development positive. A new plan is clear goals for the development of Goals, the country must integrate recommended for the next decade, interpersonal and emotional into society its most severely with specific goals, strategy, and competencies, tolerance of diversity, marginalized sectors. 15 This suggests the need to advance The second generation of summarizes the recommendations specific programs for direct poverty educational reforms in El Salvador rated most positively by participants reduction. Those who remember must focus principally on improving (those with an expected effect of the violence of the 1980s educational quality, improving 80% or higher and a 60% or higher understand that quality of life in the student learning in math and probability of successful future depends to a great extent language, and promoting school implementation), with improved on the capacity of individuals and attendance, especially in schools training of preschool teachers and institutions to be tolerant of one attended by the poor. It will remain expanded classroom libraries another, to respect the beliefs and impossible to ensure secondary and receiving the highest scores. It should rights of all, and to coexist in peace, tertiary education as long as so be noted that the recommendations considering that we need each many of those who begin their basic oriented toward directly improving other for our mutual development. education do not finish it support conditions for the development In large part, the construction of a successfully, and as long as the of reading / writing competencies culture of peace in democracy children of poor families are mainly appear at the top of the list. In other depends on what educational those who drop out of school. words, experienced educators in El institutions do—or do not do— Salvador perceive these with children and youth. Indeed, Policy Recommendations recommendations to be effective Chapter Two of this report options, with high probabilities of concludes: The preceding sections of this being implemented successfully, in introduction discussed some of the response to prioritized issues Essentially, schools must ensure major findings of the study. What related to quality. that children and youth learn follows are nine main policy how to learn and how to live in recommendations that should guide The nine recommendations are as peace with one another. This El Salvador’s educational strategy follows: implies the acquisition and over the next ten years. application of knowledge and 1. Promote access to skills, as well as the practice of These nine recommendations arise preschool education, values that enable children and from the study analysis combined whether formal or informal, youth to promote their own with results from a consultation focusing on children from welfare and that of the local, process held in December 2003, the 40% of households with national, and global community. during which a draft of the study the lowest incomes. was presented to a group of Basic education should be a priority Salvadoran education professionals • Support the enrollment of children of the Government of El Salvador, (see Annex 2B). In this consultation, from the 40% of households with as this is the only education that participants completed a survey the lowest incomes in public schools most of the population receives. that covered the detailed and in mixed-administration entities This is essential to consolidating a recommendations contained in the (childcare centers, community-based culture of peace and forming eight chapters of the report. They child development centers, and democratic and competent citizens estimated the expected effects of preschools). who can participate fully in a market each recommendation on student • Strengthen the teaching skills of economy. This does not mean that learning, along with the probability day care providers and El Salvador should limit its that each recommendation could preschool/ educational goals to universal access be applied successfully. educators. to basic education. Precisely because • Implement communication primary education is extensively The combination of estimates about campaigns aimed at parents and available, the government also needs expected effects and probable meant to improve child-rearing to provide greater access to implementation provided an index environments and the culture of secondary and tertiary education. of probable effect. Annex 3 interaction between parents and 16 children. teaching techniques (videotaping importance of education. • Promote the broadcasting of of classes and discussion of the • Ensure sustainability and the television programs such as taped classes by teachers in the availability of national resources Sesame Street. course, guided by an expert for quality improvement. facilitator). Evaluate ongoing • Allocate increased education 2. Set priorities to improve experiences such as pedagogical funding at the preschool and basic quality by strengthening advising and decentralization of education levels. teacher education. professional development, and • Increase education spending per experiment with distance student. • Promote a comprehensive policy education models using • Ensure equal spending in different for teacher education and computer-based technologies. geographic regions of the country, professional development, • Establish or reorient systems to focusing resources where the combining pre-service education monitor teacher education and need is greatest; evaluate the and in-service professional quality, with actions such as the impact of interventions. development. This will require following: 1) reorient the use of • Develop targeted programs to generating a broad social and ECAP results to stimulate critical improve learning and promotion political consensus in support of reflection in teacher education in first grade, focused on schools high-quality education for all. Use institutions; 2) carry out studies where repetition rates are the the fund for teachers’ professional on the predictive validity of the highest. development to promote ECAP test; and 3) establish innovation in pre-service and in- systems to monitor teacher 4. Set priorities to improve service professional development. education. the quality of basic • Prepare and use models for • Develop programs for teacher education in schools located teacher education and refresher trainers, emphasizing the within regions and zones training that target specific development of competencies to inhabited by lower-income reading / writing competencies, support reading and writing children. promote effective teaching for instruction. low-income students, and ensure • Increase transparency and • Increase teachers’ effective use effective attention to diversity. efficiency in the selection of • of time-on-task and, in particular, • Encourage the reform of pre- candidates to fill teaching to the development of language service teacher education vacancies that arise as a result of and reading / writing programs, adding new modalities actions by MINED and teacher competencies through changes such as: professional development education institutions. Examine in standards and supervision, schools, distance education, the incentives structure to attract combined with media campaigns teacher-to-teacher education, and candidates for the different aimed at parents. case studies. Ensure that pre- teaching specialties. • Reformulate standards for the service education centers Spanish curriculum, especially for develop comprehensive programs 3. Continue increasing the first, second, and third grades. with clear pedagogical purposes. effective investment in • Evaluate and adopt student Encourage teacher education education, in a sustained learning manuals similar to those centers to define areas for manner and as rapidly as currently found in “alternative” educational innovation and possible, reaching at least (multi-grade) classrooms, as well reflection about educational 5% of GNP by 2015, to as workbooks from the practices. finance education policies accelerated education program. • Develop refresher programs over the next ten years. • Submit current textbooks to a based on teacher-to-teacher rigorous process to evaluate their education, networks, and micro- • Build widespread consensus and effectiveness, and recommend centers, incorporating micro- support for the national potential steps leading to their 17 improvement. • Carry out studies to identify educational resources, and • Provide classroom libraries for obstacles preventing initial access school monitoring the first five grades to schools faced by children from the 20% mechanisms. attended by children from the of households with lowest 40% of households with lowest incomes. • Strengthen the role of incomes. Provide these libraries, • Experiment with targeted departmental directors and make which can be administered programs that promote this local administrative processes directly by the students, with 60- group’s initial enrollment, regular more efficient by consolidating 100 books. attendance, and retention in money transfers, and assign • Evaluate and promote programs school. resources according to the for over-aged students and for schools’ needs as defined in their rural communities with low plans. population densities. 7. Promote coordination • Improve assistance to schools in among donors through the their local management 5. Utilize monitoring, preparation of a single responsibilities, ensure equitable assessment, and evaluation sectoral plan. support to the smallest schools, systems more intensively in and evaluate the effectiveness of order to learn from the these decentralized strategies to • Strengthen the planning unit of results of ongoing policies ensure their positive impact on the Ministry of Education to and programs. school autonomy. prepare and implement the sectoral plan for education. • Identify priority areas for the A Vision of Education for • Strengthen the coordination of achievement of competencies and the Consolidation of a donor group on education and educate the community about Democracy and Freedom educational goals and current organize donor support levels of achievement in the according to the education plan. The Government of El Salvador can education system. • Define a clear strategy and initiate second-generation reforms • Carry out specific studies that benchmarks for interventions that will effectively target support strengthen knowledge about the backed by funding to achieve for all students, so that children effects of innovations promoted results in the short, medium, and achieve curricular goals (beginning during the last decade, such as long term. by ensuring that they learn how to the Escuela Diez school read and write well) and also supervision and teacher 8. Promote legal reform. develop the competencies to meet professional development current economic and social modalities; and that generate • Establish more concrete demands. Efforts over the last further knowledge about mechanisms for civil society decade strengthened management promising practices for the participation in the definition and capacities in the education system teaching of reading and writing evaluation of policies, and increase at both the central level and the and the effects of innovations to the competencies of school level. These efforts forged improve those practices. departmental offices, minimal educational consensus, municipalities, and schools in the encouraged educational innovation, area of school management. 6. Promote initial access, and strengthened institutional regular attendance, and capacity to obtain and process 9. retention in school for Continue promoting educational information in support children from the 20% of school autonomy with of decision making. Numerous households with lowest respect to the hiring and experiments are still underway, from incomes. professional development of which it will be possible to learn in teachers, infrastructure, order to design new actions to 18 promote the academic success of Schools have the potential to is beneficial for teachers to discuss all children. equitably develop competencies for how school organization and the effective participation in a relations between teachers and As noted earlier, this second generation democracy. —the way students can, in themselves, be of reforms must focus specifically on teachers teach, the school culture, powerful moral lessons. It is difficult supporting classroom teaching, and the manner in which school is to teach how to live in a democracy developing teaching competencies, organized—is central to the if school and system relations are supporting teachers with high-quality development of these competencies authoritarian or disrespectful of the reading / writing and teaching and and aptitudes. As John Dewey said, rights of others. learning materials, and strengthening “how we teach is what we teach.” the construction of a reading culture Therefore, decisive and effective The development of competencies within the country. support for teachers’ efforts is that impart respect for others required to ensure that all citizens requires attention to three In insisting on the need to make the have the competencies necessary interrelated areas: construction of development of sophisticated reading- to think for themselves, to value democratic school environments; comprehension and writing their freedom and the freedom of inclusion in the curriculum of competencies the top priority of this others, and to work and processes for the development of second generation of reforms, it is communicate adequately with competencies for coexistence; and useful to remember that this objective others. To achieve this goal, all must attention to the relations between is oriented toward the development be educated with high levels of teaching staffs and communities, of competencies for life in a democracy quality, in ways that enable the administrators, and supervisors. It and for the effective exercise of development of competencies for is insufficient to attempt to develop citizenship. Children must be taught democratic participation. This competencies for tolerance, respect to read and write well, at the same requires strengthening the and interdependence within a time that they are taught to think for pedagogical competencies of specific classroom if such themselves, to value freedom, to teachers, as well as the social and competencies are contradicted in exercise democratic citizenship, and emotional climate of schools. the broader school culture. It is to participate effectively in an essential to ensure that skills and increasingly interconnected world. In sum, building a democratic culture aptitudes for life in a democracy requires construction of an are developed simultaneously in the The competencies for democratic educational culture that enables the school’s most explicit curriculum participation require skills and development of a democratic (in its classrooms) as well as in its aptitudes that allow individuals to citizenry. This objective can only be deeper curriculum—reflected in think for themselves, communicate achieved with serious and dedicated the ways in which students relate effectively, gain access to and use work to ensure that teachers direct with each other and with teachers available knowledge about different their efforts, on a daily basis, toward and in the way school staffs relate topics, learn continuously, work the development of these with parents, the school community, with others, understand the competencies in their classrooms. school supervisors, and other local importance of and mechanisms for institutions. participation, and comprehend the In supporting the creation of differences that distinguish closed teaching teams in schools, teachers’ As a result of a heavy authoritarian and totalitarian societies from open efforts must focus both on past in the region, most schools are societies. Such competencies can technique (how to improve and silent about what is missing for life be acquired and enhanced in strengthen the teaching of in a democracy. The majority do different settings: in families, in the fundamental skills such as reading not teach students the human rights workplace, and through religious and writing) and on the values that contained in the Universal institutions, in addition to schools. schools must reflect to prepare Declaration adopted more than 50 students to live in a democracy. It years ago with the creation of the 19 United Nations. As a result, schools the country more productive and produce civic illiterates. Educational more democratic. The reforms programs must explicitly implemented over the past decade incorporate content that develops constitute an excellent base from abilities, attitudes, and values that which to strive toward high goals. favor the peaceful resolution of El Salvador’s first stage of reforms conflicts over other alternatives; initiated a process that, although recognizes and appreciates diversity still incomplete, makes it possible in points of view; prefers democratic to define a second generation of over authoritarian forms of reforms. organization; and allows for the construction of a civic culture from Success in this second phase of the school culture, where reasoned educational reforms will require argument based on evidence is more defined programs in priority preferred as a way to reach areas, comprehension of the causes agreements and to persuade, rather of current challenges, and selection than the imposition of dogmas of strategies for action. The main based on faith by one group over challenges are to strengthen the another. quality of education with respect to fundamental reading / writing On a small scale, experiments have and communication skills; develop been carried out to help teachers critical thinking skills, motivation develop effective classes on these toward lifelong learning, and meta- topics. Programs have been shown cognitive abilities for the to be effective in developing administration of human capital; reading / writing skills that combine and develop emotional and effective traditional practices interpersonal competencies for emphasizing the learning of reading tolerance and productive components, letters, syllables, and association with others. phonemes, with materials and El Salvador has begun this journey, activities that build interest in and the path already traveled has reading. 7Other examples include made it possible to curricula on human rights and chart the path for the next decade. programs that promote critical The challenge for new leaders in reading of the press in marginalized the 21st century is to quicken the communities. 8 pace of this march and to consolidate the foundations for Conclusion quality education.

In sum, El Salvador faces an extraordinary opportunity to continue developing the competencies of all of its citizens in order to expand their options and their freedom, thereby making

7 For example, programs carried out by the Asociación de Amigos del Aprendizaje in Costa Rica. 8 A number of Web sites offer materials that support the teaching of skills for life in a democracy, including Civitas International (www.civnet.org) and the International Bureau for Education (www.ibe.unesco.org/regional/diversity).

20 21 II. METHODOLOGY

As its first task, the research team during several visits to schools (see groups in order to prioritize reviewed local reports, studies, and Annex 1). recommendations according to (i) documents related to national their impact toward achieving education, along with international In December 2003, a preliminary greater reading comprehension and studies pertinent to the topics of version of this summary, along with writing skills among public school analysis and proposed the eight chapters on which it is children, and the viability of their recommendations. The team then based, were submitted for review implementation; and (ii) the reviewed educational statistics to USAID, MINED, and key probability that the measures could available from the Ministry of stakeholders in Salvadoran society. be implemented successfully. Education (MINED) and Multi- Five roundtables were held (Results of this survey are presented purpose Household Surveys December 2–5, in which the study’s in Annex 3.) This process of (EHPMs) produced by the Ministry main findings were presented9. More discussion with El Salvador’s of Economy. The investigators also than seventy key individuals from educational community was reviewed data produced by the the education sector participated particularly valuable for enriching National Learning Evaluation System in this process, including top MINED the study and its recommendations. (SINEA), especially regarding officials; representatives of NGOs, learning achievement tests in universities, and other organizations; primary education. In addition, they and public school teachers and reviewed international databases of directors. (A summary of the World Bank, UNESCO, and roundtable results and lists of CEPAL. participants are included in Annex 2.) The analysis included individual and group interviews with key people As part of the consultation process, from the Ministry of Education, surveys were carried out with teachers, school directors, and roundtable participants in order to nongovernmental organizations prioritize the study’s (NGOs). Focus groups were formed recommendations. In particular, a of parents, teachers, and students survey was applied to all of the

9 This effort was coordinated jointly by USAID, the Ministry of Education, The World Bank, and the Academy for Educational Development..

22 23 III. SALVADORAN EDUCATION IN A GLOBAL AND NATIONAL CONTEXT

Globalization is an essential high levels of insecurity (economic de la Comunidad – EDUCO) and characteristic of today’s world and and social), the country suffers from the Strengthening of Achievement a useful reference point for low levels of productivity, and, in Basic Education Project (SABE). understanding El Salvador’s consequently, El Salvador is found international outlook. It can be at a relatively low level of The Peace Accords brought twelve defined as “the circulation of goods, competitiveness within the years of civil war to a close and services and capital, but also of international context. made it possible to initiate a process information, ideas and people” for the reconstruction and (World Bank, 2000, p. 1). From the Two developments are essential for reconciliation of society. This also perspective of formal education10, the analysis of current preschool enabled the creation of a favorable one essential aspect in confronting and primary education policies and political and social framework under the demands of globalization is to programs: the post-conflict situation which to implement EDUCO and create the capacity to provide of Salvadoran society and SABE, to launch other initiatives, quality educational opportunities promotion of the Ten-Year and, in general, to assign greater to all citizens. In this respect, Educational Reform Plan of 1995. priority to education on the national globalization presents a very simple agenda. challenge to society: The population As of the late 1980s, assessments must increase its schooling and must indicated that top priority should In spite of efforts made, an extensive acquire, through schooling, a quality be placed on expanding access to study of the education sector education. preschool and primary education, carried out by the Harvard Institute especially in rural zones (Fundación for International Development Recent studies (FUSADES, 2003; Kast, 1988)11. Public officials (HIID)12 demonstrated that FUSADES, 2002; UNDP, 2001) show recognized the quality deficiencies education in El Salvador was in crisis that El Salvador, after the signing of and low educational coverage, (Reimers, 1995). For example, one the Peace Accords in 1992, has leading to the implementation of in three adults could not read or made efforts to alleviate poverty two significant initiatives in the early write; the illiteracy rate among and strengthen democracy. 1990s: the Education with women was 32% and among men, However, existing inequalities are Community Participation Program 24%; forty-two percent of the critical, the population still faces (Programa Educación con Participación population had received no

10 Clearly, non-formal or of youth and adults also has a significant impact on the educational opportunities and achievements of the population outside of formal schooling. This topic requires special treatment and is associated with a strategic line of efforts to be made by El Salvador’s education sector in the immediate future. 11 The education policies of Alfredo Cristiani’s administration (1989–1994) were to focus prioritized attention on the preschool and primary education of the poorest, develop options for informal , improve the quality of the curriculum, decentralize administrative services, update the institutional framework, and promote participation by the nongovernmental sector (MINED, 1994). 12 This sector assessment was carried out in partnership with Universidad Centroamericana José Simeón Cañas (UCA), and Fundación Empresarial para el Desarrollo Educativo (FEPADE). It received support from the Ministry of Education and financing from USAID. In addition, its methodology promoted dialogue between key actors of Salvadoran society.

24 education beyond the ; educational system’s links with values, ethics, and civics (MINED, only 70% of children between seven society and the economy, and to 1995). In early 2000, MINED and fifteen years old were enrolled improve efficiency in the use of presented a revised ten-year plan, in primary education; and only 18% resources” (Reimers, 1995, p. 99). confirming its commitment to of youth between sixteen and Annex 4 summarizes the reform and to reinforcing quality eighteen years old were enrolled recommendations from this study and equality in education (MINED, in secondary education. The data linked most directly to preschool 2000). Annex 5 includes a synthesis were even more critical with and primary education. of the main policies and programs respect to the poorest sectors. for preschool and primary For example, among the poorest In 1994, the President of the education over the past decade. 20% of the population, only one of Republic announced that a profound (See Castro and others, 1999; two seven-year-old children was in educational reform would take Fernández and Carrasco, 2000; school. In contrast, among the place. Efforts then focused on the MINED, 2000; MINED, 2001; richest 10%, nine out of ten children preparation of a national plan, MINED, 2003a.) attended school at age seven. These including intensive consultations indicators were the result of a with different groups and sectors situation caused by the conflict: low of society (Comisión, 1995; investment in education; high levels Córdova, 1999), leading to the of bureaucratization, centralization, ongoing Ten-Year Educational and politicization in public Reform Plan (1995–2005). This plan administration; and severe emphasized the following: (i) elevate insufficiencies in the delivery of education to the highest priority, services. Faced with this situation, and forge it into a national policy the HIID study recommended the rather than that of a single party following: “On the agenda for a or government administration; (ii) national dialogue to modernize the allocate sufficient resources in the educational system, the main topics budget; (iii) achieve an educational involve increasing, to a significant system with quality, universal access, extent, quality and equality in the equality. and efficiency; (iv) broaden provision of education. For that, it the participation of teachers, will be necessary to increase parents, and communities in significantly the resources allocated educational processes; and (v) to education, to improve the provide integral education in human

25 IV. MAIN FINDINGS: PROGRESS, BUT NOT ENOUGH

Coverage Access to primary education According to Ministry of Education increased from 81% among twelve- data, for all age groups the maximum The gross and net rates of schooling year-olds in 1993 (UNESCO, 1993, rate of schooling in 2002 was 95% at the preschool level increased p. 667) to up to 95% among eight- (among eight-year-olds; see far right between 1992 and 2000: the gross year-olds in 2002 (see Table 2). The column of Table 1). This maximum rate from 22% to 42% and the net country not only offers timely and rate of schooling (children of a rate from 22% to 37%. Although almost universal access to first single age group who were enrolled the increase is clear, a significant grade, but also permanence in the simultaneously in primary school) number of children still do not educational system for at least six is an indictor of access to first receive preschool education to eight years. According to grade13. It shows the minimum (MINED, 2002, p. 6 and 7). The 2001–2002 data, however, there is percentage of children of this age situation is more disadvantageous a high level of grade repetition. group who enrolled at some time for the poorest children, as detailed High repetition indicates learning in first grade14 . below. problems, significant heterogeneity of ages at each grade level, and delays in promotions to higher grades.

13 Given the high level of schooling achieved by El Salvador, the “illiteracy rate” (self-assessment reported to survey taker) has little significance, and the “schooling rate per age group” is somewhat inaccurate (ranging from 89% to 95% among the 7- to 12- year age groups, according to Table 1). The “rate of graduation from sixth grade of primary school” has, for now, an upper limit close to 50%, according to data from the household surveys. Because of such discrepancies, this study preferred to analyze coverage in terms of “access to first grade.” 14 These data are consistent with data from the EHPMs applied periodically by DIGESTYC (2003, 33) and with data found in the 1998 National Family Health Survey (FESAL, 1999).

26 Table 2. Initial Enrollment (Public and Private) per Age and Grade, 2002

Pre- Primary Adult Secondary Higher Total Population Net Rate of Age school Grade 1 Grades Basic Grade 1 Grades Educ. Enrollment (single age Schooling 2-9 Educ. 2-4 group) 3 4,418 93 772 8 2 1 5,294 160,665 3% 4 40,014 265 1,271 4 1 3 41,558 159,191 26% 5 76,073 2,028 620 4 7 1 78,733 157,645 50% 6 88,483 23,733 1,969 7 22 6 114,220 155,948 73% 7 17,411 100,256 19,565 10 15 12 137,269 154,943 89% 8 436 60,981 83,897 11 7 19 145,351 152,713 95% 9 80 25,892 114,448 33 10 20 140,483 150,199 94% 10 52 13,293 125,608 79 7 5 139,044 147,439 94% 11 73 6,688 124,993 121 6 3 131,884 144,560 91% 12 12 4,331 129,006 284 8 18 133,659 141,664 94% 13 3 1,886 116,168 437 79 61 118,634 138,753 86% 14 12 847 113,614 658 731 55 115,917 136,263 85% 15 11 377 85,635 793 8,741 706 11 96,274 134,430 72% 16 8 148 54,068 924 23,192 7,782 58 86,180 133,128 65% 17 5 116 28,234 875 16,745 21,539 536 68,050 131,713 52% 18 63 14,035 766 9,418 21,756 4,658 50,696 130,982 39% 19 1 38 6,835 644 5,157 13,051 11,529 37,255 130,490 29% 20 3 40 4,074 586 2,847 7,209 17,026 31,785 129,837 24% 21 1 35 2,446 392 1,584 3,788 20,805 29,051 129,166 22% 22 2 32 1,733 524 1,119 2,306 21,712 27,428 128,177 21% 23 1 19 1,039 337 697 1,335 18,277 21,705 127,325 17% 24 1 23 777 293 535 897 11,406 13,932 126,430 11% 25 8 23 650 247 359 678 5,909 7,874 125,334 6% 26 2 15 477 226 328 527 2,061 3,636 125,334 3% 27+ 954 1,225 7,312 2,263 1,735 2,829 687 17,005 Total 228,064 242,447 1,039,246 10,526 73,352 84,607 114,675 1,792,917 Over-age 116,072 551,505 40,524 44,294 % Over-age 48% 53% 55% 53% Note: This table shows the distribution of data as reported by the cited sources. Certain enrollment figures are not compatible with the age groups to which they correspond. However, the table does illustrate structural trends within El Salvador’s educational system. Sources: Ministry of Education, Preliminary Tabulation, National Department of Monitoring and Evaluation, San Salvador, November 2003. DIGESTYC-UNFPA-CELADE, 1966, Proyección de la Población de El Salvador. 2025, San Salvador, p. 56. Students who enter the school system Eighty-five percent of the students and other sources, it may be claimed remain enrolled for six or more years. who enter first grade remain in that there are no drop-outs among This permanence does not necessarily school for at least eight years. As six-, seven- and eight-year-olds, but imply an increase in grade levels passed illustrated under the column that desertion begins among nine- or attendance throughout the year, entitled Net Rate of Schooling in year-olds (when 1% desertion but it is an indicator of the time Table 1, these rates are 89% and occurs). available for learning15 within the over 90% for seven- to twelve-year- system. Attendance is an aspect olds and 86% and 85% for thirteen- Given the timely enrollment of most that should be investigated in detail and fourteen-year-olds, respectively. seven-year-old students and the fact in order to explain repetition and Given the consistency between that desertion begins among nine- quality problems discussed below. data from the Ministry of Education and ten-year-olds, it is possible to

15 John Carroll (1963) includes available time as an important element for educational quality. The difference between grade levels passed and the number of years a student has been enrolled indicates system inefficiencies. Such inefficiency may have external causes (if the student does not attend class, for example, or has a learning problem or does not persevere until completing the proposed learning situations) or internal causes within the system related to teaching methods, didactic materials, methods of evaluation or learning goals. 27 estimate first-grade repetition with approximately 108,00019. Therefore, High repetition would explain the low great precision16 Indeed, almost all the first grade repetition rate is close rate of coverage of the third primary first graders who are eight years old to 45% (3% lower than the rate of cycle (grades 7–9), as well as the low or older are repeating the first grade over-age students). Data regarding percentage of youth who complete (for the first time or more), except over-age students (estimated their primary education. Gross for some 15,000 students (close to according to the procedure schooling in the third cycle grew 10% of the eight-year-old population indicated) are listed in the two from 34% to 39% between 1992 group) who enrolled for the first bottom rows of Table 2 and show and 2000, whereas net schooling time in first grade at the age of that repetition rates are close to increased from 33% to 46% during eight17 and a small number of others 50%. This is consistent with the same period (MINED, 2002, p. who enrolled at the age of nine UNESCO calculations for the early 6 and 7.) In addition, although the (0.33%, or one-third of one 2000s (UNESCO, 1996, p. 286). percentage of fifteen- to nineteen- percent), but adding some 7,000 (Computer models are available to year-olds who have completed their students18who first enrolled in first carry out the complex calculations primary education increased from grade at the age of six and are thus required to estimate the rates for 1995 to 2002, approximately 60% repeating. Given that there are each of the following grade levels, of youth had not completed ninth 116,072 over-age students, first- in the event that precise figures are grade by the end of 2002 grade repeaters would total needed for these grades.) (see Table 3).

Table 3. Maximum Grade Reached by 15- to 19-Year-Olds, by Gender (1995, 2002) Grade 1995 2002 Males Females Total Males Females Total None 10.4 9.0 9.7 5.2 4.3 4.7 Third 80.9 84.4 82.7 90.5 91.6 91.0 Sixth 59.2 62.8 61.1 75.2 75.9 75.5 Ninth 30.7 35.8 33.3 40.0 40.7 40.4 DIGESTYC – Household and Multi-purpose Surveys (EHPMs) for each year.

16 There is a 1-2% margin of error, which is low when compared, for example, to the 5%+ margin for census data.. 17 The difference between the 145,351 eight-year-old students enrolled in 2002 and the 130,732 seven-year-old students enrolled in 2001. Some eight-year-olds may enroll directly into second grade, in which case the rate of first grade repetition would be even greater. 18 The approximate difference between the 24,989 six-year-old students in first grade in 2001 and the 17,737 seven-year-old students in second grade in 2002 corresponds to repeaters, since there is no desertion at these ages. 19 116,072 over-age students minus (145,351 – 130,732) new students, plus (24,989 – 17,737) repeaters. 28 Equality 9% of the zero- to five-year-old 29-year-olds, thus reflecting many population in 1991 (UNESCO, 1996, of the possible achievements of Because there are different ways p. 284) up to 24% in 2002 (Table these age groups at all levels of the to understand equality, the following 1). Fifty percent of five-year-old educational system (Table 4). definition is proposed: The children and 57% of six-year-olds educational system is equitable if are currently enrolled in preschool Schooling levels achieved are higher all children, regardless of (Table 1). In 1992, the Household among the upper quintiles, as socioeconomic or cultural status, Survey showed few differences in demonstrated by the number of have an equal opportunity to change access to infant education according times that the percentage of the the circumstances of their lives in to family socioeconomic status— upper quintile is higher than that connection with the education they 9% of children for the poorest of the lowest quintile. Among 20- receive (see Rosekrans, 2001). In families and 11% for those with the to 24-year-olds, for example, 73% associating equality with educational most economic resources. In 2000, of the quintile with the highest opportunity, Reimers (2000) however, the Household Survey incomes achieved secondary or identifies five aspects: i) opportunity demonstrated a considerable higher education: 4.5 times more to enroll in first grade, ii) difference in access to infant than those in the quintile with the opportunity to complete first grade education based on socioeconomic lowest incomes (16%, including 10% successfully enough to pass to the status: 27% of children from the who reached from 10th to 12th grade following grade, iii) opportunity to poorest families receive such and 4% who reached 13th grade or complete each educational cycle, schooling vs. 70% of children from higher). On the other hand, 58% iv) opportunity to acquire skills and families with the most economic of 20- to 24-year-olds in the lower knowledge comparable to that of resources (MINED, 2002, p. 20). quintile reached only the fifth grade other classmates, and v) opportunity of primary school or below, to extend one’s social and economic There are signs that access to compared to 9% in the upper options based on what was learned. primary education increased over quintile. The differences are even This study presents an analysis that the last decade, even within the greater among 25- to 29-year-olds. emphasizes socioeconomic aspects, sectors with lower incomes. As Here, 70% of the quintile with the since they are more relevant to the stated above, however, this does highest incomes reached secondary case of El Salvador. The conclusion not mean that children advance school or beyond—seven times the is that even though the opportunity from one grade to another in a corresponding percentage for the to enroll in and complete first grade timely manner. The level of lower quintile. In addition, 67% of has increased (although not necessarily schooling achieved by each child is the lower quintile reached only the with the desired quality) for the determined by differences in access fifth grade of primary school or different socioeconomic sectors of El to first grade, combined with below, compared to 9% in the upper Salvador’s population, the poorest inequalities in teaching quality, the quintile. sectors face severe disadvantages in pertinence of the curriculum, and passing from one grade to another the need to contribute to family From 1995 to 2002, educational and in completing a quality education. income20. The effects of these levels and access to first grade factors are seen with greater clarity improved among El Salvador’s Early childhood education doubled in higher age groups. Table 2 children and youth, at least up to between 1993 and 2002, but a presents data for several age groups; the 25- to 29-year age group. significant part of this expansion however, the following analysis However, distribution per family benefited the top economic sectors. concentrates on the comparison income became less equitable. Preschool coverage increased from of 20- to 24-year-olds and 25- to Indeed, the gap between the top

20 Susan Bissell and Ernesto Schiefelbein, 2003, Education to Combat Abusive Child Labor: Designing Incentive Strategies to Increase Education Access by Children Involved in Abusive Child Labor, Basic Education and Policy Support (BEPS), Creative Associates International, Inc. (CAII), United States Agency for International Development, Washington, DC, p. 64.

29 and bottom quintiles grew. With shows an improvement of 0.5 years improved at over three times the respect to the lower quintile, a in schooling. The same comparison rate of the lowest quintile, proving comparison of the educational levels with respect to the upper quintile that the gap between both groups of 15- to 24-year-olds in 1995 to shows an improvement of 1.7 years. continues to grow. those of 20- to 29-year-olds in 2002 In other words, the top quintile

Table 4. Education Achieved by Age Group, per Quintile, 2002

Educational Level 20- to 24-years-olds 25- to 29-year-olds Achieved Lower Upper Lower Upper Quintile Quintile Quintile Quintile None 20% 1% 27% 2% 1 to 5 38% 8% 40% 7% 6 to 9 26% 17% 23% 20% 10 to 12 12% 38% 7% 32% 13 and above 4% 35% 3% 38% Total 100% 100% 100% 100%

Source: Based on the 2002 Multi-purpose Household Survey (EHPM).

The population of the lowest the inadequate primary education and this, combined with the need quintile is concentrated within the offered to children from lower- to contribute to family incomes, first five grades of primary income sectors, who do not enjoy eventually leads children to abandon education, reflecting the high rates the conditions necessary to master the system. of repetition observed at these basic knowledge and complete the levels. In turn, high repetition is a primary education cycle. Although Quality result of low levels of learning. In they remain in school for six to sum, a case can be made that two eight years, very few children of According to the documentation sub-systems are at work in education, families in the lowest quintile reviewed, achievements in each of which operates differently and become proficient in the knowledge educational reform in the 1990s— achieves opposite results: one efficient considered by their teachers to be in terms of curricular reform—have sub-system for the population of the indispensable for promotion to involved the improvement of school top quintile, in which students advance higher grade levels. All of the conditions and inputs. There have according to age, and another sub- children have talent—this is been no significant changes within system in which student advancement distributed evenly—but the lack of the classroom in terms of teaching is slow because of high repetition and early stimulation by parents or practices or student learning. where fewer than half of the children through infant education, insufficient complete the first six grades of primary reading, the poor quality of primary A transition may be underway from education. education (especially that provided traditional educational practices in marginal and rural zones), and that focus on teaching toward a The difference in educational level lack of relevance in the curriculum learning-based model. But such a achieved by children in one or the act as impediments to learning. In transition has occurred mainly with other sub-system is associated with these cases, school loses relevance, respect to the formal and obvious

30 aspects of educational practices, do take place (such as work in levels of student mastery over such as the distribution of desks, teams and verbal question and assessed objectives varied from one access to certain curricular answer exchanges), these are educational cycle to another: instruments, or teachers’ opinions implemented outside of the approximately 50% in third grade, about which methodologies are pedagogical sense promoted under 30% in sixth grade, and 20% in ninth more convenient. Frontal the reform framework. grade (Graph 1). methodologies, rather than active ones, remain predominant. In Results of testing in primary addition, although certain practices education in 1998 showed that

Graph 1. Number of Learning Objectives Achieved by Students, per Subject and Grade, 1998

10 9 8 7 6 5.5 5 Third 5 4 4.2 Sixth 3.7 4 3.5 Ninth 2.8 2.8 3 3 2.5 1.5 2 1.2 1 0 Math Language Science Social Studies Source: Prepared with data from the National Department of Assessment, MINED

Breaking down the results, departments versus those who more recent study by Marín (2001) inequalities in student achievement attend school in the central region also found advantages among urban are also seen as dependent on (MINED, 2000, p. 18). students over rural students in different factors. For example, there terms of reading comprehension seems to be a growing opinion Reports on factors associated with and language skills. Finally, tests among teachers that no differences secondary education (MINED, applied in 2001 show an important exist between the capacities, roles, 2002b) demonstrate that household gap between the scores obtained or responsibilities of boys and girls. conditions (particularly by students in rural and urban areas Even when it appears that certain socioeconomic conditions and the in all evaluated subjects and grade advances have been made, actions years of education of the mother) levels (MINED, 2002c). occur in the classroom that are the variables that weigh most contribute to gender inequalities heavily on student performance. For technical reasons, a (Barillas et al., 1997). This has been corroborated by mathematical comparison between other studies. Carrasco (2000), for achievement tests applied by With respect to the socioeconomic example, found a significant MINED in 1998 and 2001 has not situation, students in rural schools correlation between achievement been implemented. However, the show lower academic achievement in mathematics and Spanish and the trend has been consistent: students than those in urban schools. The socioeconomic situation in students’ have low academic achievement in same thing occurs with respect to households: those from the poorest primary education. Results from public versus private school homes obtained scores 40% lower 2001 show that in the four subjects students, and students in eastern than those of other students. A and three grade levels, students

31 reach the lower limit of the indicates that some are learning in some cases, as students advance intermediate achievement level and others are not. Graph 2 in their studies, they learn less, as (identify and comprehend) but do illustrates at least the following shown by the decrease in students not process, recognize, or apply trends: (i) most primary students at intermediate and basic levels in their knowledge. This indicates that are learning something but not sixth grade with respect to those students are not developing the enough, as demonstrated by the in third grade, and in ninth grade higher skills and competencies that percentages located at the with respect to sixth grade; (iv) are the focus of a curriculum under intermediate level and especially at students are learning less in the constructivist approach. the basic level; (ii) only mathematics than in other subjects; approximately 13% of students are and (v) only 2% of students are The fact that students reach an experiencing optimal learning (those experiencing optimal learning in intermediate level, on average, located at the superior level); (iii) mathematics in sixth grade.

Graph 2. Percentage of Students per Achievement Level and Grade, 2001

100 2 11 7 12 13 16 15 12 14 13 90 17 22 80 51 37 70 48 44 40 28 52 43 50 49 60 56 62 Superior 50 Intermediate 40 Basic

30 56 50 43 47 44 20 40 37 40 36 38 29 26 10 0 Third Sixth Ninth Third Sixth Ninth Third Sixth Ninth Third Sixth Ninth

Language Math Science Social Studies

Source: Prepared based on data from MINED (2002a).

As part of this study, the research repetition mentioned above. It indicators of the quality of education team reviewed the results achieved confirms the low level of learning provided in third grade, and non- on language items by third-grade and reveals an inefficient use of specialists can also form their own children in the test applied by SINEA resources in the school system to opinions about the relationship in 2001. This analysis revealed that the extent that the objectives in between what students understand half of the students in the third grade reading comprehension are and the difficulty of the text. If of primary school in El Salvador cannot reasonable according to children cannot understand what they identify the message of a relatively international comparisons21. It is read, then they are unable to simple written text (approximately particularly relevant to analyze comprehend math problems or to four lines long). This result is reading comprehension results learn concepts in the social and natural consistent with the rates of because they tend to be the best sciences. This study also believes

21 See comment on page 31 in Lockheed, M and A. Verspoor, (1991), Improving Primary Education in Developing Countries: A Review of Policy Options, (World Bank), New York: Oxford Press.

32 that inferential reading is a better and very probably for the children with development of flexible modalities indicator than literal reading greater socioeconomic disadvantages, for youth who are entering the (UNESCO-LLECE, 2001, p. 24). who took part in achievement testing labor force with only six grades of in 2001. Indeed, with learning levels primary education. In summary, As discussed elsewhere, the poorest low at the end of the period under preparing the population for greater students obtain the lowest results. investigation (in these cases the competitiveness involves increasing the This is cause for great concern, aggregate value is clearly very low, effectiveness of preschool and primary since recent studies have shown and the use of complex methods education, including an effective that school quality is of vital of measurement is unnecessary), it transition of students from one grade importance to disadvantaged groups is impossible to expect that there to another (implying mastery of reading in providing opportunities for has been a substantial improvement and writing as a foundation for the success in life. In developing in learning or in teaching. ability to learn how to learn), and countries, the effects of school ensuring that opportunities are quality on student performance can Greater competitiveness requires available to all children regardless of potentially compensate for more skilled human resources. their socioeconomic or cultural disadvantages in socioeconomic Most countries that hope to situations. background (Reimers, 2000; advance in terms of international Cassasus, 2003). competitiveness, including El Salvador, are emphasizing the The low levels of learning found in the importance of extending secondary 1990s did not significantly improve in education. However, the indicators the last assessment carried out in presented above illustrate the 2001 and are associated with the complexity involved in achieving persistence of traditional teaching this goal, as it implies improving the methodologies used at the start of the structural capacity of preschool and decade. This is particularly valid for primary education. It also requires the lower half of primary students, special attention toward the

33 V. CONDITIONS ASSOCIATED WITH EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Preschool Education been provided and training held for training in how to evaluate the parents, teachers, and school children in their classes. During the 1990s, public preschool directors in 525 communities. Methodological guidebooks were enrollment increased under the prepared for teachers, providing EDUCO initiative. In addition, Access to preschool has a positive assistance for planning, organization nonformal education centers were impact on performance, as of the learning environment, and established to provide services to demonstrated in studies that teaching strategies. Textbooks were zero- to six-year-old children. These control for family socioeconomic prepared for children, along with centers promote the involvement conditions. Therefore, it is necessary guidebooks for their parents. of mothers, who receive training in to broaden access or offer educational strategies for early alternative, equivalent modalities There is broad agreement among childhood stimulation and that prepare children to enter preschool educators that traditional preparation. These initiatives have primary school. El Salvador’s goal training, content practice, and been supported by NGOs, is to provide three years of isolated skill building have not been universities, the central government, preschool education to all children successful in preparing children for and international organizations such between four and six years old— entrance to primary school. Nor as UNICEF, USAID, and the World an admirable goal for a developing do these aspects help to develop a Bank. There are no records, nation. Given the large percentage good level of critical thinking or the however, about the number of of poor children who do not attend problem-solving skills necessary in children covered through these preschool, however, a cost / benefit the 21st century. Although it is centers. In 1998, the Early analysis should be implemented possible to improve traditional Childhood Family Education comparing the enrollment of testing results by promoting Program (EDIFAM) began, financed children in three years of preschool memorization, training, dictation, by USAID (US $8.7 million) in versus the option of ensuring at in-class repetition, and mechanized coordination with the Salvadoran least one year of preschool before learning, few educators currently Institute for Children and first grade. support the continuation of such Adolescents (ISNA), MINED, and traditional methodologies. Experts the Ministry of Health. EDIFAM With respect to the quality of agree that active, life-based, has supported curricular revision preschool education, in the 1990s significant, and relevant learning and the production of preschool significant steps were taken to experiences are required. They also materials for the formal system develop a new curriculum with believe in the need for interactive (four to six years); it is currently three basic units: the school, the teaching, cooperative learning, and designing the curriculum for zero- family, and the community. These the integration of subject matters to three-year-olds. This earliest units were linked to the national (NAEYC, 2003). Specialists’ level has also been targeted by curriculum, placing emphasis on opinions, as well as the goals, Phase I of the Educational Reform children’s cognitive, psychomotor, objectives, and curriculum in El Project funded by the World Bank. and social/affective development. Salvador, apparently support these In this case, didactic materials have In addition, teachers received basic assumptions about teaching

34 and learning. This can be achieved, gross schooling still only new vision of continuous and demonstrated by comparing the covers less than 50% of the overall systematic professional goals for preschool in El Salvador population. Seventy percent of children development for teachers in service. with the goals of NAEYC (Dominios from families with the highest incomes The vision includes improving Curriculares Básicos, 1999, p. 13–14), receive preschool education, compared capacity among teachers for offering as illustrated in Annex 9. to only 25% of children from families constructivist, learner-centered with the lowest incomes. First-grade education and a role for teachers Early childhood specialists agree teachers who receive students with in the social and economic that children—especially those no prior preparation have a more development of the country. under five years old—should not complicated task than those receive formal instruction in reading teachers who receive students with Changes promoted in the 1990s and writing. However, they also one or two years of preschool. included the following: curricular agree that the classroom must This initial difficulty is one of the reform, distribution of study contain many letters, words, causes of the deficient results found programs and teacher’s guides, numbers, and other abstract upon entry into formal schooling. provision of textbooks to students, concepts. Even more important It leads to a vicious cycle of failure salary increases associated with a than the introduction of symbols and heterogeneity that becomes pay-scale revision and the is the need for teachers to read to difficult to resolve. introduction of performance students in groups and individually, incentives, the reform of early and for children to acquire Teacher Performance and education, implementation of knowledge about words. It is here Classroom Practices national training initiatives from where serious questions may be massive training events to the asked not only about preschools in Over the last decade, MINED has transfer of financial resources to El Salvador, but also about the implemented changes in teacher schools, testing of those graduating country’s primary education in training. New teachers take classes with teaching degrees, and the general. Although teachers have in educational theory, as well as gain introduction of new evaluation the intention to use a child-centered practical experience by observing standards. Recently, the Escuela Diez approach in class, studies have and helping in classrooms. In general, program was launched, focusing on shown that they take very little the purpose of all policies and improving quality in 103 relatively time for any type of reading and programs targeting quality is to successful schools. However, no writing in class. In part, this can be modify teacher performance and clearly defined policy has been attributed to the lack of books and teaching practices in the classroom. adopted to ensure that teaching is reading materials. Even in primary In comparison to the United States, effective and that children’s learning schools, where emphasis on formal teacher training in El Salvador does is improved. learning in language is essential, not require coursework in the there is little or no reading to content that the teachers will be This study identified ten principal children and little free reading by teaching (language, history, etc.), but causes of low achievement in them. Moreover, in general, parents provides more time in educational learning that are relevant to the in El Salvador do not read to their theory and teaching methods. situation in El Salvador, many related children before primary school. to teacher performance and Following the passage of laws from teaching practices (see Schiefelbein, Although preschool education 1996 to 2000 governing higher 1990)22 : expanded over the last decade and education and the teaching career, certain quality improvements were MINED embarked on achieving a (i) use of frontal teaching and

22 On the other hand, the study rejects other causes often cited as problems. For example, the level of difficulty of the curricula applied in El Salvador is reasonable and does not differ significantly from the levels of difficulty in other countries; that is, El Salvador’s curricula should not create excessive demands on the children (see Lockheed and Verspoor, 1991). Class size is reasonable, and a similar conclusion may be drawn with respect to teacher salaries, which are more than two times the national per capita income (the indicator used as a reference). 35 other inadequate teaching learning. Therefore, these students study programs nor textbooks methods in classes in which repeat the grade level, which further emphasize the importance of there is great heterogeneity aggravates classroom heterogeneity systematic and permanent reading with respect to student age; without improving children’s and writing in primary education, (ii) failure to provide preschool learning (Flechsig and Schiefelbein, especially in the early grades. education to children with 2003; also see McGinn and Borden, fewer resources (see previous 1995, p. 90). With respect to an induction section); process (v) and styles of teacher- (iii) lack of learning materials for With respect to learning materials educators (vi), a great majority of students; (iii) and teaching methods (iv), a those who educate teachers employ (iv) inadequate reading / writing review of textbooks used in El frontal teaching methods and carry teaching methods; Salvador showed that students’ out little research about the effects (v) lack of an induction process prior knowledge is often of different teaching models. for new teachers; disregarded. Textbooks do not Although teachers know the (vi) difficulty of changing the suggest family activities, indicate characteristics of many available teaching styles of those who how to include the school models, few have put into practice educate teachers; environment or surroundings in any model other than frontal (vii) insufficient early stimulation of classroom activities, or include teaching, such as case studies, children; sufficient practice exercises or projects, seminars, field exploration, (viii)public disinformation about the attractive formative evaluation simulations, place learning, high rate of repetition and the modalities. In general, the texts do programmed teaching, mutual magnitude of learning not include good exercises for education networks, tutoring, or problems; reading comprehension, workshops (Flechsig and (ix) lack of available time for identification of the main idea, Schiefelbein, 2003). In addition to learning; and vocabulary building, or logical limitations in their pre-service (x) inadequate assignment of reasoning. The books use few professional development, new teachers to the first grade of teaching models (only two or three teachers joining the work force for primary school. out of many possible— and the first time discover that they effective—models.23) It is important lack the techniques for teaching With respect to teaching methods to note that research has led to and must ask their colleagues “how (item (i) in the above list), frontal great progress in different to do it” (Latorre, 2002) or adopt teaching is inefficient when approaches to the teaching of the very same frontal model with employed with heterogeneous age reading. A recent publication by which they were educated at groups and students with highly the U.S. National Research Council different levels in the school system. variable learning levels who receive has systematized global research little support at home, frequently about the prevention of reading With respect to a lack of available miss classes, do not do their difficulties (Snow, et al., 1998). In time (ix), students who learn the homework on time, lack school any case, “validation of the initial least are those who miss too many supplies, have limited vocabularies, versions of guidebooks and class days due to illness or the need and are incapable of using more instructions…will ensure that to contribute to family activities, as complex expressions. Frontal teachers can use them, students well as those who require more teaching does not allow children can understand them, and learning time to understand instructions. from families with fewer resources times are appropriate” (World Good instructions make it possible to achieve the minimum expected Bank, 1987, p. 5). In addition, neither for students to recover (at least in part) the learning that occurred 23 Teacher professional development and training, as well as didactic materials, should allow for experimentation with different models (Montessori, Waldorf, Freinet, Makarenko, Nueva, Plan Dalton) and projects (Accelerated, Cognitive Curriculum, French, German, Italian, British or American). There is a list of 20 teaching models useful for work in heterogeneous classrooms (Flechsig and Schiefelbein, 2003).

36 when they missed class. In general, assignment of teachers (x), teaching Assembly, however, after twelve students have little time to learn in first grade is probably the most years of uninterrupted increase, the traditional schools because of very important position in a school, but 2004 budget for education will short school years, few hours in a it is the job often assigned to the experience a US $21 million class day, student and teacher least-prepared teacher. First-grade nominal decrease. This reduction absences, and poor use of time by teachers have an especially corresponds to a decrease of teachers (Toro, 1988). In a complicated assignment when their approximately US $40 million in traditional school, the real number students are entering school for external loan disbursements, a drop of class days in a school year is no the first time with no preschool that is not compensated by a similar more than 160, and classes usually experience, have received little early increase in the national budget last no more than 3.5 hours per stimulation, and have parents with (which will increase by less than US day, as was the case ten years ago little or no education. In this case, $20 million). There will also be a (Dewees et al., 1995, p. 243). the task is immense, and most slight decrease in grants. It must Subtracting holidays and vacations, teachers try to avoid it. They be noted that many of the inputs it is estimated that the school year attempt to pass the job to new related to improvements in teaching (or time available for learning) totals teachers—recent graduates with quality are financed with external 500 hours per year in El Salvador, limited expertise to complete the resources and, therefore, their compared to 1,100 hours in the task successfully. The lack of prior sustainability cannot be guaranteed. United States, some 1,300 hours in experience among first-grade Europe, and even more in Japan.24 teachers will lead to low levels of Real time for teaching / learning is learning among students, and this further reduced because both translates into a burden that will students and teachers miss class accompany almost all of these during the year; the lack of students for the rest of their lives textbooks makes it necessary to in school. The assignment of good copy instead of spending time teachers to first grade would break reflecting or practicing; and the this complicated, vicious cycle, need to resolve disciplinary helping to improve learning at all problems, generated, in part, by grade levels. boring frontal teaching practices. Students abandon school during Quantity and Quality of harvest and/or market seasons, Investment in Education especially in rural areas, and some teachers utilize sick leave. In El Salvador has made efforts to addition, the little time that remains increase investment in education. for learning is sometimes dedicated The education budget rose by 158% to less relevant objectives in real terms from 1993 to 2003, (prioritizing, for example, the and public investment in education memorization of grammar rules increased from 1.5% of the GDP in with children who cannot write and the early 1990s to more than 3% do not comprehend what they of the GDP in 2002. read). According to the proposed National Finally, with respect to inadequate Budget presented to the Legislative

24 Nancy Sato, 2004, Inside Japanese Classrooms. The Heart of Education, Routledge Falmer, New York, p. 325.

37 Graph 3. Education Budget as a Percentage of GDP and Total Budget, 1992 to 2004

4% 25% 3% 20% 15% 2% 10% 1% 5% 0% 0%

Education Budget as % of GDP Education Budget as % of Total Budget

Note: Data about the 2004 budget refers to the budget proposal presented to the Legislative Assembly. Source: National Budget, several years.

Compared with other countries in not detailed in a way that makes it spending, and administrative and Latin America, El Salvador’s public possible to determine if some grade other similar expenditures between spending on the education sector levels are under-financed (because 10.5% and 12.5%. All other is still limited (Table 5 and Annexes of their high repetition rates) and expenditures—many of which are 6d and 6e). As a percentage of others over-financed. Allocations necessary to improve educational GDP, El Salvador’s education budget for preschool and secondary quality—add up to only 16% of surpasses only those of Ecuador, education are low. spending per student25. Most Guatemala, and Uruguay and is equal financing to improve quality comes to Peru’s. The remaining countries It is important to ensure the from external sources. This means in the region earmark at least 4% sustainability of components financed that sustainability is not ensured of their respective GDPs to with external resources, so as not to over time. If the permanence of education (UNDP, 2003). put educational quality at risk. such resources is not ensured over According to a breakdown of time, the quality of education in El Priority within the budget is focused spending per student, salaries Salvador may deteriorate, especially on primary education, which absorb a significant percentage of when compared with other absorbed 60% of the total in 2002. the budget. At the preschool and countries in the region (Annexes However, primary education covers primary levels, salaries account for 7A and 7B). nine grade levels, and the budget is between 72% and 75% of all

25 See Chapter 8, included in the attached CD, for a more detailed description of activities financed by World Bank and IDB loans.

38 Table 5 Breakdown of Spending per Student in US$ and % of Total Spending, per Level, 2002

US$ % of Level Preschool 233.39 100.0% Salaries 166.69 71.4% Goods and Services 1.13 0.5% Current Transfers 4.02 1.7% Other Expenditures, Preschool 1/ 32.50 13.9% Other Expenditures 3/ 29.06 12.4% Primary 279.21 100.0% Salaries 208.92 74.8% Goods and Services 1.61 0.6% Current Transfers 7.13 2.6% Other Expenditures, Primary 1/ 32.50 11.6% Other Expenditures 3/ 29.06 10.4% Secondary 490.63 100.0% Salaries 251.66 51.3% Goods and Services 6.37 1.3% Current Transfers 3.87 0.8% Other Expenditures, Secondary 2/ 199.68 40.7% Other Expenditures 3/ 29.06 5.9% 1/ Educational Reform, Phase I, World Bank: US$42,938,050 divided by the number of preschool and primary students. 2/ Secondary Education Reform, World Bank: US$16,435,100 and technical support for the secondary education reform process: US$4,860,720, divided by the number of secondary students. 3/ Including: institutional management and administration; strengthening of access to education; educational development; and teacher welfare, divided by the total number of students. Source: Prepared based on data from the National Budget, 2002 and MINED.

Relatively less public spending for education26. It should also be noted quintile (indicated as “1” in Graph education is directed toward lower- that public investment is lower in 4) than it is for the other quintiles. income sectors, especially with respect the case of preschool and secondary to resources earmarked for secondary students from the lowest income

Graph 4 Distribution of Public Resources for Education, per Educational Level (Children between 4 and 18 years old per income quintile)

30% 25% 20% Preschool 15% Primary 10% Secondary 5% 0% 1 2 3 4 5

Source: Prepared based on data from the National Budget for 2002 and EHPM 2002.

26 In terms of adequate distribution, the study found evidence demonstrating that San Salvador and La Libertad are under-financedwith respect to their student populations.

39 High repetition, mainly within the first students with fewer resources, leads the system. Estimates of the costs years of primary school and among to the serious waste of resources within of grade repetition are shown in Table 6.

Table 6 El Salvador’s Costs of Repeating Students in Each Primary Grade Level, 2002

Grade Total Enrollment Over-age Repeaters % of Total Cost of Repeaters (45% are over-age) Enrollment (in US$ millions) 1 242,447 116,072 108,000 45% 24.8 2 174,817 89,739 83,498 48% 19.2 3 158,826 83,719 77,897 49% 17.9 4 144,311 76,517 71,196 49% 16.4 5 132,403 69,650 64,806 49% 14.9 6 124,347 65,611 61,048 49% 14.0 7 119,040 67,128 62,459 52% 14.4 8 100,465 53,453 49,736 50% 11.4 9 85,037 45,688 42,511 50% 9.8 Total 1,281,693 667,577 621,150 48% 142.9

Budget for primary education in 2003: 252.8 Percentage dedicated to repeating students: 56.6% Note 1: The cost per student is estimated at US$ 230, using the following data. Note 2: The average salary of a category 3 teacher is $ 6,910 per year (in 2003). Note 3: In 2001 there were 52,553 teachers and 1,393,349 students (27 students per teacher). Note 4: It is estimated that the real student / teacher ratio in 2002 will be 30 to 1. Source: Calculations by Ernesto Schiefelbein, based on data from DIGESTYC 2002 (p. 441, 473, and 501).

In its plan entitled Educación para classroom fees, supplies, and other education services. Todos (Education for All), MINED costs. However, as needed as this has established goals for net funding is, it primarily benefits The legal framework (General coverage at the different levels of students of higher income Education Law, Teaching Career Law, education. By 2015, it proposes to households. Of the $727 million in and Higher Education Law) was achieve universal coverage at the private funds for education in 2002, updated, integrated, and simplified preschool and primary levels and 45% went to those in the highest- in the mid-1990s. Changes in 75% coverage with respect to the income quintile, while only 8% MINED have included the following: third cycle of primary school and benefited the lowest-income decentralization from a regional to the secondary level. According to students. a departmental structure prepared calculations, the budget (1997–1998); contracting of private for education must increase from Institutional Modernization services with public funds; renewal 3.3% of the GDP in 2002 to close and Decentralization of the supervisory system (1991) to 5% of the GDP in 2015 in order and, subsequently, its elimination in to finance the requirements implied In the early 1990s, El Salvador faced order to create a pedagogical by these goals. a critical need to modernize its advisory system (2001); educational system. Throughout modernization in the administration Private spending in education that decade, decisions were made of human and financial resources; increased total spending for and initiatives implemented that and implementation of information education to 8.4% of the GDP, pointed toward a more and evaluation systems. through support for textbooks, decentralized management of

40 Initially, the idea was to transfer By 2003, student enrollment had implementation of Institutional responsibilities to Departmental topped 362,000, with the Educational Projects (Proyectos Offices. However, it was later participation of over 2,000 ACEs in Educativos Institucionales – PEIs). decided that this might cause schools employing over 7,000 dysfunctional overlaps with the teachers. In 2002, ACEs The establishment of ACEs and central level and a loss of school administered close to US $45 CDEs has made it possible for autonomy. Unlike other educational million, representing approximately communities and other decentralization processes in Latin 11% of the national budget (Reyes, stakeholders to administer financial America, El Salvador opted not to 2002). Currently, enrollment in resources without seeking prior decentralize through its EDUCO schools is close to 37% authorization from MINED or the municipalities, which were thought of total rural enrollment in public Ministry of Finance and without to have technical limitations and to preschool and primary education. having to carry out and wait for be at risk of politicization, although the steps required for centralized they could collaborate with the As a result of approval of the procurement within the public schools according to their individual Teaching Career Law, School sector. One example is the capacities. Instead, El Salvador Management Councils (Consejos administration of school bonds since decided to decentralize at the Directivos Escolares – CDEs) were 1997. (Table 7 lists transfers school level (Lardé de Palomo, et established in all public schools as administered by schools in 2002.) al., 1998). of 1997. In cases where more than Nevertheless, central MINED is one school existed within a single still responsible for overseeing Through the EDUCO program, building, one director was transfers of financial resources, MINED organized, legalized, and appointed, assigning one school negotiating sector resources with trained Community Associations name and establishing a single staff the Ministry of Finance, and for Education (Asociaciones payroll. School directors were legalizing documentation at the Comunales para la Educación – ACEs) selected and named for five-year national level. It also continues to formed by parents in communities periods. In some cases, conflicts administer, at an overall level, the within the country’s poorest arose with respect to the payment of salaries and benefits municipalities. With financial integration of services within single (except in EDUCO schools). resources transferred by the school buildings; however, the Budget allocations are not provided government, ACEs hired teachers measure was ultimately successful to the departments, although the and purchased goods and services. and facilitated the implementation allocation of periodic payments When the EDUCO program began of funding transfer mechanisms in does occur at the departmental in 1991, the program included 263 subsequent years. In addition, as of level (Lardé de Palomo, et al., 1998, ACEs and covered 8,416 students. 2001, El Salvador promoted the p. 12).

41 Table 7. School Bonds per Bond Type, Objective, and Allocation Criterion, 2002 (Thousands of US$)

Type of Bond Objective Allocation Criterion Amount (US$ Thousands) 1 Educational Quality Bond To help to satisfy schools’ priority needs, Per number of sections 9,285 (Bono de Calidad oriented toward improving the quality of Educativa – GOES) services. 2 Preventive Maintenance Preventive maintenance of the schools. Budget of needs 635

3 Development of Learning Introduction of Learning Resource Centers. School project 1,400 Resource Centers (Centros de Recursos para el Aprendizaje – CRAs) 4 Bond for Excellence To provide Escuela Diez with resources to School project 2,025 implement activities and projects prioritized in the PEI. 5 School Food To provide daily food rations to children in $ 0.12 per child 5,103 rural and marginal urban areas. 6 Fondo Alegría Bond To encourage better utilization of schools Per school project 857 during open hours. 7 Fondo Juventud Bond To create spaces for cultural and Per school project 200 recreational participation during non-school hours and vacations. 8 Professional Development To strengthen local professional $ 56.69 per teacher 1,829 Plans development processes for teachers, (approximately) through self-initiative and -development. 9 Incentive for Institutional To provide incentives for quality teacher $228.57 per teacher in 5,143 Educational Efforts performance and planning efforts. institutions that pass evaluation 10 Administrative Assistance To strengthen the administrative capacities $57.14 per school to 3,816 of different members of the Modalities for schools in departmental Local School Administration (CDEs and capital; $68.57 to schools ACEs) in other municipalities TOTAL 30,293 Source: Prepared by Anabella Lardé based on MINED data.

Five points can be made about offices feel that they play only use funds closer to the schools institutional modernization and a secondary role as clerks or presumably has a positive decentralization in El Salvador: “paper pushers.” In addition, impact with respect to there is no systematic policy spending pertinence and (i) The creation of Departmental to promote participation by efficiency, although this should Offices has facilitated the municipalities. be proved empirically. organization and administrative (ii) MINED transfers have Currently, bond options are support processes for the provided the schools with non- highly fragmented, forcing ACEs schools. Because they lack salary resources to which they and CDEs to invest much of decision-making power, had no access before. Bringing their time in administrative however, personnel in these the decisions about how to procedures.

25 Transfers 1, 5, 9, and 10 are incorporated within the Budget Law. The rest are financed through credit from the World Bank or IDB. This means that their sustainability cannot be ensured.

42 (iii) With the Professional mechanisms for the accountability systematized. In 1996, the Development Bond, MINED of school directors and teachers. Department of Evaluation and has decentralized in-service Such efforts are pointing in the right Research was created, and teacher training and apparently direction because, in order to have an achievement tests covering the four been able to train all teachers effect, all educational reforms must main primary subjects were applied at a lower cost than invested reach the classroom, and participation to a representative sample of first- previously. However, questions can contribute significantly to this goal. and sixth-grade students in 311 have been raised about the However, with power and schools, including EDUCO and quality of service providers autonomy come responsibilities. If traditional schools. In 1998, tests (especially in rural zones) and participants’ capacities are not were given at the same schools, about the atomization of strengthened and they are not and ninth-grade students were also allocations to small schools. provided with adequate resources included. The results of these tests (iv) EDUCO has achieved relative to meet their responsibilities, results have served as feedback for the success in extending coverage, will be insufficient. The risk in review of study programs, but significant challenges decentralization processes production of teaching materials, remain with respect to its (especially those involving school and design of training processes. functioning (especially regarding autonomy) is that they may In order to put learning its clear impact on the exaggerate rather than decrease achievements into context, improvement of quality and existing educational inequalities. information was also gathered about equality). Working and salary This problem cannot be alleviated factors related to the teachers, conditions of EDUCO through a policy that expects schools, and families. This has made teachers have been improving existing inequalities to be resolved it possible to establish correlations and are now almost at the level by a trickle-down effect. The greatest between learning achievements and of traditional schools. pending challenge is to channel this different variables related to student However, the question of job participation toward the improvement achievement. After the evaluation security as perceived by of learning opportunities, especially for in 1998, results were returned to teachers in the traditional the poorest and most marginal sectors the schools (Castro et al., 1999, p. system has yet to be resolved. of the country. 93). Given the type of population they cover, the work of Evaluation Systems During the period from 1993 to EDUCO schools is more 2000, however, testing at the difficult, but they can also make Before 1993, El Salvador did not primary school level tended to be a greater difference in the apply standardized tests to measure inconsistent, due either to test quality of their students’ lives. the academic performance of design or to sample selection, both (v) With respect to CDEs, there students in its educational system. of which are related to the is a need to train their In that year, and with support from availability of financial resources. directors (as well as other the SABE Project, initial efforts were Recognizing these weaknesses in members in general) on made in the area of learning the system, MINED decided to unify aspects of administrative and assessment. The first tests were and systematize all evaluation pedagogical management and applied by a special unit created in processes, including tests of learning parliamentary norms, so that the Curriculum Office in 1994. The at the primary and secondary levels they can improve their efforts data were analyzed by an external and competency tests applied to and better manage consensual agency, and results served as a graduating teachers (ECAP). In this decision-making processes. baseline for the SABE Project way, MINED established the (USAID, 1994). National Learning Evaluation System The reforms of educational (Sistema Nacional de Evaluación de management have promoted Subsequently, the application of los Aprendizajes – SINEA) in 2001, parental participation and created testing at the primary level was under the auspices of the National 43 Department of Monitoring and type of results produced by (vii) El Salvador does not participate Evaluation. Academic performance the tests. in international testing. tests were applied at the third-, (iii) In order to ensure However, there are several sixth-, and ninth-grade levels in transparency and better opportunities to do so, such 2003, but the results are not yet comprehension of the system, as TIMSS, PISA, PIRLS, and the available. those in charge of it must LLECE test. A second study produce a complete technical of the LLECE test at the Latin MINED has made significant report explaining the focus, American level is scheduled progress in establishing a learning preparation, application, for 2004. El Salvador should assessment system. It now has measurement, and presentation consider participating in tests standardized tests for the final grade of results. of broader international reach, levels of each of the three cycles in (iv) SINEA tests still assess only a such as those sponsored by primary education (third, sixth, and limited number of IEA and OCDE. ninth grades), for the final year of competencies under each (viii)Finally, key actors in the system secondary school, and even for subject and only those that can interviewed for this study those graduating from universities be measured using multiple- expressed concern that the with teaching degrees. However, choice questions. In order to emphasis on standardized certain aspects must still be measure student performance, testing has led to the neglect improved: many different types of of self-assessment and internal assessments are required. evaluation processes carried (i) A better-defined policy is (v) The samples do not allow for out by stakeholders in the required for the use of relevant breakdowns to obtain schools themselves. In order evaluation results. The Achilles data according to geographical to resolve this problem, some heel of this system, as in many criteria, gender, or countries in the region (such other systems in the region socioeconomic status. Nor do as Mexico) have separated and the world, involves the they provide specific internal and external presentation, dissemination, information about which skills evaluations. Internal and use of results in improving (within the competencies) are evaluations would be managed national policies and school and are not being mastered. by MINED and external and teacher performance. Very (vi) The test that is most severely evaluations by a specialized few key actors are aware of criticized, especially by the autonomous institution. As a testing results, and even fewer universities, is the ECAP, which consequence, testing results use the results to improve their tests new teachers. The would be more reliable and performance. The challenge of reason, perhaps, is that this is the Ministry would no longer educational quality evaluation the only test that is a be judge and jury of its own systems involves translating the requirement for graduation. evaluation process. results into concrete policies and Concerns are that the interventions that will improve ECAP is not aligned with the Within the framework of evaluation educational quality. Clearly, this curriculum or with what is criteria comes consideration of requires a good strategy for the taught to the students and that, standards. In Latin America, interest dissemination, socialization, and despite being considered a test has been expressed about the presentation of results. There is of competencies, it actually establishment of national and no evidence that such a strategy favors the measurement of • regional standards. Central exists in El Salvador. memorized knowledge and America—El Salvador in (ii) Improved guidance is required ignores more important particular—has begun to take steps for school directors, teachers, aspects such as professional in this direction: the definition of and parents about the development, values, and skills educational standards began in 1998 objectives, focus, structure, and directly related to teaching. through a project led by the Central 44 American Educational and Cultural other sectors have reacted tepidly, 1995-2005 (MINED, 1995) and its Coordinator (Coordinadora Educativa thus demonstrating the need to adjustments as expressed in the y Cultural Centroamericana – CECC), reinforce dissemination and “Challenges for Education in the together with the Organization of consensus. New Millennium” Program (MINED, Latin American States (OEI) and 2000). The fact that MINED has with participation by technical teams Institutional Coordination these plans has ensured a certain from the region’s Ministries of level of coordination with other Education. The project’s initial In the Rome Declaration on Donor actors within the sector. This is results included the definition of Harmonization signed in February seen as an advantage compared to regional content and performance 2003, governments and international other social sectors that, until standards for primary grades one organizations committed to recently, have lacked sectoral plans. to six in the subjects of ensuring that development mathematics, language, and natural assistance is applied pursuant to MINED’s Department for the sciences (OEI/CECC, 1999). El the priorities of each partner National Coordination of Assistance Salvador is one of the countries country (abiding by national poverty is responsible for the coordination that has advanced most in the reduction strategies and similar of all resources obtained through definition and implementation of approaches) and that efforts are external aid. Assistance from national standards derived from adapted to country contexts. The bilateral donors is determined by these regional standards. objective of such coordination is the agreements regarding to increase the impact of cooperation and priorities of the In 2000, El Salvador began the international assistance by reducing donor country. Cooperation from process of defining its educational or eliminating the duplication of multilateral donors is more flexible: standards and grade expectations. efforts, filling gaps and exploiting areas of action stem from summits By 2003, it prepared content and the comparative advantages of each and ministerial agreements in which performance standards covering donor. El Salvador participates and wields from the first cycle of primary influence. It should be clarified, education up through secondary As a local counterpart, partner however, that the coordination of school in the subjects of language, countries must ensure that public credits or loans (which involve the mathematics, social studies, and policy objectives are expressed in highest investment volumes) is natural sciences. (Learning government plans for each of the carried out by a specialized entity: opportunity standards, which are sectors, including education. Such the Project Coordinating Unit key to aspects of equality, have not plans must stipulate the sector’s (Unidad Coordinadora de Proyecto – been defined. These standards are principles and objectives, the UCP). not part of the CECC Project and strategies and measures meant to apparently are not included in achieve these objectives in the Effective leadership by MINED in MINED’s short-term planning.) The medium term, and specific short- coordinating the different actors in defined standards have been term intervention programs. the education sector will require disseminated to different strengthening the MINED planning stakeholders, and a pilot project for In line with the above, over the past unit. This unit was established classroom application has been several years the concept of Sector- recently28 and, as of January 2004, initiated with a small group of 13 wide Approach Programs (SWAPs) employed only two technicians. schools belonging to the Escuela has been predominant. MINED has Planning responsibilities exceed the Diez Program. Teacher reactions established sectoral plans: the Ten- unit’s capacity, not only because of to this project have varied, and year Educational Reform Plan for the limited personnel but also

28 The Planning Office (ODEPOR) was eliminated in 1996 when MINED reorganized its Regional Offices into 14 Departmental Offices.

45 because the staff must dedicate programs that have received the and private entities that some of its time to short-term day- most funding over the past decade implemented programs in El to-day activities. (see also, in Annexes 7a and 7b, a Salvador in 2003). Table 8 presents a summary of the list of international organizations Table 8 Credits and Grants of Highest Financial Significance in the Education Sector (1991-2003)

Project Source Period Total Amount External (US$ Millions) Financing (US$ Millions) Credits Social Sector Rehabilitation BIRF 1991-1995 7.0 Modernization of Primary Education BIRF/IDB 1995-2002 80.2 Reform of Secondary Education BIRF 1998-2004 77.0 68.0 Educational Reform, Phase I BIRF 1998-2004 110.0 100.0 IDB 2000-2004 81.3 Educational Infrastructure IDB 2001-2003 78.8 TOTAL 415.3 Grants SABE USAID 1991-1998 30.0 Support for Reform USAID 1995-2000 7.0 APREMAT (Technical Secondary European 1999-2005 25.4* 17.0* Education) Union EDIFAM USAID 1999-2004 6.0 EXCELL USAID 2003-2005 5.0 TOTAL 60.0 * Euros Source: Anabella Lardé, based on data from MINED and Centro ALFA (2002).

In order to increase the levels of clear incentives so that the government, realities, taking into account that if human capital, greater public donors, and other actors intensify their appropriate financial estimates are resources are required, along with efforts. not included in the national budget, resources from other actors: then the sustainability of International Financial Institutions Any effort toward coordination investments will be at risk when (IFIs), foreign cooperation, the must be founded on educational external support ends. private sector, and NGOs. For a planning and, within that planning, long time, these actors have on the new Ten-Year Educational In order to ensure sustainable supported the education sector. Reform Plan. The ten-year plan coordination, MINED must However, MINED has not played a must stipulate the sector’s principles create—under its leadership—a very active role in coordinating such and objectives, as well as the permanent entity in which to define support and, on many occasions, strategies and measures to be the sector’s principles and has limited its actions to simply implemented to achieve these objectives, as well as the strategies receiving the assistance offered. principles and objectives in the and measures to achieve these medium term and a program of policy objectives in the medium More funding can be obtained, and its specific short-term interventions. term, and a program of specific use improved, if MINED, donors, and The plan should be prepared under short-term interventions. This other actors in the sector agree to MINED’s leadership, with space for participation would also unite and commit to a single vision. participation by donors and other be the coordinating entity in which Such a pact would help to generate key actors within the sector. It each of the donors and other actors a coherent, predictable, and transparent must be subject to continuous commits to levels of financing and response by donors and other actors monitoring, and it must be adapted specific areas of intervention. to the national plan and would create and modified according to new

46 47 VI. NEW EDUCATION POLICY OPTIONS FOR EL SALVADOR

The efforts carried out in the 1990s culture based on reading and to strengthen El Salvador’s The following seven proposed policy writing skills. Special emphasis educational system must be options, based on this analysis, may must be focused on children recognized. More children attend help to improve education in El who are below average in school, efforts have been made to Salvador. With elections held in El learning achievement tests— provide schools with resources, Salvador in 2004, these proposals and who are also the poorest teachers share a vision with respect come at an opportune time for the children. Excellent teachers to the improvement of quality, definition of a long-term strategic should be assigned to cover funding for education has increased, plan: first grade, and teaching and important legal and institutional practices should be reviewed transformations have been achieved. (i) Opportunities for in order to ensure that teachers However, it cannot be said that children to receive practice models other than the children are advancing effectively preschool education frontal method and focus on from one grade level to the next must be increased, literacy and self-learning. This in primary school, or that they are particularly for those will imply an increase in the acquiring the fundamental children whose families effective time dedicated to competencies necessary to face the receive lower incomes. learning and application of a challenges of today’s society. At the In an initial stage, El Salvador system that promotes students root of current learning deficiencies should consider expanding because they learn. There are is an insufficient mastery over the access to preschool to all programs in El Salvador (such competencies of reading and children for at least one year as Alternative Classrooms and writing—competencies that must prior to first grade. Preschool Accelerated Education) that be consolidated within the first education must ensure that must be evaluated and years of schooling and that set the children acquire skills associated improved in order to help foundation for subsequent learning. with reading and writing. eliminate repetition.

In an international context, the (ii) Measures increasing the (iii) The third primary cycle (grades limitations that may exist in El possibility that students 7 to 9) will grow as more Salvador (see Annexes 6A through pass from one grade to children complete sixth grade. 6E) are even more severe for the the next must be Meanwhile, El Salvador socioeconomic sectors with the introduced, especially within must consider the lowest incomes. Dedicated efforts the first cycle of primary implementation of must be made to eliminate existing education, ensuring that flexible alternative gaps, thereby ensuring that the relevant learning is achieved. modalities (including the system operates effectively to In this sense, the curricula of evaluation and strengthening of reduce poverty and increase these grade levels should be programs such as television- productive capacities and revised, focusing on the based learning and international competitiveness. development of a reading EDUCATODOS) in order to

48 ensure that options are available (v)Efforts to strengthen (vii)A national initiative must for a greater percentage of the school autonomy should be developed, bringing population to continue their be reinforced, promoting different local actors and studies. leadership among school international directors, as well as organizations together (iv)The assessment system participation by teachers and to cooperate in efforts must be strengthened. communities. The schools’ main to improve education, The elimination of current responsibility should be to use pursuant to a long-term vision. initiatives due to lack of available resources to ensure Finalization of the Ten-Year financing must be prevented. an increase in schooling and an Educational Reform Plan In addition, mechanisms must improvement in learning quality. (1995–2005) and the arrival of be created to ensure that newly elected officials will evaluation results are useful to (vi)The trend toward provide an opportunity to unite and exploited by public reductions in public society on behalf of education. authorities, schools, teachers, investment in education While long-term goals are being parents, and society in general must be reversed. Rather, established, it is essential to to identify problems and such investment should increase remember that short-term determine correct responses and achieve greater efforts are also necessary to to improve children’s learning. effectiveness, which will be increase the quantity and quality The country should consider accomplished by preventing of education, especially among participating in international repetition and focusing the country’s poorest sectors. testing, so that the achievements resources on the children of of Salvadoran children are families with lower incomes so compared to those of children that education becomes a tool from other countries. for the reduction of poverty.

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50 Sector Educación. Mimeograph. San Santiago, Chile y Ecole Doctorale 2000-2001. La Transformación en la Salvador: Fundación Salvadoreña de la faculte des Sciences Humaines Reconstrucción. San Salvador: para el Desarrollo Económico y et Sociales de l´Universite Rene Ministerio de Educación. Social (FUSADES). Descartes, Paris. MINED (2002a). El Salvador 2000. Flores, I., et al. (2001). Escuelas Lockheed, Marlaine and Adriaan Logros y desafíos de la educación. San Públicas de I y II Ciclo de Educación Verspoor (1989). El mejoramiento Salvador: Ministerio de Educación. Básica Exitosas y no Exitosas: Factores de la educación primaria en los países que Influyen en tal Situación. San en desarrollo: examen de las opciones MINED (2002b). Factores asociados Salvador: FEPADE. de políticas. Washington, DC: The al rendimiento de los estudiantes que World Bank. se sometieron a la PAES 2000. San FUSADES (2002). Invirtamos en Salvador: Ministerio de Educación. educación para desafiar el crecimiento Marin, M. (2001). Aula Reformada: económico y la pobreza. Informe de Buenas Prácticas de Actualización MINED (2002c). Informe de desarrollo económico y social. San y Buenas Practicas Docentes. Resultados de Logro Académico Salvador: FUSADES. Estudio inédito, REDUC. Educación Básica, 2001. El Salvador: SINEA. FUSADES (2003). Informe de Ministerio de Economía (2003). Desarrollo Económico y Social 2003: Encuesta de Hogares de Propósitos MINED (2003a). Plan de Educación Competitividad para el Desarrollo. San Múltiples, 2002, Dirección General para Todos 2003-2015 (Versión Salvador: FUSADES. de Estadística y Censos. preliminar). San Salvador: Ministerio de Educación. Gajardo, M. (1999). Reformas Ministerio de Educación (MINED) Educativas en América Latina: Balance (1994). Memoria de Labores 1989- MINED (2003b). Caracterización del de una Década. Santiago: PREAL, 1994. San Salvador: Ministerio de Primero y Segundo Ciclos de Educación documento de trabajo No 15. Educación. Básica en El Salvador. Un enfoque cualitativo. San Salvador: Dirección Guevara, et al. (2000). Los CDE, una MINED (1995). Reforma Educativa Nacional de Monitoreo y Estrategia de Administración Escolar, en Marcha. Lineamientos del Plan Evaluación, Ministerio de Educación. Local Participativa. San Salvador: Decenal, 1995-2005. San Salvador: FEPADE. Ministerio de Educación. MINED (2003c). Memoria de Labores 2002-2003. Escuelas en Guzmán, J.L. (2003). La Reforma MINED (1997). Fundamentos del transformación hacia una educación Educativa de El Salvador (1992-2002). Currículum Nacional. San Salvador: de calidad. San Salvador: Ministerio Case Study. Washington, DC: The Ministerio de Educación. de Educación. RISE Institute/IDB. MINED (1999). Dominios curriculares MINED (2003d). Estándares e Lardé de Palomo, A., et al. (1998). básicos de educación parvularia, básica Indicadores de los Procesos de Calidad: Administración Educativa y media. San Salvador: Ministerio de Programa Escuela 10. San Salvador: Descentralizada: El Caso de El Educación. Ministerio de Educación. Salvador. San Salvador: FUSADES. MINED (2000). Desafíos de la MINED/UES (2003). Plan Especial Latorre, Marisol (2002). Saber educación hacia el nuevo milenio. de Estimulo a la Labor Educativa Pedagógico en uso. Caracterización Reforma Educativa en Marcha, 2000- Institucional para el Año 2002. San del saber actuante en las prácticas 2005. San Salvador: Ministerio de Salvador: Ministerio de Educación, pedagógicas, Tesis Doctoral, Educación. Universidad de El Salvador. Programa de Doctorado en Ciencias de la Educación, PUC, MINED (2001). Memoria de Labores Ministerio de Hacienda (2003). 51 Proyecto de Ley Presupuesto General Centroamérica y República Wolff, and Paulina Schiefelbein del Estado, 2004. Dominicana. Comisión (1998). “Cost Effectiveness of Centroamericana para la Reforma Education Policies in Latin América: Ministerio de Hacienda (2003). Educativa. Washington DC: PREAL. A Survey of Expert Opinion”, Presupuesto General del Estado, 2003. Technical Study EDU-109, IDB, Ravela, P. (2002). ¿Cómo presentan Washington, D.C., pp. 1-29, Ministerio de Hacienda (2002). sus Resultados los Sistemas Nacionales December 1998. Presupuesto General del Estado, 2002. de Evaluación Educativa en América Latina? Washington: PREAL. Schiefelbein, Ernesto (1990). Basic Ministerio de Hacienda (2001). Elements to Reflect on the Quality Presupuesto General del Estado, 2001. Reimers, F. (1995). La educación en of Education in the Latin American El Salvador de cara al siglo XXI: Context, Research Report, No. 86, Ministerio de Hacienda (2000). Desafíos y oportunidades. San International Institute of Educational Presupuesto General del Estado, 2000. Salvador: UCA Editores. Planning, UNESCO, Paris, p. 35.

Ministerio de Hacienda (1996). Reimers, F. and N. McGinn. (1997). Sawada, Y. (2000). Community Presupuesto General del Estado, 1996. Informed Dialogue. Using Research to Participation, Teacher Effort, and Shape Education Policy Around the Educational Outcome: The Case of El OEI/CECC (1999). Informe Regional World. Westport, CT: Praeger. Salvador’s EDUCO Program. del Proyecto Establecimiento de Washington, DC: World Bank. Estándares para la Educación Primaria Reimers, F. (2000). Unequal Schools, en Centroamérica. San José. Unequal Chances. Cambridge, SINEA (2002). Educación Básica. Massachusetts: Harvard University 2001. San Salvador: Sistema NAEYC (2003). Guidelines for Press. Nacional de Evaluación de los appropriate curriculum, content and Aprendizajes, Dirección Nacional assessment in programs serving Reyes, J. (2002). The Case of a de Monitoreo y Evaluación, children ages 3 through 8. Successful Community-Managed Ministerio de Educación, Dirección Washington, DC: National Education Program: EDUCO. de Evaluación Educativa. Association for the Education of Washington DC: World Bank Young Children. (Draft). Snow, Catherine, S. Burns, and P. Griffin (Eds.) (1998). Preventing Nóchez Montes, M. E. (2003). Rosekrans, K. (2002). “Educational reading difficulties in young children. Evaluación de la descentralización de opportunity: El Salvador’s barriers Washington, DC: National Research Fondo de Desarrollo Profesional to achieving equality persist.” The Council, National Academy Press. Docentes- Año 2001 San Salvador: Online Journal of Comparative, Ministerio de Educación. International and Intercultural Tedesco, J.C. (2002). Los pilares de Education. Fall. la educación del futuro (Presentación PREAL (2001). Lagging Behind. A en el Seminario de Educación de la Report Card on Education in Latin Schiefelbein, Ernesto, Laurence Wolff Asociación Cristianda de America. A Report of the Task Force ,and Paulina Schiefelbein (2000). La Dirigenrtes de Empresa). Argentina. on Education, Equity, and Economic opinión de expertos como (manuscript). Competitiveness in the Americas. instrumento para evaluar la Washington, DC: Partnership for inversión en educación primaria. Toro, J.B. (1988). Primero mi primaria. Educational Revitalization in the Revista de la CEPAL, No 72, Para triunfar. Bogotá: Fundación Americas (PREAL). Diciembre 2000, ECLAC, Santiago, Social,. pp. 147-163. PREAL (2003). Es hora de actuar. UNESCO (1996). “The State of Informe de Progreso Educativo de Schiefelbein, Ernesto, Laurence Education in Latin America and The 52 Caribbean, 1980-1994”, p. 697. Mayor USAID (1994). Mid-Term Evaluation World Bank (2000). Poverty in an Project of Education. Santiago, Chile: of the Strengthening of Achievement Age of Globalization. Washington, OREALC –SIRI. in Basic Education Project (SABE). San DC: World Bank. Salvador: USAID. UNESCO-LLECE (2001). Primer World Bank (2002). Closing the Gap Estudio Internacional Comparativo. USAID (2002). Equidad y género en in Education and Technology. Informe Técnico, p. 269. Santiago: el aula. Base de datos de diez escuelas Washington, DC: World Bank Latin Laboratorio Latinoamericano de en El Salvador. San Salvador: American and Caribbean Studies, Evaluación de la Calidad de la USAID/MINED. World Bank. Educación. Available at www.unesco.cl/llece USAID (2003). and Mexico (CAM) Regional Strategy. UNESCO/OREALC (2002). Washington, DC: USAID. Panorama Educativo de las Americas: Informe Regional. Santiago. Winkler, D.R. and A.I. Gershberg (2000). Education Decentralization in United Nations Development Latin America: The effects on the quality Programme (UNDP) (1999). Informe of schooling. Washington, DC: The sobre desarrollo humano. New York: World Bank. UNDP. Wolff, L. (1998). Las Evaluaciones UNDP (2001). Informe sobre Educacionales en América Latina. desarrollo humano: El Salvador 2001. Avance Actual y Futuros Desafíos. San Salvador: UNDP. Santiago: PREAL.

UNDP (2003). Human Development World Bank (1987). Education News, Report. Millennium Development Goals: Vol 1 (4), First Quarter, Washington, A Compact Among Nations to End DC: World Bank. Human Poverty. New York: UNDP.

53 ANNEX 1. PERSONS INTERVIEWED, CENTERS VISITED, AND FOCUS GROUP PARTICIPANTS (October-November 2003)

Interviews Name Institution/program Position Rolando Marín MINED Minister Matilde de Quintana MINED Vice Minister Francisco Quintanilla MINED Director of Educational Development Angel Dubón MINED Director of Educational Management Napoleón Zepeda MINED Head of Office of Programming and Project Management Patricia Mejía MINED Director of National Coordination of Cooperation Rolando Aguirre MINED Head of Planning Ernesto Richter MINED/Escuela Diez Director Marco Tulio Fuentes MINED Departmental Director of Santa Ana Nelson Martínez MINED/Aulas Alternativas Coordinator, Center for Professional Development (East) Hugo Said Magaña Public school Assistant director Lic. Elizabeth Ortiz MINED Administration of Decentralization Oscar A. López MINED Coordinator of Computer Education Lorena de Varela MINED Escuela Diez Agustín Fernández UCA Head Deparment of Education Ana Julia de Polillo MINED Director of Curriculum Development Fredy Alfaro MINED Specialist in Curriculum Development Marco Morroquín MINED Educational Standards Alberto Barillas FEPADE Researcher Roberto Rivera Campos FUSADES Director of Economic and Social Studies Francisco Ramos MINED Coordinator, PAES Implementation Cesar Mejía FUNDE Coordinator of Education Carmen Lorena Reynosa ACE President Mercedes Ruiz MINED Manager, Teacher Training Margarita Franco UDB Director, School of Education Rafael Guido MINED Assistant to the Minister Edmundo Salas MINED Director of Evaluation and Research Miguel Corleto DIGESTYC Director Ángel Azucar MINED Educational Materials Mercedes Castro MINED Teacher Professional Development Mario Nóchez EXCELL Director, Training Adalberto Campos MINED Higher Education Zulema de Fuentes EXCELL Teacher Training Kristin Rosekrans USAID Education Team Leader Dorita Gutiérrez USAID EXCELL Project Tully Cornick USAID Assistant Director Ron Greenberg USAID Deputy Director Marc Silverman USAID Mission Director 54 Educational Centers Visited Tomás Medina School, Santa Ana Quitasol Vuelta de Oro School Center, Santa Ana Cantón Arracaos School Center Caserío el Coyolito School Center, Cantón Caserío el Anomal School Center

Focus Groups (Schools)

Teachers Directors Parents Students 1 Cecilia Panameño Ricardo Antonio Sara E. Vasquez Kathelyne A. Castro Castillo 2 Ana María Hernández José Alexi Perez Elba Carina Ramírez Saúl Reyes 3 Teresa de Jesús Angel Alfonso Lopez Carlos Arturo Villatoro Ingrid Guevara Fuentes 4 Flora Nidien Castellón Julio Cesar Zelaya Brunilda Martínez Jacqueline Santos 5 Sonia Esther argueta Rubis Elizabeth Enma del Carmen Sandra Maria Duran Fuentes Turcios 6 Paula Cerritos Jesús H. Romero Delmy Cesibel Guzman Irvin Josué villalta 7 Alma Gladis Soto Carlos Arturo Villatoro Julio E. Martinez 8 Alma de Saravia Senia Esther Argueta Keyla Arely Romero 9 Jhonny Rolando Quintanilla

Focus Groups (Teacher Training Institutions)

Teaching Staff Agustín Fernández UCA Department Head Karla Celena Rivera Hdz. UDB Teaching Staff Marina Cuellar UDB Teaching Staff Oscar Cárcamo UNICO Course Coordinator Jaime Osmín Trigueros UNICO Dean of Science and Humanities Edgar Nicolás Azala UES Coordinator, Science and Humanities María Carmen Cruz UCA Professor, Education Coordinator María del Carmen Ruiz U Evangelica Consultant Ana Carreras UES Pedagogical advisor 20 Professors UCA Conference Students Julia María Martínez Domínguez UDB 3rd Year Elena Guadalupe Pérez Erazo UDB 3rd Year Claudia Yanira Hernández UDB 2nd Year Martínez Jeny Cariuna Mendoza Chavez UDB 2nd Year 200 students UCA Conference and discussion Additionally, an opinion poll was administered to all Departmental Directors to find out their opinions about the decentralization process (Nov. 2003)

55 ANNEX 2A. SUMMARY OF CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS OF ROUNDTABLE DISCUSSIONS (December 1–5, 2003)

1. Research Inputs for a democratic and free cycles a. Analysis of Preschool and citizenry. h. Funds available for preschool, Primary Education 4. Results of the analysis of the and coverage increased (USAID/AED) – Draft of study on preschool and primary 6. Presentation of preliminary Executive Summary and Eight education (USAID) survey results. Chapters. a. There have been advances in b. Analysis of the Coverage, coverage, participation, Contributions of the Quality and Costs of Primary modernization. Roundtables and Secondary Education b. Focus on equality in terms of (World Bank.) quality. 7. Table 1: Educational 2. Methodology used with the c. Focus on a reading culture as Opportunities and Equality roundtables a lever to change the system. a. In rural zones, the need for a. Presentations by researchers d. One learns to read by children to help in the (Emanuela di Gropello; José reading… household or to work at early Luis Guzmán; Richard Kraft; i. Enjoying reading ages is associated with Anabella Lardé de Palomo; ii. Choosing what to read absenteeism and desertion. Renán Rápalo; Fernando iii. Reading to others b. The importance of bringing Reimers; Ernesto Schiefelbein.) iv. Listening to stories read educational services b. Analysis – six tables and three out loud geographically closer to smaller subgroups per table (problem v. Getting ready for reading children (preschool and tree, causes, solutions, vi. Inventing stories primary grades) should be recommendations for vii. Having access to books and considered. Higher grade levels research.) libraries can be consolidated in larger c. Surveys to validate study viii. Involving parents and other schools to the extent that this recommendations (see Results children prevents the dispersion of in Annex 3.) 5. The generation of child readers resources. In the case of 3. Main argument of the analysis: will make it possible to have dispersed schools, the The construction of an impact on: possibility of employing one educational system with greater a. Repetition director for a group of schools internal coordination, increased b. Over-agedness should be considered. social dialogue, better c. Educational level c. The motivation of educators management, more innovation d. Performance in mathematics is a key factor. Sometimes and improved generation of and other subjects teachers do not view knowledge and research has set e. Capacity to “learn to learn” themselves as service the bases for…the initiation of a and for profound learning providers. The idea that the second generation of educational f. Capacity for higher-level teacher has a contract and reforms that will prioritize the thinking must be accountable for the development of competencies g. Performance in higher school tasks corresponding to this

56 contract should be reinforced. read much, reading and h. Investigation and evaluation – On occasion, teachers want to writing processes require how to affect performance in teach but do not know how, specific didactic a positive manner (reading and they are embarrassed to strategies but teachers culture and first grade levels) express this limitation because do not differentiate i. Coherence with overall of the myth that teachers have between them); reading goals, equality of to know everything. (ii) textbook problems (lack quality, support for first d. Children attend school of connection between grade irregularly or do not attend at books and reality, books all: are unattractive, books 9. Table 3: Teaching / Learning: i.Irregular attendance can be not used much); Curriculum, Standards and expressed in the following (iii) deficiencies in reparation; Evaluation manners: (iv) poverty (as expressed in (i) the child does not hunger and On Curriculum attend school; overcrowding, illiterate a. Improve competency levels (ii) the child repeats a grade; parents, no books at obtained by students, especially (iii) the child does not home.) in reading/writing and complete his/her mathematics. education; ii. Solutions: review curriculum b. Evaluate whether the (iv) the child attends, but for teacher professional curriculum motivates and ineffectively. development. guides teachers to change their ii. Causes of irregular pedagogical practices. attendance: costs of 8. Table 2: Teacher Professional c. Promote discussion about education; the school is far Development implementation of the away; no monitoring of a. Reform of teacher professional curriculum among teachers. children; learning is irrelevant development programs d. Provide schools with better to the children. b. Involve different organizations materials and equipment. iii.Solutions: greater in professional development e. Compensatory programs to commitment or competence (universities) improve equality of learning of the teacher; bring schools c. Multiple means of evaluation, opportunities for students closer to children (especially not only upon initiation of from poor backgrounds. preschool and primary service f. Focus Escuela Diez schools on grades); provide incentives d. Certification of institutions and the accreditation of quality, to schools that achieve trainers/instructors of teachers improvement of results and retention; provide follow-up e. Coordinated and strengthened not only of inputs. to children who attend in-service training g. Increase the motivation of irregularly; adopt flexible f. Quality trainers teachers, participation of school years; carry out g. Appropriate combination of parents and leadership of campaigns for timely entry. actions: school directors. e. Children do not read or write i. Incentives (promotion, effectively: scholarships) On Evaluation i. Causes: ii. Certification (annual h. Define a policy for the use of (i) poor pedagogy (boring training, permanence, results. methods, teachers do academic studies, optimized i. Provide further orientation to not differentiate among learning) teachers and school directors children, lack of iii. Supervision about objectives, focus, conversation with iv. Teachers teaching teachers, structure and type of results children, teachers do not classroom observation to be produced. 57 j. Prepare reports on technical g. Seek participation by people, p. Autonomy: there are legal gaps aspects of evaluations. not only in implementation but in the selection and promotion k. Focus evaluation on key also in the conception. of school directors and competencies, and diversify Sometimes, methods are teachers that must be filled. types of questions. implemented, but people are Redefine the role and profile l. Discuss whether it is not asked if they want them. of directors (administrator, convenient that evaluation Determine to what a group pedagogical coordinator, two depends on MINED. will commit. figures?) Implement the PEIs m.Improve dissemination of h. Unify the transfer. Criteria of more effectively, and use them results, and promote their use. equality are not always more effectively as a fund n. Participate in international completed or needs covered. transfer mechanism (bonds studies. i. Review the legal framework consolidated as resources and so that it responds to the vision distributed according to PEI On Standards of decentralization. goals.) o. Seek greater consensus about j. Prioritize social accounting and q. Leadership: redefine training their pertinence. controls. The administrative and the role of the director. p. Continue with the definition adviser may have conflicts of of standards for subsequent interest. On EDUCO grade levels, as well as for k. Improve the mechanism for r. Strengthen pedagogical advisers performance and learning selecting and contracting who cover the model, opportunities. directors. There are no such strengthen program identity. q. Do not underestimate mechanisms. s. Increase the number of complexity of their l. Make the system more flexible pedagogical advisers and implementation. so that it responds to people’s administrative assistants (in the r. Levels of breakdown, needs. latter case to help the ACEs.) compulsoriness. m.Promote harmony at all levels t. Administrative assistants s. Regional and international and in all technical units. Not require specialized training. vision. all are on board with respect u. Although EDUCO was to to the objectives of involve social auditing carried 10.Table 4: Decentralization decentralization. out by the communities, in and School Autonomy practice this did not occur. On Autonomy within the Traditional v. If it is not possible to On Institutional Modernization and System strengthen the community, Legal Reform n. Regulatory framework: other measures must be taken: a. Open permanent, thematic establish one that better another organization should space about decentralization defines the State as regulator sign the checks. and its objectives. and more clearly stipulates the w.There is corruption, and this b. Clarify aspects of roles of actors, including must be confronted. decentralization: what is intermediate entities. Change x. Train personnel. decentralized, towards whom, the human resources y. Provide pedagogical and what competencies remain at mechanism. administrative follow-up. the central level. o. Participation: there is no z. Strengthen strategies for c. Greater monitoring and follow- systematization of decision quality: alternative, accelerated up of the process and goals. making. Increase continuity and television-based learning. d. Strengthen technical capacities (CDEs change every two Focus more resources on at national and local levels. years.) Provide more training these schools. e. Establish clear goals. to parents, and to a greater aa.Strengthen teacher training. f. Break with the centralist vision. number of parents. bb.Promote that schools 58 implement assessments to and performance. number of teachers. identify and respond to j. Improve coordination of limitations. external financing resources Recommendations to Improve Quality cc.Human resources must be for MINED. Improve school administration in strengthened: numbers of k. Analyze innovative financing order to create more favorable teachers and directors mechanisms: environment for the teaching / pursuant to needs. i. Modalities for the learning process (more leadership dd.Strengthen the “Parents’ administration of systems from director, more participatory School.” Another type of involving monetary transfers organization, more autonomy in parents’ school is needed, to households. management, etc.) with specific aspects. ii. Feasibility and impact of Improve professional development, ee.Alliances among different public financing / private self-esteem, and commitment of programs in the Ministry to provision mechanisms teachers (create a more strengthen EDUCO. (exploiting idle capacities.) participatory environment at school; apply performance 11.Table 5: Educational Financing 12.Table 6: Secondary Education incentives.) Strategies in El Salvador Increase availability of didactic a. Budgetary insufficiency and materials and equipment at schools low-level execution. Recommendations to Increase (especially for technical high b. Allocations in the national Coverage, with Equality schools.) budget are not sufficiently Increase public spending on Disseminate the curriculum; equitable or efficient. education: according to a recent improve its implementation. c. Financing mechanisms do not evaluation, spending should total sufficiently promote efficiency 5% of GDP in order to achieve 60% and equality in spending. net coverage in secondary school. Recommendations Apply a combination of actions n d. Achieve consensus about the the supply and demand sides, which need to invest in education. may include: e. Increase fiscal revenues - more public infrastructure (specific taxes.) when necessary f. Prioritize resource allocation - provision modalities that are according to goals. more flexible g. Adjust the legal framework and - increase in the quality of the reinforce monitoring system: educational process. i. To evaluate spending Conditioned scholarships or implementation monetary transfers for poor ii. For more efficient use of students. human resources Establish a differentiated urban / (transfers.) rural strategy: h. Review criteria for budget - Urban areas: more public allocation. infrastructure (particularly in i. Take population growth and San Salvador and La Libertad); regional development development of public financing / projections into account. private provision regimes. ii. Establish costs per student, - Rural areas: more and differentiate per area. infrastructure; extension of i. Unify bonds and establish alternate modalities such as allocation criteria based on PEI distance learning; increase 59 60 ANNEX 2B.

ROUNDTABLE PARTICIPANTS

ROUND TABLES (MINED/USAID/WORLD BANK San Salvador, Hotel Radisson Plaza - Salón Tecapa. December 2-5, 2003

TABLES Closing session No. LAST NAME FIRST POSITION INSTITUTION 1 2 3 4 5 6 Subtotal 30 Alexander Galdámez Julio Samuel Director C. E. Cantón El Capulín 1 1 2 Presidential Commission for Social Area 32 Arguello Aida Consultant Coordination 1 1 67 Arias Carlos Mauricio Director Education Department MINED 1 1 1 3 41 Arriaza Frat Adalberto Manager CECADE 1 1 1 1 1 5 28 Avalos Flor de María Project Technical Coordinator MINED 1 1 1 1 4 40 Beltrán William Education Technician CECADE 1 1 1 1 1 5 65 Berrios de Folio Ana Julia Curriculum Development Coordinator 1 1 38 Bruno Fabián Director of Education Projects Don Bosco University 1 1 31 Calderón Martínez Lissette Analyst FUSADES 1 1 2 MINED - Professional Teaching 6 Canacas Batán Pedro Ernesto Pedagogical Assistant Development Center 1 1 1 1 1 1 6 MINED - Professional Teaching 48 Castillo Carlos Armando Pedagogical Assistant Development Center 1 1 1 1 1 1 6 60 Cerna Héctor Eduardo Coordinator of Management Processing Unit MINED - School Ten 1 1 1 3 9 Cruz María Carmen Distance Education Coordinator Central American University 1 1 1 3 14 Cruz Ayala Ernestina del Carmen Technician CONCULTURA 1 1 1 3 46 Cruz de Villalta María del Socorro Profesor, School Ten C. E. "Lucía de Villacorta" 1 1 1 3 57 de Gutiérrez Dorita Manager, EXCELL project USAID - El Salvador 1 1 1 1 1 1 6 55 de Hernández Carmen María Manager, EDIFAM USAID 1 1 1 1 4 53 Díaz Norma Elizabeth Pedagogical Assistant Centro de Desarrollo Profesional Docente 1 1 1 1 1 1 6 13 Dubón Marchelli Angel Gustavo National Director - Education Managment MINED 1 1 1 1 4 Coordinator, School of Social Sciences y 35 Escobar Jorge Alberto Humanities Pedagogy University 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7 62 Espinoza López Miguel Angel Administrative Manager MINED 1 1 2 39 Franco Margarita Director of the School of Education 1 1 2 2 5 6 4 3 2 4 2 6 3 7 6 3 7 7 6 6 3 7 7 5 4 5 2 1 3 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

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T ra in i n g a d D e v l o p m t " Ag M IN E D N a t io n l I s i tut e of Us ul u á N a t io n l I s i tut e of C or li o A z ó S i e rra M IN E D N a c i o n l Ins tit u t e f Ca tó El P M IN E D - ir e cc ió n N a c i o l d E v al ua ci ó n U n i v er s ty o f E l S a d r I S NA M IN E D - Ce n t er f o r P fess io na l T e a ch D e ve lo p m en t, C n tr al Re g io C e nt ra l Amer ic a n U ni v rs i t y F ra n c i sc o G av idi a Un iv ers it y M IN E D - S c h o ol Te n P ro g ram C e nt ra l Amer ic a n U ni v rs i t y C. E. C a nt ó n S Jos é C.E . C. " Co ra z ó n d e M ar í a M IN E D N a t io n l T e c h i In d us r I s tut El S a lv d or M u n i ci pa l D e ve lo p m en t I n st itu t e C. E. Jo s é M a r t í U n i v er s ty o f Ca p it á Ge era l Ger a rd B arr io s M IN E D M IN E D - H i g h e r Ed u c a ti o n em t M IN E D M IN E D M IN E D D i re ct or M a n ag e r o f d rn i z at D i re ct or D i re ct or E x e c u t iv D i re o r D i re ct or T e c h n i ci an I . P rof e ssor P ri m ar y Ed u c a ti o n Co or di t r P ed a g o y Ass i s t nt G e ner al Co or di n a t o r T ac h er P rac ti c P ro j e ct Co or di na to r P ed a g o y Ass i s t nt D o c u me nt ary Co or d i n a to r D i re ct or T e a ch r H e ad o f E d u c at i n al S y s t ms D iv is io D i re ct or H e ad o f u ma n R es ur c Ass i s ta n t Pr o fes or O p i ni o n an d In v es ti g at I s t tut e C o rd in a to r H e ad o f Te ac hi n g P r ces s es Un it H e ad o f Te ac h er T ra i n in g T ra in i n g S p e c a li s t B as ic Ed. D i r e c t or D i re ct or of e par ta me nt o f E d u ca ti n - C h al a t e n g o C ur r i c u l ar Pl an ni n g d De v e o p m t S pe ci a li s t D i re ct or of Pr im ar y Ed R a úl B ar tol om é J u a n Ba ti s t R o ni A l ex a n d er A n a L ore C ar lo s A l ber to M a b e l Os c ar W u il ma n M ar t a B e tr iz J o rg e A lb er t Bl a n ca Z u le ma M a g da le na Ri n a Em per at ri z M ar í a F ran ci sc R e b c a Ard ó n M ar í a El en N e l s o n J sú Os c ar M a n u e l A l b a Ne ll y Cl a u d i Is be l El mer ea z ar C ar lo s Ar t ur o J o sé Am il c a r B er n ar d a E mér it M ar t a O li m p i A n a V il ma Eli se o R e b c a G á l v e z G il C ruz G i r ó n G ó c h ez G u e v ara d Vare la G u t ié rrez Á lv are z H e rná n d z H e rrera R a m os H u ez o C en te n H u i z a S an ta mar ía L ar a Q ui n t nil l M a j n o d e V i ch M ara vil l a M ar í n d e Nó c h z M ar tí n e z M ar tí n e z Dur á M ar tí n e z E g u iz á b a l M e l ar a M e l é n d z Ce rra t o M e n a L ó p z M e n d o za Her á z O c h o a Os o r i R m er P az d e Ri va s P er d om o de Ca s t i llo P ere i r a d e R u íz R a mí rez P eré z R a m os d e C p ri le 58 27 37 42 44 25 24 11 26 36 22 8 2 61 54 7 52 68 47 45 43 1 50 51 3 21 18 33

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62 ANNEX 3.

RESULTS OF THE SURVEY CONDUCTED AT THE ROUNDTABLES December 2–5, 2003

RESULTS IN ORDER OF PROBABLE EFFECT Planned Implemen- Probable (From Greater to Lesser) Effect tation Effect 94 Cases (Tables 2, 3, and 4; December 2003) 5. Training preschool teachers to support reading / writing 100 90 81.00 22. Increase provision of books and stories to classroom libraries 100 80 80.50 13. Provide guidance to teachers so that children read and write in class 90 80 75.75 every day 21. Promote reading clubs 95 80 75.00 2. Expand preschool to incorporate the poorest children 100 80 72.00 14. Increase the time dedicated to reading to 8-10 hours per week 90 80 70.00 18. Tape classes in teachers colleges 90 80 67.50 4. Modify preschool programs with more emphasis on reading / writing 90 80 64.00 7. Review early primary programs with respect to reading / writing 85 75 64.00 9. Evaluate effectiveness of textbooks, with a view toward modifying them 90 75 64.00 to make them more effective 12. Focus pre-service professional development on reading/writing 90 75 64.00 16. Assign best teachers to first grade 100 80 64.00 17. Promote the taping of classes and their discussion 90 75 64.00 23. Expand traveling bookcase program 80 75 64.00 6. Implement television campaign directed toward parents about ways to 90 75 62.00 stimulate child development 8. Expand classroom guides – Accelerated Classroom 80 70 60.00 19. Set aside days for fairs 90 75 60.00 3. Expand different preschool modalities (daycare shelters) 80 60 56.25 10. Encourage teachers to write and share class guides 90 65 56.25 24. Reformulate programs in the third cycle, combining the components 80 60 56.25 of Accelerated Education, television-based learning, etc. 20. Reduce emphasis on program contents 90 75 56.00 1. Promote television transmission of Sesame Street in English and 80 70 53.25 Spanish 25. Offer multiple modalities for completion of the third cycle 80 60 53.00 15-a and b. Increase the number of SINEA test items. – Provide each 80 70 52.50 school with four computers 11. Incorporate internships into teacher professional development 80 70 52.00 Source: J. L. Guzmán, with data from the Fernando Reimers survey (Jan 2004.)

63 ANNEX 4.

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR ORIENTING AN EDUCATIONAL REFORM AND IMPACT ON EQUITY AND QUALITY (Jan. 1994)

Recommendation Equity Quality (internal Quality (relevance) efficiency) 1 Assign more resources Will expand educational Will permit financing Will permit financing to the sector opportunity options proposed options proposed 2 Focus efforts on first Will give more opportunity Will reduce repetition grade to the poorest to learn rates in primary 3 Expand access to first Will provide access to the grade 15% that do not enroll 4 Provide books and Will give to the poorest Will reduce the number Will increase the materials to resources to learn of repeaters acquisition of basic disadvantaged skills children 5 Teacher professional Will increase quality of Will increase the development teaching acquisition of basic skills 6 Decentralize education Will bring decision making Will increase efficiency Will relate the closer to local problems in the use of resources functioning of the school to reality 7 Promote parent Will relate the school to Will increase school- participation the children’s reality community relations 8 Information systems Will permit monitoring Will allow for analyzing Will permit relating problems of access and the impact of inputs and processes delivery of resources to interventions on with the world of work particular groups students’ learning 9 Pact with teachers Will increase the presence Will increase the time of teachers in remote available for learning schools 10 Promote new books Will facilitate the task of Will focus learning on and materials the teacher general skills. 11 Emphasize general Will increase workers’ skills in primary and capacity to learn secondary school 12 Expand preschool in Will increase opportunity Will reduce the number rural and marginal for success in primary for of children who repeat urban areas the poorest the grade 13 Promote innovations Some may be responses to Will increase options for children with special needs teaching effectively Note: The study made a total of 19 general recommendations (the rest related specifically to intermediate, technical-vocational and higher education). Source: Taken from Reimers (1995, p. 102-103).

64 ANNEX 5.

PRESCHOOL AND PRIMARY EDUCATION POLICIES AND PROGRAMS IN EL SALVADOR (1992-2003)

Taking into account the limitations that interventions have been scopes of which were related to implied in any effort toward developed systematically and the availability of specific financial summarization, presents, from an incrementally. In some cases, resources and the priority assigned analytical viewpoint, a synthesis of decisions have been made that by public officials. Usually, the the most prominent educational resulted in significant changes with programs targeted particular policies over the last decade at the respect to what had been carried population groups. preschool and primary levels of the out beforehand. In other cases, educational system. This summary interventions were promoted should not leave the impression through specific programs, the

Policy Program(s) Current Scope Type of impact expected 1 Expand preschool and EDUCO 362 thousand children Coverage, equity basic education services in in 2003 (approximately rural areas 28% of the public school enrollment) 2 Promote local Creation of ACEs and financial transfers 100% of public schools Quality, school participation by creation (since 1992); Creation of CDEs and management of models of school CECEs in traditional public schools and administration and financial transfers (since 1998); transfer of resources to Administrative Assistance Program and schools PEI (2001) 3 Reform curriculum Curricular Reform (1992-1997) School National (School Quality standards standards pilot program (since 2001) standards pilot in 103 schools) 4 Improve teacher SABE/USAID (1992-1997); Training of 100 % of teachers in Quality performance (preparation, trainers/USAID (1996-1999); School diverse training training, incentives and Training Centers and Model Schools modalities requirements) (1992-1999); Professional Development Systema (2001-2003) 5 Provide educational New study programs (1992-1997); Texts National Quality materials to teachers, (1995-1997; 2000); School and students and parents classroom libraries (1998 y 2002); Teachers’ guides, standards and learning assessment manual 6 Apply assessment First stage of primary test sample (1994- National Quality, school instruments 1999); PAES (since 1996); Evaluation of (Primary test sample) management School Educational Achievement (2000- ); SINEA (2002-) 7 Provide technology Interactive radio (since 1994); Interactive Radio Quality resources to enhance Teleaprendizaje (since 1997); Learning (100% of children in learning Resource Centers -CRA and EDURED grades 1-3) (since 2002) Teleaprendizaje (796 sections in 350 schools); CRA (pilot projected in 400 schools)

65 8 Offer food, health and Health Schools (since 1996) 600 thousand children Equity basic service to schools in School Feeding Program (since 1994) in rural and peri-urban poor areas schools 9 Institute flexible Alternative Classrooms (1998), Tele- 397 alternative Coverage, equity, curriculum models, aprendizaje (1998), Accelerated classrooms = 12,900 efficiency (lower multigrade services and Education (2000), children; 796 sections dropout and over- accelerated educaiton of Teleaprendizaje en age) 350 schools; 450 sections of Accelerated Education = 12,800 children 10 Improve quality Selection and training of unit directors National Quality, school management at the school (1998-2000); PEI (desde 2001); Escuela (Escuelas Diez - Pilot in management level Diez (2001) 103 schools) 11 Rehabilitate school 2,500 constructed or Coverage, quality infrastructure rehabilitated 12 Give educational EDUCO, EDIFAM and Education 83,600 preschool Coverage, equity opportunity to 0-6-year- Reform Programa (BIRF) children in EDUCO old children schools (50% of public enrollment); 8,000 children (EDIFAM) 525 communities via parents’ schools Source: Compiled based on author’s review of documentation.

66 ANNEX 6A.

PREPRIMARY AND PRIMARY ENROLLMENT RATES IN 12 LATIN AMERICAN AND CARIBBEAN COUNTRIES IN THE 1990S (PERCENTAGE)

Gross rate of preprimary enrollment Net rate of primary enrollment

Final Annual Annual untries Period Initial year year increase Period Initial year Final year increase Bolivia 1990 2000 32 46 1.4 1990 2000 91 97 0.6 Brazil 1990 2000 48 63 1.5 1990 2000 86 97 1.0 Chile 1990 2000 82 77 -0.5 1990 2000 88 89 0.1 Colombia 1990 2000 13 37 2.4 1991 2000 69 89 2.2 Costa Rica 1990 2000 61 87 2.6 1990 2000 86 91 0.5 Dom. Rep. 1992 2000 18 38 2.5 1996 2000 78 93 3.6 El Salvador * 1991 2000 21 44 2.5 1992 1999 75 81 0.9 Guatemala 1991 2000 26 51 2.9 1997 2000 72 84 3.9 Honduras 1991 2000 13 21 1.0 1991 2000 89 88 -0.2 Nicaragua 1990 2000 12 27 1.5 1990 2000 72 81 0.9 Panama 1990 2000 53 47 -0.6 1990 2000 91 100 0.8 Peru 1990 2000 30 64 3.4 1993 2000 87 100 1.9 Average 34.1 50.2 1.7 82.0 90.8 1.4 * According to MINED, the gross rate of preprimary school attendance was 42% in 2000 and the net rate of primary education (grades 1-6) was 85% in the same year (see MINED, 2002, pp. 7 and 8). According to FUSADES, the gross rate of secondary (including Third Cycle and Secondary School) was 66% in 2002 (see FUSADES, 2003, p. 153). Source: World Development Indicators Database (World Bank)

67 ANNEX 6B.

GROSS SECONDARY ENROLLMENT RATE AND ILLITERACY OF YOUTH (AGED 15-24) IN 12 LATIN AMERICAN AND CARIBBEAN COUNTRIES IN THE 1990s

Gross secondary enrollment rate Youth illiteracy rate (15-24) - % Annual Final Annual decrease untries Period Initial year year increase Period Initial year Final year (%) Bolivia 1998 2000 72 80 3.7 1990 2001 7.4 3.9 -0.3 Brazil 1999 2000 103 108 5.2 1990 2001 8.2 4.5 -0.3 Chile 1998 2000 85 85 0.1 1990 2001 1.9 1.1 -0.1 Colombia 1998 2000 71 70 -0.4 1990 2001 5.1 3.0 -0.2 Costa Rica 1999 2000 51 60 9.3 1990 2001 2.6 1.7 -0.1 Dom. Rep. 1998 2000 56 59 1.7 1990 2001 12.5 8.6 -0.4 El Salvador * 1998 2000 50 54 2.2 1990 2001 16.2 11.5 -0.4 Guatemala 1998 2000 31 37 3.1 1990 2001 26.6 20.4 -0.6 Honduras ...... 1990 2001 20.3 14.5 -0.5 Nicaragua 1998 2000 48 54 2.8 1990 2001 31.8 28.1 -0.3 Panama 1998 2000 69 69 -0.1 1990 2001 4.7 3.1 -0.1 Peru 1998 2000 81 86 2.4 1990 2001 5.5 3.1 -0.2 Average 65.2 69.3 2.7 11.9 8.6 -0.3 Source: World Development Indicators Database (World Bank)

68 ANNEX 6C.

CHILDREN’S SCHOOL ATTENDANCE (AGED 7-12) IN URBAN AREAS ACCORDING TO INCOME (1999) BY QUINTILE OF INCOME

Quintile Quintile with lowest with highest Country income income Gap Argentina 99.3 99.7 0.4 Bolivia 99.0 97.6 -1.4 Brazil 95.4 99.4 4.0 Chile 98.6 99.8 1.2 Colombia 91.8 98.5 6.7 Costa Rica 98.6 99.4 0.8 Ecuador 94.5 98.9 4.4 El Salvador * 87.8 99.2 11.4 Guatemala 83.2 98.2 15.0 Honduras 86.5 99.0 12.5 Mexico (2000) 95.5 99.1 3.6 Nicaragua 84.9 95.8 10.9 Panama 96.8 100.0 3.2 Paraguay 95.8 99.3 3.5 Peru 98.4 100.0 1.6 Rep Dom. 74.2 93.2 19.0 Uruguay 98.2 100.0 1.8 Venezuela (total) 95.5 99.5 4.0 Average 93.0 98.7 5.7 * Percentage of school attendance of children 7-15 of lowest-income quintile increased from 72% in 1995 and 79% in 2002, according to EHPM. Source: CEPAL, Statistical Yearbook for Latin American and the Caribbean, April, 2003, p. 48.

69 ANNEX 6D.

LATIN AMERICAN COUNTRIES: EDUCATION BUDGET AS PERCENTAGE OF GDP 1999–2000

País % Ecuador 1.6 Guatemala 1.7 Uruguay 2.8 El Salvador* 3.3 Perú 3.3 Argentina 4.0 Honduras 4.0 Chile 4.2 Costa Rica 4.4 Brasil 4.7 Paraguay 5.0 Nicaragua 5.0 Bolivia 5.5 Panamá 5.9 Belice 6.2

* 2002; Source: Human Development Report, 2003, UNDP, General National Budget, 2002 and BCR

70 ANNEX 6E.

VARIOUS LATIN AMERICAN COUNTRIES COMBINED GROSS RATE OF ENROLLMENT AND EDUCATION BUDGET AS % OF GNP

7 III Pan Par Bol Ni Me CR Chi Ar 4 Hon Pe

Gua ES Ec

1 Education Budget as % of GNP 50 60 70 80 90 100

Combined Gross rate of school enrollment (%)

Source: UNDP, Human Development Report, 2003

71 72 ANNEX 7A.

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION PROJECTS IN PROCESS (BILATERAL & MULTILATERAL), 2003 Educational materials Director and teacher training Standards, curriculum programs, guides Educational evaluation Educational technology Infrastructure and equipment Institutional strengthening School feeding Training of trainers Technical assistance Preschool education Special groups Community participation Intermediate technical education Other Bilateral cooperation Mexico X X X X X X USAID X X X X X X X China X Luxembourg X X AECI X X X X Italia X Multilateral cooperation CECC X X UNESCO X X UNICEF X 1/ X FNUAP X PNUD X European Union X X X APREMAT X OEA X OEI X X X X X ATEI X ILCE X CIPIE X World Links X 2/ OIT/IPEC X BID/CECC X 1/With USAID financing 2/ With World Bank financing. Source: MINED ANNEX 7B.

PROJECTS IN EXECUTION WITH PRIVATE SECTOR AND NGO COOPERATION, 2003

Educational materials Director and teacher Curriculum Educational training standards, programs, technologies guides TELECOM X Bank of El Salvador X National Strategy X X World Vision X Legado Publishing, Costa Rica X Plan International X Cartotécnica X Source: MINED

73 ANNEX 8.

EDUCATIONAL GOALS IN AN INTERNATIONAL CONTEXT

Millennium Development Goals

In 2000, the highest number of Chiefs of State in history reached an agreement, and the United Nations Millennium Declaration was adopted. This involves a commitment to eradicate poverty; promote human dignity and equality; and achieve peace, democracy and environmental sustainability. From this declaration arose the Millennium Development Goals and Objectives. In the case of education, the following goals and objectives are emphasized:

Objective 2: Achieve universal primary education. Goal 3: Ensure that, by 2015, all boys and girls can complete a full course of primary schooling.

Objective 3: Promote gender equality and empower women. Goal 4: Eliminate gender disparity in primary and secondary education, preferably by 2005 and at all levels by 2015.

The remaining objectives refer to the eradication of poverty; reduction of infant mortality; improvement of maternal health; fight against HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases; assurance of environmental sustainability and promotion of a global partnership for development.

Source: UNDP (2003).

Objectives of “Education for All” (Dakar, 2000)

Objective 1. Expand and improve early childhood care and education, especially for the most vulnerable and disadvantaged children. Objective 2. Ensure that all children, and especially those in difficult situations, have access to and complete good quality, free and compulsory primary education by 2015. Objective 3. Ensure that the learning needs of all literate youth and adults are satisfied through equal access to adequate schooling and programs that prepare them for active lives. Objective 4. Increase, by 2015, the number of literate adults by 50%, focusing particularly on women, and facilitate access to permanent, basic education to all adults. Objective 5. Improve all qualitative aspects of education, ensuring the highest parameters in order to achieve more recognized and measurable learning outcomes, especially in reading, writing, mathematics and essential practical skills.

Source: Marco de Acción de Dakar. Educación para Todos: cumplir nuestros compromisos comunes. Adopted at the World Education Forum. Dakar, Senegal, April 26-28, 2000. Paris: UNESCO, paragraph 7.

Summit of the Americas Goals for 2010

Goal 1. That 100% of children complete quality primary schooling. Goal 2. That at least 75% of youth have access to quality secondary education, with increasingly larger percentages of youth who complete their secondary studies. Goal 3. That educational opportunities exist throughout life for the general population.

Source: PREAL Informa. No. 16. September 2003. 74 ANNEX 9.

COMPARISON OF EARLY CHILDHOOD GOALS

Profile and Basic Competencies of El Salvador NAEYC Sample Goals (Age 3-8) (Age 4-6) Expression of security and self-confidence in Develop a positive self-concept toward learning, personal, family, social and school domains. self-control, and a sense of belonging.

Identity and autonomy Practice of norms and values of cooperation in his Develop relationships of mutual trust and respect home, school and community with adults and peers…understand and respect social and cultural diversity…Know about the Social Development community and social roles Integration and cooperation in group games and …understand perspectives of other people, and activities, through evidence of interest and respect negotiate and apply rules of group living. for teamwork

Capacity to communicate correctly, in formal oral, Use language to communicate effectively and to comprehensive, organized and fluent, as well as by facilitate thinking and learning…Become literate means of symbolic and graphic expression individuals who gain satisfaction from reading and writing.

Artistic creativity, evidenced through music, dance, Develop curiosity about the world, confidence as a plastic and theatre arts learner, creativity and imagination, and personal initiative…Represent ideas and feelings through pretend play, drama, dance and movement, music, art and construction. Interest in exploring and discovering his physical Construct understanding of relationships among and social environment objects, people and events such as classifying, ordering, number, space, and time. Construct knowledge of the physical world, manipulate Social, cultural and natural environment objects for desired effects and understand cause- and-effect relationships. Think critically, reason, and solve problems. Acquire knowledge and appreciation for the fine arts, humanities and sciences. Physical expression Become competent in management of their bodies and acquire basic physical skills, both gross motor Physical development, health and nutrition and fine motor. Gain knowledge about the care of their bodies and maintain a desirable level of health and fitness.

75