SORITY MODEL MINORITY

Ie now gradually assimilated into the wh* Kasinitz, P., Mollenkopf, J., Waters, M.e., seeming success of Asian Ir majority, thus changing the definition & Holdaway, J. (2008). Inheriting the city: focused variously on Confucian values, 'Y the majority. Third, an apparently distinct The children of immigrants come of age. work ethic, centrality of family, and r­ minority racial or ethno-religious back­ Cambridge, MA: Harvard genetic superiority. One factor that was II ground need not equal socio-economic Press. often overlooked in these accounts was US ;- subordination: even though Asian­ Kymlicka, W. (1995). Multicultural citizen­ law. The 1965 Immigration Americans and Jewish-Americans are ship: A liberal theory of . Act reversed years of restrictive immigra­ o racial or religious minorities, their averagr Oxford: Oxford University Press. tion policies that virtually banned all l­ incomes surpass those of most other Omi, M. & Winant, H. (1989). Racial immigration from Asia, allowing for a e groups. formation in the : From the greater number of immigrants to enter the I: Finally, groups and the social boundar­ 1960s to the 1980s. New York: Routledge United States from non-Western coun­ e ies between them can be fluid and mallea­ & Kegan Paul Inc. tries, including countries in Asia and Latin o ble. Immigration from Africa and the Skrentny, J. (2002). Minority rights revolu­ America. Although this act lifted previous

'- Caribbean may complicate the heretofore tion. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University geographic restrictions, it allowed only If cohesive African-American group identity Press. those with certain backgrounds to enter e built on a shared experience of oppression the United States. After immediate family and resistance. Furthermore, the fact that members of those already in the United S half of all Latinos identify themselves as MODEL MINORITY The term "model minor­ States, the second priority was recruiting :I white," as well as the rapidly increasiIl! ity" refers to minority groups that have professionals and scientists. As a result, a i rates of socio-economic assimilation and ostensibly achieved a high level of success large influx of highly-educated profes­ i intermarriage with non-Hispanic whites in contemporary US society. The term has sionals (such as doctors and engineers) and among US-born Latinos and Asians, may been used most often to describe Asian scientists from Asia left their home coun­ also complicate received concepts and per­ Americans, a group seen as having attained tries after 1965 and immigrated to the haps necessitate a redefinition of the terms educational and financial success relative Unites States. It is this group of Asian -'majority" and "minority" in the United to other immigrant groups. The "model Americans, and their children, that make States in the near future. On the other minority" label on its surface seems to be up a significant portion of the Asian hand, the continuing structural disadvan­ an accolade because it appears to praise American community today. A radical tages suffered by many African-Americans for their achievements. change in US immigration policy can thus and Latinos, and their continuing racial­ However, a critical analysis of the way the explain some of the individual success sto­ ization and stigmatization, are proof thaI term is used and the consequences of its use ries profiled in popular press articles elhno-racial stratification is alive and weD suggest that there are pernicious effects of describing Asian American success. in American society. [US] classifying Asian Americans, or any racial group, as a model minority. Model minority myth? Although there are national statistics Key readings History of the term that suggest that Asian Americans have Alba, R. (2009). Blurring the color line. Cam­ The term "model minority" was coined in achieved some measure of success in US bridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 1966 by sociologist William Petersen in an society, disaggregating the statistics reveals Bleich, E. (2003). Race politics in Britain and article he wrote for a different story. According to the 2006 France: Ideas and policymaking since the Magazine entitled "Success story: Japanese Census data, when combined into one 1960s. New York: Cambridge University American style." Petersen emphasized that group, Asian Americans earn a greater Press. family structure and a cultural emphasis household income than Whites ($66,060 vs Gleason, P. (1991). Minorities (almost) all: on hard work allowed $53,910), Blacks ($32,876), and Latinos The minority concept in American social to overcome the discrimination against ($38,853). Educational attainment from thought. American Quarterly, 43(3), their group and achieve a measure of suc­ the 2000 Census shows a similar pattern: a 392-424. cess in the United States. Numerous popu­ greater percentage of Asian Americans Hollinger, D. (1995). Postethnic America: lar press articles subsequently appeared attend than Whites (65 percent vs Beyond . New York: Basic describing the "successes" of various Asian 54 percent). On the face of it, the Asian Books. American groups. Explanations for the American community may appear to be

172 173 MODEL 1 MODEL MINORITY

scarce doing quite well. However, the term Asian Americans require more years of situations where resources may be "model minority" is often accompanied by education to achieve the same level of (such as during bad economic times). as the word "myth" because many scholars income as Whites. Asian Americans, like Envied groups are also often viewed have argued that the assumptions that other minority groups, have not yet cold and unsociable, reflecting a tradeoff Asian Americans are doing well is overgen­ achieved a level of success that is commen­ between competence and likability in per­ eralized and inaccurate. First, the use of surate to the success of Whites, even when ceptions of social groups. Thus, although household income statistics obscures the education differences are controlled for the model minority'S high competence may fact that many Asian American families across the two groups. Moreover, this is be (begrudgingly) admired, it can at the have larger households with more adults true even of Asian Americans born in the same time undermine liking for the group who are employed than White families. United States, suggesting that a lack of and lead to prejudice. Whites have initiated Second, although some Asian American facility with English does not fully explain hate against Asian Americam ethnic groups may be doing relatively well, the greater achievement of Whites. Taken because of a belief that Asian Americam there are many Asian American ethnic together, these observations reveal that the were achieving too much and takin!! groups that not doing well compared to the model minority is problematic resources, such as jobs, away from Whites. rest of the US . For instance, because it masks many of the struggles The model minority myth can also obscun: according to the 2000 Census, Cambodians faced by Asian Americans. socioeconomic diversity within the AsiaII have a per-capita income of $10,215, and American community and prevent AsiaII over 90 percent of their population does Consequences/or Asian Americans Americans who need assistance frOOl not have a bachelor's degree, significantly While some Asian Americans embrace the getting it. More research is necessary tc lower than the comparable statistics for the seemingly positive characterization of their identify the situations in which the mode US overall ($21,587 per capita income and group, others resist it because of the nega­ minority label benefits as opposed l( 76 percent without a bachelor's degree). tive consequences it has for the Asian harms Asian Americans. Third, Asian Americans make up a dispro­ American community. On the one hand, betK"een portionately high percentage of those liv­ social psychological experiments have Consequences/or relationships ing in poverty; the 2005 Census data shown that being stereotyped as smart may minority groups minori reveals that II percent of Asian Americans benefit Asian Americans in test-taking sit­ Scholars argue that the model relation live below the poverty line, compared to 8 uations because positive about label serves to undermine positive The mode percent of Whites. Asian Americans are one's group can boost performance. On ships between ethnic groups. AmericaJ also uninsured at a higher rate than Whites the other hand, the model minority myth minority myth reinforces the that ban (18 percent vs 11 percent). Focusing on the can be harmful to Asian Americans who dream by promoting the image be divi Asian Americans who have "made it" ren­ may feel pressure to live up to unrealistic work pays off. This rhetoric can as a tool tJ ders invisible those in the community who expectations. In addition, believing that sive, because it can be used of othc continue to struggle. Asian Americans are a model minority reinforce the subordinate position it, why can' Relying on aggregate household income diverts attention away from any discrimi­ minority groups ("they made bet't'o'cc and education statistics also obscures the they may have faced and continue you?") and prevent cooperation es. I fact that still hold a dis­ to face. Asian Americans who mention dis­ Asian Americans and other minoriti of Asia proportionate number of the top positions crimination may seem to be complaining addition, the characterization can beusc in US society. Even today, there is only one about something that does not exist or Americans as a model minority r th Asian American governor and two Asian is not serious. However, discrimination to undermine support for p ograms su American senators (both from Hawaii). against Asian Americans is real. Asian help other minority groups to achie\o'e SUgge! Similarly, the top-level positions in busi­ Americans are often mistaken for foreign cess, such as affirmativeaction, by ness are still overwhelmingly filled by citizens, are believed to be more loyal to ing that beneficiari and acbie' Whites. Asian Americans have also Asia than to the United States, and have should be able to work hard encountered a glass ceiling, making up less little political support among other success without any assistance. than 1.5 percent of the top executives in Americans. Moreover, although being ste­ Fortune 1000 firms. Perhaps most telling, reotyped as smart may seem like a good Consequences/or majority groups the moe Asian Americans realize lower returns on thing, seeming too competent garners feel­ Asian Americans' status as effects their education than Whites, meaning that ings of envy and competition, especially in minority also has negative

174 IIORITY MODEL MINORITY

Asian Americans require more years of situations where resources may be scarce Whites. Referring to Asian Americans as a education to achieve the same level of (such as during bad economic times). model minority not only compares them to income as Whites. Asian Americans, like Envied groups are also often viewed as other minorities, but it has also been used other minority groups, have not yet cold and unsociable, reflecting a tradeoff to suggest that Asian Americans are, in the achieved a level of success that is commen­ between competence and likability in per­ words of a Newsweek article "outwhiting surate to the success of Whites, even when ceptions of social groups. Thus, although the Whites." Reminding White men about education differences are controlled for the model minority's high competence may the stereotype of Asian superiority in across the two groups. Moreover, this is be (begrudgingly) admired, it can at the math results in White underperformance true even of Asian Americans born in the same time undermine liking for the group because they are fearful of confirming the United States, suggesting that a lack of and lead to prejudice. Whites have initiated stereotype that their racial group has infe­ facility with English does not fully explain hate crimes against Asian Americans rior abilities in math. In some parts of the the greater achievement of Whites. Taken because of a belief that Asian Americans country, this fear is manifested in White together, these observations reveal that the were achieving too much and taking parents pulling their children out of model minority stereotype is problematic resources, such as jobs, away from Whites. schools with high Asian American popula­ because it masks many of the struggles The model minority myth can also obscure tions so that their children do not have to faced by Asian Americans. socioeconomic diversity within the Asian compete with Asian American students. American community and prevent Asian Consequencesfor A sian Americans Americans who need assistance from Summary While some Asian Americans embrace the getting it. More research is necessary to The model minority label characterizes seeminglypositive characterization of their identify the situations in which the model Asian Americans as a hard working and group, others resist it because of the nega­ minority label benefits as opposed to docile racial group that has achieved finan­ tive consequences it has for the Asian harms Asian Americans. cial and educational success in the United American community. On the one hand, States. On the face of it, this label may social psychological experiments have Consequences for relationships between seem to be an accolade, but a closer exami­ shown that being stereotyped as smart may minority groups nation of the assumptions and the conse­ benefit Asian Americans in test-taking sit­ Scholars argue that the model minority quences that accompany such a label uationsbecause positive stereotypes about label serves to undermine positive relation­ reveal the problematic nature of this con­ one's group can boost performance. On ships between ethnic groups. The model struct. The model minority label renders the other hand, the model minority myth minority myth reinforces the American invisible Asian Americans who are not can be harmful to Asian Americans who dream by promoting the image that hard successful, creates resentment by other may feel pressure to live up to unrealistic work pays off. This rhetoric can be divi­ groups, and pits racial groups against one expectations. In addition, believing that sive, because it can be used as a tool to another. Taken together, the evidence sug­ Asian Americans are a model minority reinforce the subordinate position of other gests that the use of the term "model diverts attention away from any discrimi­ minority groups ("they made it, why can't minority" to describe any racial group is e nation they may have faced and continue you?") and prevent cooperation between problematic. [SC & OB] to face. Asian Americans who mention dis­ Asian Americans and other minorities. In s crimination may seem to be complaining addition, the characterization of Asian Key readings e about something that does not exist or Americans as a model minority cau be used

[) is not serious. However, discrimination to undermine support for programs that Aronson, J., Lustina, M. J., Good, c., I. against Asian Americans is real. Asian help other minority groups to achieve suc­ Keough, K., Steele, C. M., & Brown, J.

1- Americans are often mistaken for foreign cess, such as affirmativeaction, by suggest­ (1999). When White men can't do math: Y citizens, are believed to be more loyal to ing that affirmative action beneficiaries Necessary and sufficient factors in stereo­ o Asia than to the United States, and have " should be able to work hard and achieve type threat. Journal of Experimental Social os little political support among other success without any assistance. Psychology, 35(1), 29-46. n Americans. Moreover, although being ste­ DeNavas-Walt, c., Proctor, B. D., & Lee, C. H. reotyped as smart may seem like a good Consequences for majority groups (2006). U.S. Census Bureau: Current P60-23J: n thing, seeming too competent garners feel­ Asian Americans' status as the model population reports, Income. It ings of envy and competition, especially in minority also has negative effects on poverty, and health insurance coverage in

174 175 MUL TlCUL TURALISM ML'LTICU

the United States, 2005. Washington, DC: to be the permissiveness of multicultural­ melt." US-American strategies of assn.n. U.S. Government Printing Office. ism past which, according to Trevor tion assumed that the linguistic, cultural Lin, M. H., Kwan, V. S. Y., Cheung, A., & Phillips, resulted in societies "sleepwalking and ethnic differences of immigrants froD! Fiske, S. T. (2005). Stereotype content into segregation." across the globe would fade once incorpo­ model explains prejudice for an envied However, the multiculturalism which rated into the great American "meltin! outgroup: Scale of anti-Asian American today is deemed to be beset by crisis relates pot." Effectively, this meant less desirable stereotypes. Personality and Social not so much to the policies put in place by racialized minorities denying their heritagl Psychology Bulletin, 31(1),34. various governments in recognition of cul­ and assimilating the values of white Maddux, W. W., Galinsky, A. D., Cuddy, A:' tural, ethnic and religious pluralism in America. The multicultural response of tbI 1. C.,& Polifroni, M. (2008). When being a their societies, but to the fact of diversity 1960s conceded the impossibility of com model minority is good ... and bad: itself. As David Goodhart wrote in his con­ plete assimilation. Hence, the melting po Realistic threat explains negativity toward troversial 2004 article, "too much diver­ metaphor is replaced with that of a sabH Asian Americans. Personality and Social sity" discourages social solidarity in a bowl" of distinct cultural groups, eacI Psychology Bulletin, 34(1), 74. welfare state: the more different someone finding their place within the "mosaic-o Mervis, 1. (2005). US workforce: A glass is from oneself, the less likely an individual society. ceiling for Asian Scientists? , is to want to share resources with her. The The move from assimilation to multi l 310(5748),606-607. notion that Western societies risk disinte­ culturalism, however, is not due to Shih, M., Ambady, N., Richeson, 1. A., gration from an excess of diversity reveals straightforward recognition of the faihm Fujita, K., & Gray, H. M. (2002). the problematic definition of multicultur­ of the melting pot to bring about an end t. Stereotype performance boosts: The alism itself, which this article addresses. the supremacist status of white European impact of self-relevance and the manner David Goldberg (2004) distinguishes and the ongoing discrimination agaim of stereotype activation. Journal of between descriptive and normative multi­ blacks and other racialized minoritic! Personality and Social Psychology, 83(3), culturalism. The former describes the Calls from civil rights and anti-racist actn 638-647. ethnic, cultural, religious and national plu­ ists, in the United States and the Unito 01 Wu, F. (2002). Yellow: Race in America rality of Western, postcolonial, urban Kingdom most notably, did not focus 0 beyond Black and White. New York: Basic spaces resulting from increased global cultural recognition but on equality Books. migration since the end of the Second rights and, more radically, an end to raci! World War. The second is a prescriptive oppression. To understand why multicul outlook which actively celebrates the pro­ turalism is posited as a solution to raw MULTICULTURALISM The first decade of liferation of diversity, even insisting on the discord, for example following the 195 the twenty-first century in the West has relative value of different cultures to each anti-black Notting Hill "race riots- i been marked by a profound re-evaluation other, thus resisting the hegemony of London, attention should be paid to til of multiculturalism as a prescription for national(ist) culture. As Goldberg notes, roots of culturalization. living together in complex, postcolonial, '''The multicultural' has been caught in an The origins of contemporary mult d multiethnic societies. Paradoxically, glo­ oscillation between these two understand­ culturalist policies can be found in balization - the spread of the neoliberal ings: description and prescription." In post-1945 anti- of internation economic doctrine around the world ­ reality, the often begrudging recognition of institutions, specifically in the emphas while certainly resulting in increased cul­ the former resulted in a variety of policy placed by organizations such as UNESO as tural diversity, has often been met with a arrangements that sought to appease on the principle of cultural relativism retreat into a narrow, ethnoracial national­ "minority communities" in the interests means of combating racism. fi ism that eschews the inevitability of of maintaining social harmony in the face This stance formed the background IDal hybridization. In Europe, since 2004 in of "racial" unrest and without revoking a the elite response to racism among l particular, states such as the United commitment to a narrative of the homoge­ Western governments, and played Kingdom, the Netherlands, and Denmark, neous nation. important role in elevating the discourse once advocates of multicultural policy, Anthias and Yuval-Davis, in their culture to its current status. The group have declared multiculturalism to be "in 1992 work Racialized Boundaries, portray anthropologists and anti-racist scienlil crisis." They now espouse the integration multicultural policy as a response to the who drafted the UNESCO "Statement (1951) ! of "national values" to replace what is seen realization that the "melting pot does not the nature of race differences"

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