32 TRIPURA HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT Tripura Human Development Report 2007 Government of Tripura PUBLISHED BY Government of Tripura All rights reserved PHOTO CREDITS V.K. Ramachandran: pages 1, 2 (all except the middle photo), 31, 32, 34, 41, 67 (bottom photo), 68 (left photo), 69, 112 (bottom photo), 124 (bottom photo), 128. Government of Tripura: pages 2 (middle photo), 67 (top photo), 68 (right photo), 72, 76, 77, 79, 89, 97, 112 (top photo), 124 (top left and top right photos). COVER DESIGN Alpana Khare DESIGN AND PRINT PRODUCTION Tulika Print Communication Services, New Delhi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This Report is the outcome of active collaboration among Departments of the Government of Tripura, independent academics and researchers, and staff and scholars of the Foundation for Agrarian Studies. The nodal agency on the official side was the Department of Planning and Coordination of the Government of Tripura, and successive Directors of the Department – A. Guha, S.K. Choudhury, R. Sarwal and Jagdish Singh – have played a pivotal role in coordinating the work of this Report. S.K. Panda, Principal Secre- tary, took an active personal interest in the preparation of the Report. The Staff of the Department, and M. Debbarma in particular, have worked hard to collect data, organize workshops and help in the preparation of the Re- port. The process of planning, researching and writing this Report has taken over two years, and I have accumulated many debts on the way. The entire process was guided by the Steering Committee under the Chairmanship of the Chief Secretary. The members of the Steering Committee inclu-ded a representative each from the Planning Commission and UNDP, New Delhi; the Vice-Chancellor, Tripura University; Professor Abhijit Sen, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi and Professor V. K. Ramachandran, Indian Statistical Institute, Kolkata; Commissioners of Planning & Coordination, Health, Education, Social Welfare & Social Education and Rural Develop- ment of the Government of Tripura; and Directors of the State Insti-tute of Public Administration and Rural Development (SIPARD) and Planning De- partment. All Departments of the Government of Tripura and the TTAADC co- operated in the provision of data. Special mention must be made of the Directorate of Economics and Statistics, and A. K Chanda, Joint Director, for providing data for the Report. The Foundation for Agrarian Studies set up a core group comprising Mita Choudhury, Malabika Dasgupta, V.K. Ramachandran, Vikas Rawal and Madhura Swaminathan to provide guidance on the academic inputs to the Report. The bulk of this Report is based on the background papers written by Venkatesh Athreya, Indira Chakravarty, Mahadev Chakravarti, Pallavi Chavan, Mita Choudhury, Jayanta Choudhury, Malabika Dasgupta, Samir Guha Roy, Himanshu, Archana Prasad, Vikas Rawal, Minakshi Sen ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS v Bandyopadhyay and Amitabha Sinha. The papers are listed in the Biblio- graphy. Mita Choudhury’s efforts were crucial in the preparation of the Sta- tistical Appendix. Vikas Rawal was responsible for created the block level digitized maps of selected indicators. Case studies were undertaken by stu- dents of the Department of Economics, Tripura University. Guddi Tiwari provided research assistance. The Foundation for Agrarian Studies conducted a field survey for the Report that was designed and supervised by V.K. Ramachandran, V. Surjit and Aparajita Bakshi. The other contributors to the survey efforts are listed elsewhere. Participants in workshops held in Agartala, Udaipur, Ambassa and Kailashahar made important comments on early drafts of the background papers and the Report. Seeta Prabhu gave advice and encouragement at vari- ous stages of the preparation of this Report. Jayati Ghosh and K. Nagaraj commented on the first draft of the Report. A.K. Shiva Kumar gave me excellent advice on the content and organiza- tion of the Report. I thank Venkatesh Athreya for his careful reading of the draft Report. Mahadev Chakravarti has shared his knowledge of Tripura society and history with me. V.K. Ramachandran contributed significantly to this Report from the early planning to the final writing and editing. The team at Tulika Print Communication Services has worked in record time to prepare this publication. Kalyani Ramachandran selected the colour scheme, and she and Madhav gave me much support. Lastly, I record my gratitude to the Indian Statistical Institute, my home institution. MADHURA SWAMINATHAN Principal Resource Person and Editor vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS CONTENTS Message from the Chief Minister of Tripura iii Acknowledgements v 1 The State of Human Development 1 1.1 The State and Its People 3 1.2 Components of Human Development 10 1.3 Human Development Index (HDI) for Tripura 24 1.4 Concluding Remarks 29 2 The Economy 33 2.1 Economic Structure 33 2.2 Forest-based Livelihoods 36 2.3 Infrastructure 43 2.4 Work and Unemployment 50 2.5 Income and Asset Poverty 58 2.6 Summary 66 3 Education, Health, Nutrition 73 3.1 Education 73 3.2 Health 85 3.3 Nutrition and Food Security 92 3.4 Housing, Sanitation and Drinking Water 99 3.5 Summary 101 4 Promoting Human Security 103 4.1 Human Security and Human Development 103 4.2 The Breeding Ground for Divisive Political Movements 104 4.3 The Impact of Insurgency on Society and People’s Lives 108 4.4 Fighting Insurgency 111 4.5 Summary 115 5 Democratic Decentralization 117 5.1 Role of Decentralized Institutions 117 5.2 Panchayati Raj Institutions 117 CONTENTS vii 5.3 Urban Local Bodies 120 5.4 Tripura Tribal Areas Autonomous District Council 121 5.5 Political Participation of Women 122 5.6 Special Initiatives 125 5.7 Concluding Remarks 126 6 Financial Constraints & Expenditure Patterns 129 6.1 Financial Constraints 129 6.2 Social Sector Spending 131 6.3 Summary 136 7 The Way Forward 137 7.1 Strengths and Achievements 137 7.2 Challenges and Problems 138 7.3 Priorities for Planning 140 Glossary and Abbreviations 142 Bibliography 143 Annexures 145 Annexure 1: Estimation of District Domestic Product (DDP) 145 Annexure 2: Calculation of the Human Development Index (HDI) and Gender-related Development Index (GDI) 146 Annexure 3: List of Blocks Wholly in the Autonomous District Council 147 Annexure 4: Estimation of Birth Rates by Reverse Survival Method 147 Annexure 5: Estimation of Mortality Rates by Indirect Methods 148 Annexure 6: Issues in School Education 150 Annexure 7: Border Fencing 154 Annexure 8: Public Expenditure Ratios 154 Statistical Appendix 156 Population: Tables P1–P12 156 Education: Tables E1–E18 162 Health and Nutrition: Tables H1–H14 170 Labour Force: Tables L1–L20 175 Economy and Infrastructure: Tables E&I 1 – E&I 26 184 Living Conditions: Tables LC1–LC10 196 Financial Resources: Tables F1–F9 202 Political Participation and Violence: Tables O1–O7 206 viii CONTENTS TABLES, FIGURES, BOXES, MAPS Tables Chapter 1: The State of Human Development Table 1.1: Area and population of Tripura, by district, 2001 5 Table 1.2: Share of rural and urban populations and population of Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs) in total population of Tripura, by district, 2001 6 Table 1.3: Population of Scheduled Tribes (STs) by rural–urban location, Tripura, by district, 2001 6 Table 1.4: Area, population, sex ratio, density and share of Scheduled Tribes (STs) in Tripura, North East and India, 2001 8 Table 1.5: Population growth rate, density and sex ratio in Tripura, by district, 1991 and 2001 9 Table 1.6: Proportionate broad age-group structure of population by sex, Tripura, by district, 2001 11 Table 1.7: Literacy rates for persons aged 7 and above by sex and location in Tripura by district, North East and India, 2001 12 Table 1.8: Gap in literacy rates across social groups, Tripura, North East and India, 1991 and 2001 15 Table 1.9: Children attending school, Tripura, North East and India, 1991 16 Table 1.10: Children attending school, Tripura, North East and India, 2001 16 Table 1.11: Expectation of life at birth by sex in Tripura, by district, 1991 and 2001 17 Table 1.12: Child sex ratio, Tripura by district and India, 1991 and 2001 18 Table 1.13: Compound annual growth rate of NSDP at factor cost, Tripura, 1980–81 to 2002–03 21 Table 1.14: Compound annual growth rate of per capita NSDP at factor cost, Tripura, 1980–81 to 2002–03 21 Table 1.15: Absolute level of per capita income at current prices, Tripura, by district, 1993–94 to 2001–02 22 Table 1.16: Ranking of per capita income across districts of Tripura, 1993–94 to 2001–02 22 Table 1.17: Rate of growth of SDP/DDP of Tripura and districts at factor cost (constant prices at 1993–94 series) 23 Table 1.18: Rate of growth of per capita DDP of Tripura and districts at constant prices (1993–94 series) 23 CONTENTS ix Table 1.19: Share of different sectors in NSDP of Tripura and National Income of India, 1980–81, 1990–91 and 2002–03 23 Table 1.20: Human Development Index (HDI) of Tripura and districts, 2001 25 Table 1.21: Gender-related Development Index (GDI) of Tripura and districts, 2001 25 Table 1.22: Human Development Index (HDI) of North Eastern States and India, 2001 28 Table 1.23: Gender-related Development Index (GDI) of North Eastern States and India, 2001 28 Table 1.24: Human Development Index (HDI) of Tripura, by district, 1991 and 2001 29 Table 1.25: Gender-related Development Index (GDI) of Tripura, by district, 1991 and 2001 29 Chapter 2: The Economy Table 2.1: Land-use classification in Tripura, by district, 2004–05 33 Table 2.2: Number of registered factories with number of workers