INTRODUCTION 1

SAMURAI IN VIDEOGAMES 2

Sword of the (2003, JP) 2

The W ay of the Samurai (2002, JP) 6

Onimusha W arlords (2001, JP) 8

Throne of Darkness (2001, USA) 11

Shogun: total W ar, the warlord edition (2001, UK) 13

THE CINEMATIC FACTOR 16

The lone swordsman 16

Animé 20

The Seven Samurai 23

The face of the silver screen warrior 24

SAMURAI OF LEGEND 26

Musashi 26

Yagyu Jubei 28

Oda Nobunaga 30

MYTHIFICATION, IMMERSION AND INTERACTIVITY 32

Mythification 32

Immersion, Interactivity and Representation 34

CONCLUSION 39

BIBLIOGRAPHY 41

Introduction

The Samurai, everyone has a certain mental image of these warriors, be it the romanticized noble warrior or the ruthless fighter, or even the lone wanderer who is trying to change his fate by the sword. These images of the Samurai are most often based on popular (mediated) productions like the Japanese period film (Jidai Geki) and, most recently, Samurai videogames. It is this last and newest of these mediated productions, the videogame, which will be the main subject of this Thesis. I will start by describing videogames that incorporate these warriors, then I will try to determine if film has had any influence on this representation. From the influence of film I will move on to other contemporary media: the novel, Animé films and comics. It is my goal to determine in what manner all these forms of contemporary media have influenced the representation of the Samurai in videogames. I will use a theory by Desser, which he calls —Mythification of history“. Desser claims in his book, —The Samurai films of “, that the Japanese film has a tendency to elevate certain historical periods, figures, facts and legends into mythic proportions. I will try to determine if this theory is indeed applicable to film and videogames and whether videogames themselves —Mythify“ Japanese history. I tend to believe that this assumption is false; I think that the mediated productions that revolve around the Samurai are not —mythifying“ history but are creating new tales of mythic proportions set in an historical setting. In other words I think that the creators of many fantastical tales concerning historical periods and display strong archetypes create new myths that the audience sees as such. Thus they create —neo mythology“, where new myths are created around era‘s, historical events or even legendary figures, and as such these are not transformed into myth but surrounded by it. Desser does provide a usefull division of Samurai film into sub , I will use these sub genres extensively in this thesis, for they provide a good overview of the different aspects of mediated productions that incorporate Samurai. Finally I will try to determine if the videogame, as a medium, brings any unique changes to the representation of the Samurai. I will use —Rules of play“ (2003) by Salen and Zimmerman and —More than a Game“ by Barry Atkins as guidelines to determine what the aspects of the videogame are and what effect it has on the Samurai as represented in popular media.

1 Samurai in videogames As stated in the introduction, several games incorporate the Samurai (or a definition of the Samurai) as playable characters. In this chapter I will describe a number of these games and see how the Samurai are represented. I have selected the games; —Sword of the Samurai“, —Way of the Samurai“, — Warlords“, —Throne of Darkness“ and —Shogun: total war“ because of the difference in and origin, thus I hope to get a better view of the worldwide representation of the Samurai and the way they are incorporated in various videogame genres. Three of the five games I will discuss are from Japanese origin, these are: Sword of the Samurai“, —Way of the Samurai“ and —Onimusha Warlords“. —Throne of Darkness“ was developed in the USA and —Shogun: total war“ has been developed in the United Kingdom. As mentioned earlier, the games also differ in genre: —Sword of the Samurai“ is a part of the fighting game genre, —Way of the Samurai“ is a single character role playing videogame, —Onimusha Warlords“ is an action adventure, —Throne of Darkness“ is a party based role playing game and —Shogun: total war“ is a real time strategy game. Each of these genres has its own characteristics, and it my intention to see if the difference in genre effects the representation of the Samurai in the videogames altogether. Moreover I will see if these games —share“ content from other media that represent(ed) Samurai.1 Finally I will see if the Samurai characters that appear in the game have a historical basis (e.g. if they are a representation of certain legendary Samurai) and if they differ from this historical foundation.

Sword of the Samurai (2003, JP)2 The first game that I will discuss in this chapter is the Playstation 2 game —The Sword of the Samurai“ (2002 Genki co) which was developed in . On the back of the games‘ cover the reader will find a short description of the content, thus the potential player can get an idea of what will happen in the game. The cover states the following:3

—A real Samurai is not afraid of battle, only of the reflection of

1 Other media include: Jidai Geki film, Period novel, Manga comics and animated productions. 2 This game was published in Japan as: “Kengo 2” 3 Authors Translation, original text: Een echte Samurai vreest geen gevecht, alleen de reflectie van de maan in kalm water. Om een echte Samurai te worden moet je het bloederige pad van de Samurai betreden en de geheimen van de geschiedenis van de Samurai ontdekken”

2 the moon in calm water. To become a real Samurai, you must walk the bloody path of the Samurai and discover the secrets of the history of the Samurai. Samurai Maxim“

Here the creators of the game present what they claim to be a —Samurai maxim“. There are hundreds of Samurai maxims, so it is hard for me to determine whether this really is a Samurai maxim. One thing I do know for sure is that this maxim cannot be found in several (translated) books that were written by Samurai in their respective age, these works include the —Hagakure“4 by Yamamoto Tsunetomo, —“5 by Miyamoto Musashi, The —Bushidoshinshosu“6 by Taira Shigesuke, the —Unfettered mind“7 by Takuan Soho and —the Sword and the Mind“ 8by Yagyu Munenori. Many works by Samurai are not translated of course, and therefore, I (as a Gaijin9) cannot truly determine if this —maxim“ which is cited on the cover of —the Sword of the Samurai“ is authentic or not. The description continues by providing the player with prospects on what he or she can do within the game environment:

—Partake in numerous missions: assassination, defence, rescue, tournament fighting and more.

Create your own Sword master, train with the best historical Samurai masters. Fight against 30 legendary Samurai including Miyamoto Musashi and Yagyu Jubei using authentic weaponry and fighting styles.

Be a master with the sword in any situation- one vs. one, one strike kills, combinations and combat against multiple enemies.“ 10

Here the creators of the game continue to emphasize the representation of the —historical Samurai“ and use legendary Samurai like Musashi to underline this relationship with the —authentic Samurai“. The use of the legendary Samurai doesn‘t end with the featuring of legendary Samurai as opponents, but continues by using

4 Yamamoto, T. (1979) Hagakure. , Kodansha International. 5 Musashi, M. (1994). The book of five rings. New York, Bantam Books. 6 Daideoji, Y. (2000). The Code of the Samurai: A Contemporary Translation of the Shoshinshu of Taira Shigesuke. Boston, Tuttle publishing. 7 Soho, T. (1988). The unfettered mind, Kodansha Europe. 8 Munenori, Y. (1996). The sword and the mind. New York, The Overlook press. 9 A gaijin is a term used in Japan to indicate a person who is not from Japanese origin. 10 Authors Translation, original text was Dutch.

3 them (or at least popular versions of them) in their introduction FMV (Full Motion Video) cut scene. As the game starts the player sees a rough looking Samurai in a boat moving towards an island where another, more civilised, Samurai is waiting for him. This scene can be directly linked to the book —Musashi“ written by Eji Yoshikawa where he describes the famous fight between Miyamoto Musashi and Sasaki Kojiro.11 This description fits the FMV sequence exactly, and thus it is more than logical that Yoshikawa‘s popular work has been used to supplement the image of the Samurai that the game creators want to present to the players. During the same introduction FMV sequence a Samurai is shown wearing a eye patch . which is made of a tsuba (the hand guard of a Japanese sword) , this figure is supposed to represent Yagyu Jubei, a legendary and mysterious Samurai sword master who lived in the 17th century.12 Clearly, the creators of the game make the choice to include historical Samurai of legendary status into their game, and to include them in such a manner that they themsleves become a focal point. Apart from the FMV sequence, the legendary Samurai do indeed feature in the game.13 The game revolves around a figure that the player can create. The player does so by choosing the gender and appearance of the avatar who will represent him or her in the game.14 The chosen warrior will represent the players own masterless Samurai (Ronin) who has the goal of becoming the best swordfighter in period Japan (1600-1868). The creators of the game have assigned different starting attributes to different character mark-ups that can been selected, however it is hard to determine whether gender has any impact on these attributes.15 The attributes themselves are categorised and each of these attributes gets a certain starting value.

11 It was published in a serialized form between 1935 and 1939 in the Asashi Shimbun newspaper. 12 On page 25 of this thesis there is a more in-depth description if Yagyu Jubei. 13 Numerous legendary Samurai are incorporated into the game, the player can choose to duel against them, if he or she wins the fame (indicated as a statistic) of the main character increases. 14 There is a historical backing for the incorporation of female Samurai in this game. Although rare there is a legendary female Samurai in Japanese history; Tomoe Gozen. Tomoe Gozen fought beside her husband in the battle of Awazu in 1184 and fought just as valiant as any other warrior. (source: Turnbull, S. (2004). The Samurai sourcebook. London, Weidenfeld & Nicholson military. Page 204) 15 The atrributes are: strength (strenth of the character), agillity (speed of the character) , insight (the character’s abillity to learn new skills), spirit (the amount of health regeneration of the character) , resolve (the toughness of

4 The basic idea behind these attributes is to show the player how his or her avatar behaves in combat and how he/she is evolving throughout the game. As one may have figured out by the description which is given on the games retail box, the main activity which the avatar will be undertaking throughout the game is fighting other digital warriors. By training in dojo‘s, duelling in tournaments and undertaking missions the player‘s avatar will accumulate fame and skill. This accumulation of skill and fame is presented to the player by the table of attributes, the more fame and skill the player accumulates the more powerful his or her avatar becomes. Another feature that was incorporated is the inclusion of specific fighting styles and techniques, the further the avatar advances in game the more combat techniques he or she masters, which in turn provides the avatar with a huge variety of techniques to defeat the foe. The game does however limit the number of fighting techniques which are available during a combat sequence, the player can only pick 3 stances on which three basic techniques are coupled; an offensive, a counter and a defensive technique. Thus the player can customize the actual fighting style of his or her avatar, and given the available techniques one has to his or her disposal the player can virtually create its own particular fighting style. The player‘s avatar can acquire both —normal“ and —bad“ fame.16 The more —bad fame“ the avatar acquires the more infamous the character becomes. The reason of the division between —bad“ and —normal“ fame is to give the player the choice for his avatar to become a hero or an antihero. —Normal fame“ is acquired if the player chooses missions that help honourable individuals, help the weak or if he or she wins fights in official tournaments. —Bad fame“ is acquired by taking on missions that help the cruel, assassinating individuals or partaking in unofficial tournaments in which real swords are used instead of the wooden boken practice sword. The distinction between tournaments using real and wooden swords is consistent in the historical period the game creators used for situating the game; the Tokugawa period (1600-1868). The Tokugawa period was an era of relative peace in Japan, the country was in firm control of the Tokugawa bakufu (shogunate) who outlawed sword duels fought with real blades.17 Nevertheless many occurrences did appear

the character) and recover (this statistic determines how much health is recovered by the character when resting for one day), “good” fame and “bad” fame. 16 These is the actual terms used to determine the amount of the character’s fame in the videogame itself. 17 For more informtion about the Tokugawa era (also known as the ) see: Reischauer, E.O. (1989). Japan, Sydney, Allen & Unwin Australia. For more specific information about the Samurai in that era see: Turnbull, S. (2004). The Samurai sourcebook. London, Weidenfeld & Nicholson military. For an in-depth look into the workings of a Shogun gouvernment see: Mass, J.P. (1974). Warrior government in early medieval Japan: a study of the Kamakura Bakufu, Shugo and Jitto, new haven, Yale University press.

5 where Samurai ignored this law and fought with the intention of killing their opponent outright. The final aspect of the game which signifies the importance of the sword is the inclusion of special high quality katana‘s (Japanese swords) which the player‘s avatar can acquire through betting matches and by winning the governor tournaments. The game has a number of swords which enhance some of character attributes and degrades others. The more swords the player acquires the more options the player has in customizing his or her avatar. The sword and the wooden practice sword are the only weapons that are incorporated in the game. Historically this is a correct representation of the preferred weaponry of that (the Edo period 1600-1868) era, there is nothing —magical“ or even supernatural about the swords, better swords give you better statistics (as a sword made by a master smith has better balance and/or a sharper edge).18 Although the creators of the game included a basic storyline, this is not the focal point, the game revolves around sword fighting and nothing else. Thus the Samurai in the game are only depicted as being swordsmen and nothing else.

The Way of the Samurai (2002, JP) The second game that uses the Samurai as a main protagonist can be found in the 2002 game —The Way of the Samurai“. This game again revolves around an avatar which the player can customize throughout the game. And like —the Sword of the Samurai“, —the Way of the Samurai“ provides the player with a Ronin as a player character. Yet, there is a huge difference between the setting of —the Sword of the Samurai“ and —the Way of the Samurai“; the difference lies in the historical period which was chosen, —the Sword of the Samurai“ takes place in the Tokugawa era, whereas —the Sword of the Samurai“ takes place at the start of the Meiji restoration (1867-1868). The Meiji restoration was a period of great modernisation and upheaval in Japanese society in which the Tokugawa Bakufu19 was removed from power by emperor Meiji. Meiji then ordered the modernization of Japan and subsequently removed the traditional Samurai from power. Even their right to carry swords and being the only

18 For more information about the Edo era, see: Reischauer, E.O. (1989). Japan, Sydney, Allen & Unwin Australia. 19 Bakufu literally means “Tent Government”, this term was used to indicate a central government lead by the military rule of a “Shogun”. Source: Turnbull, S. (2004). The Samurai sourcebook. London, Weidenfeld & Nicholson military.

6 class to be active in warfare, which the Samurai had enjoyed since the Kamakura period, was removed by Meiji and his government. The Meiji restoration meant the downfall of the traditional Samurai and heralded the modernization of Japan. The creators of —The Way of the Samurai“ did not choose the start of the Meiji period as a setting without reason: it gives the game an interesting historical background, moreover several famous Samurai films (e.g. Akira Kurosawa‘s —Yojimbo“ (1954)) are situated in this same period. The story of the game found on the retail box states, a —branching storyline“.20 In this case the player character enters a small village which is the centre of a struggle between two rival Samurai clans. One, the Kurou clan is an established Samurai family which has chosen to modernize to cope with this new era and stay in power, the Akadama clan fights for the traditional Samurai and is therefore opposed to modernization. The citizens of the village are caught in the middle of this struggle. The player can choose a side in which his or her avatar will be active and can even switch sides, or leave the village in the middle of the game duration. The creators have chosen to limit the amount of time in which the story will unfold, the player character gets three days to unravel one of the the storylines. These 3 days amount to approximately 3 hours playing time. The short time in which the story unfolds has been created to offer a branching storyline in which the player is presented with a multitude of options to drive the story forward, each option has an effect on the eventual outcome of the game itself. Thus the game can be replayed frequently and each time it generates a different outcome to the story. As with —the Sword of the Samurai“, —the Way of the Samurai“ focuses on sword fighting. The whole game relies on the fact that the player will win (or lose) certain encounters with other swordsmen. As in —the Sword of the Samurai“ the main character in this game can select certain swords which can be found in the game environment. However, unlike —the Sword of the Samurai“, these swords do not only effect the statistics of the avatar, but provides the avatar with fighting techniques which are specifically bound to each sword. Every sword in the game can therefore

20 A branching storyline is a story in which the player, when choosing certain options, can change the direction the story takes. Thus a branching storyline always has a variety of possible endings that are available for the player. Source: Crawford, C. (2002). The Art of Interactive Design: A Euphonious and Illuminating Guide to Building Successful Software, San Francisco, No starch press.

7 change the way the avatar fights. The weaponry available differs from —The Sword of the Samurai“, the player can equip the main protagonist with Katana‘s (japanese Samurai swords), -to‘s (straight swords used in ninjitsu) and even the european rapier and cutlass. The opponents also use a variety of weapons, including firearms (one opponent uses a revolver to attack the main protagonist). Although the variety of weapons seem out of place it does not contradict the historical setting (the Meiji restoration (1867/68) where influence was increased dramatically in Japan. The clothing (and appearance) of the main character seems much in line wth what was worn in these days by the people that held on to the traditional ways whilst many of the antagonist show western influence in the way they are dressed (this was also the case as the —western“ way way promoted by emperor Meiji and his government).21 An addittional aspect of the game, which differs widely from —The Sword of the Samurai“, is that it does not incorporate famous or legendary Samurai. All characters presented in the game are fabrications and a lot of them are stereotypes or charicatures.22

Onimusha Warlords (2001, JP) In the game —Onimusha warlords“ the main character (a Samurai) is introduced as a noble individual who wants to rescue a kidnapped princess. This Samurai is Samanosuke Akechi23, he and his female shinobi24 companion Yuki are the main characters in the game. The introduction FMV sequence shows Samanosuke fighting in a battle, in which a warlord (Daimyo) is slain by an arrow in the throat. Soon it is made clear that this mortally wounded Daimyo is , a famous general who lived and

21 For more information about the Meiji restoration see: Reischauer, E.O. (1989). Japan, Sydney, Allen & Unwin Australia. 22 A nice example of this artistic freedom is that the game creators have utilised is found in the the character “Dona Dona”, an African American “Samurai” who somehow ended up in 19th century Japan looking like a 1970’s film star. In fact “Dona Dona” has a physical appearance that imitates, or at least has a resemblance to the actor Jim Kelly who co-starred as “Williams” in the 1973 film “Enter the Dragon”. The final example of popular culture can be found in the way the leader of the Akadama clan is depicted and how the swordsmen of this clan are dressed.22 Their outfits are most definitely not “historically” correct, which I find strange as they fight for the traditional hierarchy which was in place in the Tokugawa era. Later in the game, the player can “unlock” a outfit for his or her main character that has similar colour and style as the outfift wore in his last film “Game of Death” (1978). 23 Samanosuke Akechi’s name (Akechi) remsembles that of the eventual murderer of the historical commander Oda Nobunaga, . In the sequal “Onimusha 3: demon siege” (2004, ) it is made clear that Samanosuke is iin fact the cousin of Akechi Mitsuhide. 24 were the highly traines assasins know nowadays as “Ninja”.

8 fought during Japan‘s Sengoku Jidai period (1476-1603). This places the events that are represented in the game in this historical period, it also explains the array of (ordinary) weapons and armour that Samanosuke can use. A significant difference between —Onimusha warlords“ and the two games I discussed previously is that in —Onimusha warlords“ the main character battles hordes of demons. The supernatural element takes centre stage in the plot of —Onimusha warlords“, as both the enemies and allies of Samanosuke are not at all human. Even Oda Nobunaga is no longer portrayed as a human being in this game, he‘s in transition between being an undead warlord and becoming a demon champion. The allies of Samonosuke are the so-called —ogres“ which have bestowed a supernatural magical gauntlet on him which can actually absorb the spirits of dead enemies. In the course of the game it becomes clear that the ogres have chosen Samanosuke as their champion to stop a demon invasion. The game itself revolves around despatching demon warriors with either sword, bow or harquebus 25and solving puzzles to enter specific areas. Samanosuke is represented as an honourable Samurai who protects the weak and is oath bound to destroy any demons he finds. He is in pursuit of Oda Nobunaga because Nobunaga has kidnapped his childhood friend princess Yuki. In —Onimusha warlords“ the typical lone Samurai (Samanosuke) is assited by a female shinobiassistant, Kaede. It is unclear if the main character is a Ronin26 or not, but regarding the role of Samanosuke in this story it is most likely he is indeed a Ronin. In the booklet Samanosuke has the following description:

—A master swordsman who travels across Japan seeking his rival. Often perceived as a passionless soldier because of his quiet ways, Samanosuke is actually a hot- blooded warrior with a noble sense of Justice“ (Onimusha warlords game manual, p 6)

This description underlines my assumption that Samanosuke is indeed a Ronin Sword master, just like the two nameless main characters in the two games I discussed above. Another element which —Onmusha warlords“ shares with —Sword of the Samurai“ is its incorporation of legendary Samurai, in this case Oda Nobunaga. Yet there is a

25 The weaponry (although the “magical” ones look different) is consistent with the historical period (Sengoku Jidai 1530-1600). Source: Turnbull, S. (2004). The Samurai sourcebook. London, Weidenfeld & Nicholson military. 26 Masterless Samurai. Ronin were Samurai without a lord and thus without a stable source of income, therefore many endevoured to impress lords with their fighting skills. Other Ronin took to banditry.

9 huge difference in the way the legendary Samurai are represented in the games. Onmusha takes huge liberties with historical facts and transforms Oda Nobunaga from a ruthless warlord (something not exceptional in that day and age) into a demon incarnate, where —the Sword of the Samurai“ displays them as very talented (and deadly) sword masters. Hence there is a difference to be seen between the games that portray the Samurai as the forces of good which fight evil (Onimusha Warlords) and those that attempt to give a more —authentic“ representation of these warriors. This dichotomy between the two types of representation can also be applied on the actual gameplay of the two games. In —the Sword of the Samurai“ the swords are lethal and a well placed slice can kill a character instantly or at the least extend serious damage, while in —Onimusha warlords“ the sword does not kill instantly (this is also true in the aforementioned —The Way of the Samurai“ game) and the player must hit the enemies several times before they eventually perish. Eventually Samanosuke needs even more powerful supernatural weapons and armour to defeat his demonic opponents. This type of gameplay is reminiscent of Capcom‘s earlier —“ games where the enemies were also supernaturally strong.27 Incorporation of these supernatural weapons also allows Samanosuke to utilize specific —special moves“ with each one of these, doing more damage to the foe. Other than the special moves, Samanosuke has a standard attack combination with each weapon, this differs from both —the Way of the Samurai“ as —the Sword of the Samurai“ where the digitised Samurai have a variety of sword fighting techniques to their disposal. The story as the setting of —Onimusha warlords“ show the influence of the fantasy genre in this game, instead of gritty realism the player is presented with fantastical beings, weapons and tools which in fact resemble the —magical“ items so often incorporated in popular (western) fantasy productions. In the western fantasy genre the heroes are often characters that are, or at least, can be compared with knights. Thus one can determine that Capcom decided to create a fantasy production situated

27 “Onimusha warlords” uses the exact same interface, camera positions and controls as the “Resident Evil” games.

10 in medieval Japan, and as such the European knight is replaced with the Japanese Samurai. There is a difference however, knights in fantasy productions rarely, if ever, use names or representations of individuals that truly existed. I will discuss a further example of the use of historical Samurai in a fantasy production in the next videogame.

Throne of Darkness (2001, USA) Throne of Darkness is also a game that uses the imagery of Samurai, but does so in a different manner than those games discussed previously. Throne of Darkness revolves around the fictional empire of Yamato28 which has its own Samurai clans and its own ruling Shogun, Kira Tsunayoshi. The story of —Throne of Darkness“ is described in the instruction booklet that is supplied with the game itself. It tells the tale about a corrupt Shogun who is tricked into drinking a potion, which transforms him into Zanshin, a powerful demon. Instead of using the individual master swordsman as main protagonist, —Throne of Darkness“ lets the player choose a clan. The clan he or she picks determines the names and appearances of the warriors that are under his or her control. The player can simultaneously control four characters during play, each of the four characters have their own speciality29 and can be replaced by three other specialized characters which are —waiting“ to be chosen (and subsequently summoned onto the battlefield) at the clan‘s headquarters.30 The leader of the clan, the Daimyo, resides in the headquarters and can revive fallen characters and heal the wounded. Therefore the game creates the idea of a hierarchy between the characters which are incorporated in the game. I mentioned in the description of —Onimusha warlords“ that —Throne of Darkness“ also incorporates legendary Samurai. In fact, the clans in this game all consist of legendary Samurai: Yagyu Munenori, Miyamoto Musashi, , Uesegi Kenshin and Oda Nobunaga are just a few renowned figures represented in the game. Even the shogun, Kira Tsunayoshi who becomes Zanshin, has a name that

28 Yamato is an existing area of plains around the city of Osaka. In the game Yamato is represented as an entire empire and as such does not hold a resemblence to the existing Yamato. 29 The speciality of the characters is indicated by the weapons they can use and the way their statistics are raised throughout the game. 30 The total amount of Samurai which can be controlled is thus seven. I will discuss the in-depth on page 22 of this thesis.

11 strongly resembles that of Tokugawa Tsunayoshi (1646-1709) who was an eccentric personality obsessed with the protection of animals.31 —Throne of Darkness“ also incorporates (enemy) creatures, like the Kappa, which have their origin in Japanese Myth. Combined with the legendary figures which are present in the game, —Throne of Darkness“ blends myth and historical personalities into a whole, thereby fusing legend, myth and history. As with the other games which incorporate Samurai, the —Throne of Darkness“ core gameplay revolves around combat. The player must direct his team of characters in such a manner as to defeat his enemies by force. To help the player achieve this, several ways to (magically) enhance the weaponry and armor of the four characters are available, this is necessary as the enemies which they encouter become more and more difficult to defeat. The weapons and armor that all characters use are consistent with the weapons used in Japan‘s feudal era (1185-1868), the only major diffenerence is that they can be —magical“.32 As with the other videogames, this weaponry and armor can enhance the in-game characters‘ fighting abillity. The fighting abillity is represented in statistics, the higher the score the better the character is able to fight. The use of statistics underlines the ties between the western Fantasy genre and this game, as statistics are the backbone of nearly every Role Playing Game (RPG) in existence. Conventional Role playing games consist of a variety of rules and schematics that are essentail for players to partake in the game. These rules are published in many different rulebooks, and these make out the core of the game itself. Role playing games are played by a group of people that are led by one person called a dungeon master. The rest of the people are designated as players. Players set up characters that will eventually partake in the adventures conceived by the dungeon master. These characters are made up of statistics, skills, class and race. The statistics are the most important element of the character: it shows what its

31 During the latter period of his reign, Tsunayoshi came obsessed with the well being of animals and dogs in particular. Because of this behaviour he became infamous as the “dog Shogun”. Source: Reischauer, E.O. (1989). Japan, Sydney, Allen & Unwin Australia. 32 Source: Turnbull, S. (2004). The Samurai sourcebook. London, Weidenfeld & Nicholson military.

12 strengths and weaknesses are. The statistics are divided into certain categories that make out the basic abilities of the character, for example: a high strength statistic makes the character strong, a low dexterity statistic makes it slow and unwieldy. This in combination with rules on weaponry, equipment and proffession (class) give both the dungeon master as the players a template on which they can —build“ an adventure, and eventually partake in the game itself.33 Another link with the fantasy genre is the use of magic in the game, magic has a vital role within —Throne of Darkness“ as every character can utilize magical spells in combat.34 These spells are not connectec to any specific item, any character who has gained a high enough statistic score can wield them, although some characters are more specialized in using spells.35 Magic is a crucial element in the game that a large part of the gameplay and the game‘s story actually rely upon it. Unlike the previous games I discussed, the characters in —Throne of Darkness“ do not have access to more fighting techniques, there is a basic —fighting“ for each of the characters, but this animation remains the same throughout the game. The characters can use magic spells but cannot use superior (or superhuman) fighting techniques to defeat the enemy.

Shogun: total War, the warlord edition (2001, UK) The last game which will be discussed in this thesis is Creative Assembly‘s (a game developer based in the UK) —Shogun: total War“ strategic videogame. In this game the player takes on the role of the leader of one of the warring clans in the Sengoku Jidai period. The player is presented with a map of 16th century Japan, which is divided in the provinces of that period. The player must acquire troops, build structures and wage war to enlarge his clans territory to become the most powerful Daimyo in Japan, the ultimate goal is to defeat all clans and unify Japan under the player‘s leadership. The game consists of roughly two interwoven elements; the strategic map and the battlefield screen. On the strategic map the player can decide what to build, which units to train and where to deploy his armies. Each decision costs money or requires valuable time. Therefore the game is devided in —turns“, the

33 Source: Tweet T., Cook M. & Williams S (2003). Dungeons and Dragons: Player’s handbook, Atlanta, Wizards of the Coast 34 In the vast majority of “fantasy” productions (novels, film, role playing games, videogames), magic is often present as a dominant factor as are unnatural creatures. 35 This is realted to the profession of the character, this is known in RPG terms as “class”. Hence a character which is of the “mage” class can wield magic more effectively then a “warrior” class character.

13 player can make decisions during his or her turn and it will cost a certain predetermined amount of turns before the decision is executed. If the player has decided to attack another clan he or she must first place an army on hostile territory, at the end of the turn the battlescreen is loaded. The battlescreen is the tactical screen of the game, here the player must command his or her forces in real-time against the enemy. The player can manoeuvre his units, assume army formations and direct his or her troops into battle. This division provides the player with both a turn-based strategic simulation game and a real-time tactical game. Not surprisingly there are a lot of Samurai present in this game, as the player can create vast armies consisting of every imaginable type of Samurai that existed in the Sengoku Jidai period. Creative assembly did its utmost to portray a historical correct picture of the Sengoku Jidai period of Japan, and employed dr. Stephen Turnbull as a consultant.36 This is noticeable as the game depicts an accurate image of the period with respect to troops, military technology and foreign interests. The legendary leaders of this period are all present as commanders that the player can deploy on the battlefield, the dates in which they lived are all utilized and thus the leaders are all active in the correct historical time span. The decision to present an —historically correct“ image of Japan in the Sengoku Jidai period is a far cry from the more fantastical depictions of Samurai given in —Onimusha warlords“, —Throne of Darkness“ or even —The Way of the Samurai“. Almost all Samurai in the game are depicted as part of the clan‘s army and as such they are part of a group and never present as individuals of great prowess. There is one exception to the rule, these are the Kensai units, the Kensai is a single fighting force that can be trained and deployed at great cost to the clan‘s funds. The Kensai is an exceptional force on the digital battlefields in —Shogun Total war“ as it can defeat entire units of other Samurai warriors. The fighting prowess of the Kensai warriors is explained in the game portraying them as master swordsmen who have honed their skill throughout their lives. There were indeed master swordsmen that lived around the Sengoku Jidai period, however it is not clear if these individuals could actually defeat dozens of warriors simultaneously on the battlefield.

36 Turnbull, S. (2004). The Samurai sourcebook. London, Weidenfeld & Nicholson military.

14 To keep the historical realism, that the Creative assembly clearly endeavoured to uphold when creating the game, actual battles have been included. The player can select a certain historical battle and take command of one of the armies, thus re- enacting the battle via the game. In this way the player can actually assume the role of one of the legendary commanders (like Oda Nobunaga, or Takeda Shingen) on the battlefield and give his or her own twist to the historical battle. —Shogun total war“ differs widely from the other games I have discussed in this thesis, it does not portray the Samurai as highly skilled individuals but rather as individuals who are part of a huge fighting force. It does not show the sword fighting skills of the Samurai in detail nor does it incorporate supernatural elements like magic or demons. Yet what it does do to represent the Samurai warrior as an important part of Japanese history, which is exactly what all the games I discussed do.

15 The Cinematic factor

In the description of —the Sword of the Samurai“ and more prominently in the description of —the Way of the Samurai“ I already hinted that there was some influence from cinematic productions reflected in the games. Another clue of the influence of film is the opening FMV sequence of —Shogun Total war“ which is a videoclip taken from Akira Kurosawa‘s —Ran“ (1985). How far did film influence the ideas the creators of the videogames had on Samurai? This is the main question I would like to answer in this chapter, and to do this I will attempt to give a clear picture on how film influenced the representation of the Samurai and how this representation is still incorporated in contemporary videogames.

The lone swordsman In three of the five games I discussed in the previous chapter, the main character is a lone wandering sword master that fights his (or her) enemies with a display of almost superhuman skill. The ronin can defeat several enemies simultaneously which is an indication of his skill with the sword, and usually this skill is used to help the oppressed. The best example of this type of representation of the Samurai can be seen in —the Way of the Samurai“, where the player can choose to fight for the oppressed villagers against corrupt Samurai clans. In fact the entire storyline of the lone ronin entering a troubled village at the start of the Meiji restoration was used in the 1954 film —Yojimbo“ by Akira Kurosawa. This classic film portrays the Ronin Sanjuro who enters a village which is beset by two rival gangs, eventually he uses his guile to weaken both gangs and in the climax he manages to decimate both of the them. Sanjuro uses both his superior sword fighting skills and his intelligence to help the oppressed villagers. In his book —The Samurai Films of Akira Kurosawa“, David Desser divides the Jidai geki37 genre into different sub-genres, two of which incorporate a lone ronin, or Samurai protagonist, he Calls these sub-genres: — fighters“ and —Sword Films“. The main difference between the —zen fighters“ and the —Sword Film“ sub-genre is the attitude the protagonist shows toward his environment. In the —Zen fighters“ film the protagonist is not at all concerned about his or her environment or even his or her reputation with the populace, the only

37 Jidai Geki or Period film uses Japan’s fuedal era as a setting for the main plot. For more information about the Jidai geki see: Richie, D. (2001). A hundred year of Japanese film. Tokyo, Kodansha International.

16 thing they are concerned about is honing his or her sword fighting skills. Desser gives the following descriptions of the Zen Fighter sub-genre:

—The sub-genre of the Samurai film which I call Zen fighters deals with warriors of ancient legend or modern creation who explicitly invoke and evoke Zen swordmanship.“ (The Samurai films of Akira Kurosawa, David Desser, p 40)

And:

—The sub-genre of the Zen fighters ignores, or perhaps transcends the social context of the times. - Zen encourages the practitioner to attain the state of —mushin“ (nomindedness) so that his actions may flow freely, unencumbered by conscious thought and intervention. Satori, the sudden enlightenment of Zen, can come at any time, but only after the conscious mind dissolves itself. To the swordsman, such a view was needed to encourage him to remove his ego from the contest; to practice his art in combat without concern of the eventual outcome. (The Samurai films of Akira Kurosawa, David Desser, p 41)

These quotes underline that the Zen swordsman protagonists in the Zen fighter films are only concerned in sword fighting and nothing else, indeed their actions can sometimes be seen as immoral or offending to the audience who does not know the underlying Zen motive of the film.38 This is a far cry from the actions of Sanjuro in Yojimbo, who is very aware of the consequences of his actions and knows how to manipulate others, something a Zen swordsman would never even contemplate of doing. The —Sword Films“ sub genre, on the other hand, often portray sword wielding heroes who use their skills to survive, and occasionally help, or make a difference to, their immediate environment. Desser states that although the Sword Film depicts the protagonist as a survivor, his actions can be just as inhumane as that of the Zen fighter films, but the motivation of the protagonist in doing these actions is more likely to be motivated through personal context. A good example of this can be seen

38 This mentallity does have a historical basis, as sword masters like Yagyu Munenori, Mijamoto Musashi and Ono Tadaaki strived for enlightement during their lives. (Source: Turnbull, S. (2004). The Samurai sourcebook. London, Weidenfeld & Nicholson military)

17 in Yojimbo, where Sanjuro at certain scenes seems inhumane, yet later his actions are clarified to be in the good of the villagers he‘s trying to help. One of the key differences between the Zen fighter films and the Sword Film is the portrayal of the protagonist as a realistic warrior and a superhuman fighter. In the Zen fighter film the hero can indeed demonstrate his superior sword fighting skills by despatching several enemies at the same time, yet the enemies are never truly overwhelming. In the Sword Films the hero often kills dozens of enemies simultaneously without even breaking a sweat, the enemies swarm around him or her, only to be used as a blade tester. Desser writes the following on this:

—An index of the ever-increasing sense of Fantasy, or at least far fetched extensions of reality, is the number of antagonists the hero is able to dispatch in a single battle.“ (The Samurai films of Akira Kurosawa, David Desser, p 47)

A good example of this type of action can be seen in the 2003 —“ film by , where the main protagonist takes on a criminal gang to help innocent villagers and a brother and sister that want to avenge their family. The main protagonist (also named Zatoichi), a blind masseur, uses his sword fighting prowess to decimate hordes of enemies. One such sword fighting scenes depict Zatoichi cutting his way through such a horde to reach his captured friends. He single-handedly kills a dozen guards and even one opponent armed with a gun stands no chance in defeating the angry Zatoichi. Desser states the following about this kind of massed action scenes:

—The Sword Film is extremely violent in regard to the number of deaths and the method of death. The sight, in colour, of fountains of blood emerging from headless bodies, of severed limbs flying through the air, is a common, and expected sight in the sub-genre. People are reduced to their components. - But the very extremity of the violence where people don‘t bleed but gush, removes it from the plane of reality.“ (The Samurai films of Akira Kurosawa, David Desser, p 47)

18 This shows that where the Zen fighter film tries to portray a somewhat realistic depiction of violence and action, the Sword Film takes this concept to an unrealistic level. The same type of unrealistic massed combat scenes can be seen (and played) in —The Way of the Samurai“. Each and every combat sequence revolves around the main protagonist fighting against several enemies simultaneously. Another similarity between the Sword Film and —the Way of the Samurai“ is its depiction of fountains of blood if one is hit by a sword. The protagonist in the game is also a —survivor“ who can choose any road to survive in the small troubled village he or she has stumbled upon. The player can, if he or she wishes, partake in immoral behaviour without having a detrimental impact on the protagonist. Indeed there is no such thing as a clearly determined —good“ or —bad“ in —the Sword of the Samurai“ there are just points of view. Therefore it is easy to determine that the makers of —the Way or the Samurai“ used the Sword Film as an inspiration for their game, and as such the game uses many similar characteristics of the Sword Film sub-genre. —The Sword of the Samurai“ on the other hand, resembles the —Zen fighters“ sub- genre. The game‘s main protagonist is only worried about the progression of his or her sword fighting skills. Although —the Sword of the Samurai“ does incorporate the —good fame“ and —bad fame“ as a moral balance, it does not affect the eventual outcome of the game itself, it just provides the player with some extra (minor) features like encounters with certain swordfighters. Yet there are instances when the game also resembles the —Sword Film“ sub-genre, this happens when the player chooses to accept missions from a merchant. As I mentioned earlier, these missions consist of the main character killing several enemies simultaneously. Here too the player sees the blood gush out of the wounds of his adversaries when his or her sword strikes the mark. —The Sword of the Samurai“ can therefore be described as a hybrid; it uses characteristics from both the —Zen fighters“ and the —Sword Film“ sub- genres. Both —the Sword of the Samurai“ and —the Way of the Samurai“ use archetypical Samurai warriors and situations as game content, these archetypes resemble those used in the —Zen fighter“ and —Sword Film“ sub-genre. Yet what about the other three games I discussed in the previous chapter? In —Shogun total war“ the player can deploy the —Kensai“ unit, the way this unit can defeat entire battalions of enemies show that the prowess of this unit is a bit unrealistic. According to me this indicates that games where historical realism is a

19 clear focal point are somewhat influenced by the sword master hero depicted in the —Sword Film“ sub-genre. The same kind of superhuman prowess against multiple foes is also present in —Onimusha warlords“ and —Throne of Darkness“. Here too the protagonists battle a huge amount of foes simultaneously and the violence is very graphic, with blood gushing from the wounds or limbs being chopped off. Yet there is a distinct difference between these two games and the rest, the difference lies with the origin of the enemies. As far as I can determine there are no known films from both the —Zen fighter“ and —Sword Film“ sub-genre that use supernatural antagonists as all enemies in these films are human. The only film genre that uses the idea of the lone swordsmen who battle armies of supernatural origin is that of the Japanese Animé genre.

Animé Japanese animated films, known as Animé, enjoy huge popularity in Japan, and thus not surprisingly, they also feature elements from Japanese history.39 Animé has a sub-genre aptly named —Samurai Animé“ where Samurai are often the protagonists.40 The most famous of these films is without a doubt —Ninja scroll“41 (1993), as reviewers comment:

—Ninja Scroll is considered to be the yardstick by which all other sword-fighting action is measured.“ (Review of Ninja scroll, by George Spirou, http://www.abcb.com/jubei/index.htm, last visited 28-3-2005)

This animated film portrays the story of a lone Ronin named Yubei that wanders around at the start of Japan‘s Tokugawa era (1600-1868). Yubei gets involved in fighting a conspiracy against the ruling Tokugawa bakufu by supporters of the defeated Toyotomi clan.42 The Toyotomi supporters (lead by the sinister —Dark Shogun) have hired the aid of the —eight devils of

39 For a insightfull overview of Animé and Manga in general (although very little is written about Historical manga and Animé), see: Napier, S. J. (2000) Animé, from Akira to Princess Mononoke, New York, Palgrave. 40 I use this genre name as it is used widely on the Internet by Animé enthusiasts, for an in-depth explanation see: http://www.umich.edu/~anime/genres_Samurai.html (last visited 29-3-2005) a site which gives a good overview on the different sub-genres of Animé and Manga. 41 Ninja scroll is the translated version of “Jubei Ninpucho” 42 The Toyotomi clan was defeated in 1600 in the , this battle was decisive in the history of Japan as its outcome unified Japan under the rule of the Tokugawa bakufu for 268 years. Source: Turnbull, S. (2004). The Samurai sourcebook. London, Weidenfeld & Nicholson military

20 Kimon“, a group of supernaturally gifted warriors. Each of the —eight devils of Kimon“ has a particular gift that they use in combat, for example: one of the —devils“ can turn his skin into stone, and another has snake tattoos that can become real snakes at will. Yubei eventually defeats all of the —eight devils of Kimon“ and the —Dark Shogun“, and as the film ends he continues drifting through Japan without a destination. As one can easily see, the Yubei character resembles the lone Wandering sword master character so often portrayed in the —Zen fighters“ and —Sword Film“ genre. A further similarity between this Animé film and the Jidai-geki sub-genres is its depiction of blood and violence, of which there is plenty in this film. Yubei can single- handedly defeat several enemies (if they don‘t posses supernatural powers) simultaneously and each death is accompanied with copious bloodshed and several limbs being severed.43 The only relatively new aspect that —Ninja scroll“ incorporates in the representation of the Samurai is Yubei‘s ability to fight and defeat foes of supernatural origin. I already quoted Desser about the increasing sense of fantasy which he sees within the —Sword Film“ sub-genre. This increase of fantastical elements comes to its fullest in the —Samurai Animé“ genre where it is not uncommon for heroes or heroines to battle demons or other supernatural foes. Not only —Ninja scroll“ uses these foes as main antagonists in the plot, other Animé productions use this supernatural element frequently as well.44 Desser ties the increase of unrealistic elements in the —Sword Film“ sub-genre to comic books:

—In a sense they (the lone sword master protagonist, authors note) are archetypes, both physical and mythical. It is worth noting that the image of the —superhero“ like Superman or Wonder Woman, arises from comic books and not films. Filmic heroes, even Douglas Fairbanks, tended to have at least one foothold in the real world. It was always the purpose of cinema in the twenties through the sixties to make the fantastical seem real. It is the purpose of comic books to make the fantastic seem incredible. The Sword Film, especially as it progresses into the seventies, begins to lose all its realistic ties, becoming a virtual tour de force of flying shapes and actions.“

43 The film starts with an action sequence where Yubei defeats several (human) opponents without breaking a sweat. 44 To name a few: “Rurouni Kenshin”, a popular Animé television series which ran in the late 1990’s. (source: http://www.localcolorart.com/encyclopedia/Rurouni_Kenshin/#The_Series, last visited 23-03-2005) and “Samurai Deeper Kyo” another Animé televisions series that ran in 2002.(source: http://www.animenfo.com/animetitle,933,mplzhx,Samurai_deeper_.html, last visited 22-03-2005 )

21 (The Samurai films of Akira Kurosawa, David Desser, p 47)

In this quote Desser indicates that the fantastical elements used in the Sword Film sub-genre have increased in such a way that it can be compared to comic books. This comparison is not as strange as one might think, as Japan‘s entertainment industry produces large quantities of comic books (Manga) and animated films (Animé). Manga is by far the most popular medium in existence in Japan, it sells huge amounts and is read by everyone everywhere. Manga and animé share a common audience and also share the same drawing style and stylistic characteristics. Moreover many manga series are accompanied by their own Animé spin-off or adaption.45 The first widely read (modern) Manga that incorporates Samurai and other feudal classes was the 1952 Igaguri-kun (Master Crew Cut) and the 1954 Akado Suzunosuke:

—This was also the time of the first boom in contemporary manga, when works like the 1952 Igaguri-kun (Master Crew Cut) and the 1954 Akado Suzunosuke, about a great swordsman who wore a red suit of armor, were overwhelmingly popular among children“ (A , Go Tchiei, http://www.dnp.co.jp/museum/nmp/nmp_i/articles/manga/manga4-2.html , last visted: 29-3-2005)46

Desser does not discuss Animé and Manga in his book, which can be seen in his quote where he uses American comic book heroes as an example. According to me this is a mistake by Desser, Manga was already popular at the time Kurosawa‘s —Yojimbo“ was released and he could look at the way Samurai are represented in the Japanese comics rather than compare the filmic Samurai with American superheroes. In the 1950‘s through the 1960‘s the —historical Manga“ that most often portrayed members of the Samurai

45 For more information about the relation between Animé and Manga, see: Napier, S. J. (2000) Animé, from Akira to Princess Mononoke, New York, Palgrave 46 A site that provides the visitor with a good overview of the history of Manga. During my research I have to revert to this site as academic sources on the history of manga are largely published in Japanese.

22 class or Ninja‘s that used their fighting skills to solve problems. In many of these manga series (like the well known —“ comic book series by Kojima Goseki and Koike Kazuo which ran from the late 1960‘s to the start of the 1970‘s) the main protagonist is a wandering swordsman. This shows that the lone (wandering) Samurai or Wandering sword master protagonist is not a characteristic which is unique to film. It was Manga and Animé that incorporated the supernatural elements into popular mediated Samurai tales first (in the late 1980‘s), and as so has had an impact on the popular (mediated) representation of the Samurai in general. Manga and Animé influenced the way the Samurai are portrayed in the videogames —Onimusha warlords“ and —Throne of Darkness“ as they were the first to incorporate the supernatural elements which have become crucial elements in the narrative of both games. Another striking factor that shows that comics have indeed influenced the way Samurai are represented in videogames can be seen in the way conversations are visualized: it uses the same text balloons as in comics.

The Seven Samurai On the cover of the retail box of —Throne of Darkness“ the following slogan is shown: —Seven Samurai battle the hordes of evil!“ In the game the player can indeed utilize seven Samurai against the supernatural foes. According to me, the choice of the number of Samurai was not an accident: it is a direct reference to Akira Kurosawa‘s masterpiece —the Seven Samurai“ (1954). This film is the most famous production from the hand of Kurosawa and it attained international acclaim, this film brought the Jidai Geki genre to an international audience and introduced the filmic Samurai in western countries. The film portrays a tale of a rural village beset by bandits, out of desperation the villagers hire seven Samurai (they are actually Ronin) to defeat the bandits once and for all. David Desser also writes about —the Seven Samurai“, and states that it represents yet another sub-genre: that of the —Nostalgic Samurai “. Desser describes this genre as following:

—The Nostalgic Samurai Drama usually focuses on Ronin, a masterless Samurai. - The ronin becomes a wanderer, a doer of good deeds in exchange for food or gratitude. He rarely has enemies of his own; his enemies become the ones of those on whom he would bestow his beneficence.“ (The Samurai films of Akira Kurosawa, David Desser, p 33)

23 Another aspect Desser links to this sub-genre is that more often than not the Ronin either dies tragically or he (to my knowledge there aren‘t any films in this sub-genre that has female protagonists) didn‘t significantly change his situation in society and thus wanders off again to an uncertain future. The seven Samurai indeed portrays the tragic Ronin protagonists that Desser describes, more than half of their number die and the rest realise that their status as wandering Ronin has not changed. Therefore the villagers are the true victors, not the Ronin, as their situtation changed for the better and the situation of the Ronin becomes even bleak. Strangely enough, the only similarity of the —Throne of Darkness“ videogame and —the Seven Samurai“ is that the number of warriors is the same. In the videogame the warriors are all true Samurai, that means that they all serve a lord, they also make a huge impact on their status at the end of the game as they become chief retainers of a newly installed bakufu (Shogunate). It is more than likely that the creators of —Throne of Darkness“ used the association of the number of warriors as a reference to those who have seen the film, as a type of extra motivation for these people to purchase the game. Hence it is clear that this decision to refer to —the Seven Samurai“ is a PR tool, engineered for marketing purposes. The only game I have discussed that has some links toward the —Nostalgic Samurai Drama“ sub-genre as described by Desser is —The Way of the Samurai“. As stated above, this videogame has several possible endings and in many the main protagonist (the character controlled by the player) dies in a struggle against the forces of the Meiji government. These endings underline the disappearance of the Samurai as a class at the start of the Meiji restoration (1867/68), and show that the modern forces of the new civilian government were making sure that there was no longer place for Samurai. I must however stress that only the endings of the videogame resemble the —Nostalgic Samurai Drama“, and that the vast bulk of the game content more closely resembles the —Sword Film“ sub-genre. Although many of these types of film are still being made, e.g. —the twilight Samurai“ - (2003), videogames do not show the tragic face of the powerless Ronin who tries, but fails to make a difference.

The face of the silver screen warrior The large amount of films that make up the Jidai Geki genre and the way that they were crucial in creating the modern image of the Samurai indicates that it is not at all surprising that these films have had an impact on videogames. Many videogames use several characteristics usually linked with the filmic Samurai and employ these to

24 create an archetypical —Samurai hero“ as a main character. In this chapter I have tried to present an overview on how deep the interaction between film and videogames truly is, yet there is more to the games than just reference to the silver screen of cinema. Other, and older forms of media (such as the aforementioned Manga comics) have had an impact on the way the videogames or even films represent the Samurai. In the next chapter I will scrutinise these by looking at the way legendary Samurai are often depicted in various media and how this relates to videogames, I will also attempt to determine who these Samurai really were and if they actually fit the representation of themselves in popular media.

25 Samurai of legend

The first hugely popular tale about a lone Samurai can be attributes to Eji Yoshikawa, who wrote the semi-biographical story about the master swordsman Miyamoto Musashi. The story was published in a popular newspaper (the Asashi Shimbun) and was later published in book form. Its first translation was published in 1981 whilst the critically acclaimed filmic version of this tale was released in 1954. Ever since that first cinematic version of this tale many films have been released with Musashi as the main character. It is thus undeniable that popular novels about Samurai have indeed influenced filmmakers, but does this influence reach videogame designers?

Musashi As I described previously, —the Sword of the Samurai“ videogame shows a scene in the FMV introduction sequence that is almost literally copied from the —Musashi“ novel by Eji Yoshikawa. Indeed, the entire Musashi character that is incorporated in the game has a huge resemblance to the figure described by Yoshikawa, Musashi appears both in the game as in the book as a wandering swordsman that is somewhat unkempt and (unwittingly) rude at certain moments. Yoshikawa romanticesed the life and times of the master swordsman Mijamoto Musashi, he combined bibliographic with fictional content and thus created an image of Musashi that still lives today. A cinematic version of Yoshikawa‘s book was produced in the 1950‘s (in the famous —Musashi trilogy“47) and recently a mini series48 was produced that used the book as inspiration. If one only glances at the huge number of mediated productions featuring this legendary sword master it becomes clear that Miyamoto Musashi is as popular in Japan as Robin Hood or King Arthur is in Europe. As with these European legends, much has been added to the tale of Musashi, especially film as a medium has fabricated tales around this enigmatic sword master, and even put Musashi up against Yagyu Jubei in a fictitious face-off. 49 As stated above, the novel itself uses some historical facts in its tale about Musashi, one such fact is Musashi‘s feude (and subsequent fights) against an entire fencing

47 The films that made up the Musashi trilogy were: “Miyamoto Musashi” (1954), “Zoku Miyamoto Musashi: Ichijôji no kettô”(1955) and “Miyamoto Musashi kanketsuhen: kettô Ganryûjima” (1955), directed by Hiroshi Inagaki. 48 The was aptly named “Musashi” (2003) and was directed by Mitsunobu Ozaki. 49 Nitoryu Kaigen (1963) by Tomu Uchida

26 school.50 He first fought and defeated both the head of the school (Seijiro) as his heir and then accepted a challenge from the youngest son of the Yoshioka clan. Musashi won this fight, and Yoshikawa uses this example in portraying him as a virtually unbeatable force who can defeat, albeit with difficulty, multiple opponents at the same time. The popular account of this fight is as following:

—Finally, a challenge was issued from Seijiro's pre-teen son, Hanshichiro. An ambush was planned for Musashi, with several dozen warriors arriving to lay in wait for him. However, on this occasion Musashi had arrived early and hidden himself. Attacking from concealment, he killed Hanshichiro, fought his way free of the mob and left .“ (source: http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A681004, last visited: 3-4-2005)51

The records of the Yoshioka school tell a different tale in which they won, and it is still disputed what actually happened when Musashi fought the Yoshioka school. Nervertheless the version where Musashi emerged victorious has become the standard of this tale, and as such is widely adapted in various mediated productions. Yoshikawa used a historical occurence to emphasize the extraordinary fighting prowess of Miyamoto Mushashi, and it is Yoshikawa‘s tale that is still being used today as it is adapted to film, television series and Manga.52 Another interesting part of the book is when Musashi decides to defend a small rural village against marauding bandits, this type of event is often used in modern popular as can be seen in films like —Yojimbo“ or more recent: —Zatoichi“. Yoshikawa cemented the idea of the wandering sword master into today‘s image of the Samurai, his book remains a huge source of inspiration in popular Samurai productions and it will likely continue as such for some time to come. Another element that makes Musashi so pivotal in the representation of the Samurai is his legacy: the book —Gorin No Sho“ which he wrote in 1645.53 This book is by far the most famous treatise written by a member of the Samurai class and is still published on an international level. The —Gorin no Sho“ is the definitive manual of Musashi‘s fighting style, he explains his strategies and the way, according to him, a

50 This school was the Yoshioka fencing school that had aqcuired fame by being the court fencing instructors at the Ashikaga bakufu. 51 This site provides the reader with a short yet highly informative overview of the life of Mijamoto Musashi. 52 There is a Manga version of Yoshikawa’s “Musashi”: Takehiko Inou. (2002) . San Francisco, VIZ LLC 53 The “Gorin No Sho” is translated as “The Book of five Rings”. (Musashi, M. (1994). The book of five rings. New York, Bantam Books.)

27 Swordsman can perfect his skill. This book underlines the way Musashi, as a sword master, lived his life and how he defines —Bushido“, or the way of the warrior. In his book, Musashi also states that he was never defeated and that he wandered Japan for the sole reason of honing his sword fighting skills. It seems as if the historical figure of Miyamoto Musashi resembles the archetypical wandering sword master so often portrayed in popular media. Yet Musashi was a exception, the vast majority of the Ronin that lived at the same time as Musashi did not become famous swordsmen and lived in obscurity. It remains undeniable that despite some embellishments and exaggerations throughout the ages, Musashi is often used as a —historical reference“ to the wandering sword master archetype. It is this —historical viabillity“ and his popularity which undoubtely makes Musashi appear in contemporary videogames, often he appears as a enigmatic swordsman (In —the Sword of the Samurai), or sometimes as a tactless brute (In —Throne of Darkness“). Yet Musashi isn‘t the only legendary Samurai to feature in the games, names like Yagyu Jubei and Oda Nobunaga are also used in the games, why are these legendary figures incorporated?

Yagyu Jubei54 Much like Miyamoto Musashi, Yagyu Jubei was a legendary sword master who lived in the seventeenth century, and like his couterpart (Mushashi) is the subject of many tales. However, unlike Musashi, Yagyu Jubei was a member of an honoured Samurai family that had a stipend and a high ranking position at the Shogun‘s court. Jubei‘s father, Munenori and his grandfather, Muneyoshi established a prestigious fencing school that provided the sword fighting lessons to the Shogun and his family. The main reason that Jubei became so famous is actually because there is little known of him during an approximate 12 year time-span.55 And it is exactly in these —missing“ years when he appears in numerous (folk)tales and mediated productions.56 One website explains:

54 For information about Yagyu Jubei and the Yagyu family altogther see: Turnbull, S. (2004). The Samurai sourcebook. London, Weidenfeld & Nicholson military. page 90-91 Munenori Y. (1996). The sword and the mind. New York, The Overlook press. 55 The Shogun at this time, dismissed Yagyu Munenori from his service and because of this he became a Ronin. From that day on there are no records on Yagyu Munenori until 12 years later. Source: Turnbull, S. (2004). The Samurai sourcebook. London, Weidenfeld & Nicholson military. page 90-91 56 “One of the earliest examples of developing the story around Yagyu Jubei was from Japanese author Fuutarou Yamada's 1967 book, Makai Tenshou (Resurrection from Hell), which featured Yagyu Jubei involved in the of 1637 and 1638. This story was eventually adapted into a live-action picture in 1981, directed by . The story of Makai Tenshou was also turned into a manga by manga-ka Shouko Toba as Makai Tenshou: Yume no Ato (Resurrection from Hell: Sign of Dreams). This was then adapted into two anime OVAs (although originally planned for four) as Makai Tenshou Jigokuhen, later released in the U.S under the name Ninja Resurrection.

28 —In Japan, however, Yagyu Jubei became the stuff of legends, the focus of several semi-fictitious novels written soon after his death, and the protagonist in many newspaper serials, novels, movies and television shows. Legends have become so entwined with real documents that, like Musashi, we often can't tell what is true and what is .“ (http://www.furyu.com/archives/issue9/jubei.html, Wayne Muromoto, last visited 3- 4-2005)57

One such a story is displayed in —the Seven Samurai“ where Jubei‘s role is taken by one of the seven Samurai in a close fight with wooden swords. This fight seems a draw until his Ronin adversary demands to refight using real swords, the outcome of the battle is a dead ronin and an untouched Samurai as the latter defeated his adversary in a fraction of a second. 58Stories like these about Jubei are numerous and it shows that he has been turned into a legend, much like Miyamoto Musashi. Even Yagyu Jubei‘s popular appearance is likely more a product of fiction than of fact:

—In some movies and novels, Jubei has only one good eye. His injured eye is covered by an eye patch fashioned out of a metal sword guard. That's a dashing figure, but outside of such novels, no historical data can verify this. The portraits of Jubei when he was alive all show him with two good eyes. In any case, the legends say that while a young man, Jubei was practicing a leaping technique. To make the training tougher, his father swung a real sword at him. The sword tip struck Jubei's right eye, blinding him.“ (http://www.furyu.com/archives/issue9/jubei.html, Wayne Muromoto, last visited 3- 4-2005)

Yagyu Jubei is also featured in other manga and anime, ranging from the epic work, Lone Wolf and Cub to the modern parody Jubei-chan (where a young girl from modern times becomes the successor to the 300-year-old Yagyu clan). Several other movies were also created about him, including Darkside Reborn, which featured as the part of Jubei.” (Source: http://www.teachtime.com/en/wikipedia/y/ya/yagyu_jubei_mitsuyoshi.html, last visited : 4-4-2005)

57 Wayne Muromoto presents a good overview on the life of Yagyu Jubei and also presents a detailed description about the legends that are associated with this sword master. There are indeed better sources to be found about Yagyu Jubei, but the vast majority (if not all) of these are Japanese and unfortunately I cannot read Japanese. Wayne Muromote himself refers to three of such sources in the quoted article. 58 This story can also be found in: Shirane, M. (1989). Folk tales of old Japan, Tokyo, Japan Times

29 This image of Jubei is also incorporated in —the Sword of the Samurai“, where the main protagonist can encounter Jubei and subsequently challenge him to a duel. Yet in —Throne of Darkness“ (where the player can directly control Yagyu Jubei) Jubei doesnt have the eye-patch, in fact it seems that the creators of the game used their own imagination to create their representation of Yagyu Jubei. Nevertheless Yagyu Jubei, like Miyamoto Musashi is often present in popular fiction and as such has been incorporated in videogames that portray Samurai warriors. It is more than likely that the mythos surrounding these two immaculate sword masters has ensured that they continue appearing in popular mediated productions.

Oda Nobunaga59 The warlord Oda Nobunaga is yet another legendary figure that appears in three of the five games I discussed. As I pointed out previously, Nobunaga appears in —Onimusha warlords“ as the main antagonist. He is presented as a ruthless, evil persona who willingly gets involved with demonic forces. It is not surprising to determine that this image is a fabrication from Capcom, the developers and publishers of this videogame. Then why use the name of a legendary warlord to fill the role of a thouroughly evil antagonist? Oda Nobunaga is still an object of much discussion as his decisions and his ambitions are often tainted with violence and terror tactics. One of the most famous and ruthless actions was the extermination of a group of warrior on mt Hiei who interferred with his ambition of uniting Japan under his direct rule.60 This action is still full of controversy, was it necesarry for Nobunaga to kill every single one of the monks, or did he do to it —set an example“ for others that dare question his —right“ to rule? It is a fact that the monks actively opposed Oda Nobunaga as they frequently helped those clans opposing Nobunaga in battle by providing highly trained troops. Nevertheless, Nobunaga‘s refusal to take any as a prisoner and killing all in sight did underline his ruthlesness.61 Although Oda Nobunaga is present in —Onimusha warlords“, —Throne of Darkness“ and —Shogun: total war“, his representation differs widely from those other legendary Samurai Miyamoto Musashi and Yagyu Jubei. First of all, Nobunaga is represented as a warlord62, a commander of armies and not a swordsman or someone that is

59 Oda Nobunaga and his actions are described in-depth in: Turnbull, S. (2004). The Samurai sourcebook. London, Weidenfeld & Nicholson military 60 The siege of Mt Hiei took place in 1571 where Oda Nobunaga massacred thousands of civilians and (warrior) monks alike. 61 Turnbull, S. (2004). The Samurai sourcebook. London, Weidenfeld & Nicholson military 62 Oda Nobunaga is also (briefly) represented in the 1962 Jidai Geki film “Shinobi No Mono” by Satsuo Yamamoto.

30 involved in sword mastery. This representation is accurate as Oda Nobunaga was just that; a powerfull warlord who commanded armies that came close to uniting Japan in the Sengoku Jidai period. This way of portraying Nobunaga is present in all the videogames he appears in which I discussed previously, yet —Onimusha warlords“ clearly takes his reputation as a ruthless warlord one step further, and indeed his reputation still seems to invoke mixed reactions:

—Oda Nobunaga died one of most interesting and controversial figures in Japanese history who continues to inspire debate among scholars and enthusiasts of the . Was he the tyrant so often portrayed in the history books, as his wholesale slaughter of religious adherents might indicate? Was there a method to his madness, where terror was a weapon he felt needed to be used were he ever to achieve his goals? Did he really believe himself a deity, as the contemporary observer Luis Frois recorded? How much further might he have gone had his career not been cut short?“ (http://www.Samurai-archives.com/nobunaga.html, F.W. , last visited: 3-3- 2005)63

It is clear in the case of —Onimusha warlords“ that the game developers have chosen the megalomaniac tyrant representation and exaggerated it to create a antagonist which is both recognisable and frightening. Secondly, Oda Nobunaga is never a present in the videogames as the main protagonist; in —Onimusha warlords“ is he the main antagonist, in —Throne of Darkness“ he is a clan Daimyo (and thus not controllable by the player) and in —Shogun“total war“ he is one of the powerfull Daimyos that the player can deploy in battles. Finally: he is always presented in the games a overly ambitious warlord, determined to unify Japan under his rule, and indeed this presentation is by far the most accurate of all, for this, according to historical fact, is who Oda Nobunaga really was.

63 This site gives the reader a complete and in-depth biography of Oda Nobunaga, even more in depth then what is provided by: Turnbull, S. (2004). The Samurai sourcebook. London, Weidenfeld & Nicholson military

31 Mythification, Immersion and Interactivity

In the previous chapters I have attempted to ascertain the way the legendary Samurai are incoporated in the videogames are represented and why they are represtented in a particular way. According to me Yagyu Jubei and Myamoto Musashi are used because they seem to underline the archetype of the wandering sword master. Oda Nobunaga is often used because he is the personification of a ruthless warlord who will not tolerate anyone getting in his way. This usage of legendary figures in fictitious works is not something new, as it has been done in film, comics and novels before. In my opinion, the use of these legendary figures in popular fiction has a great part to play in the creation of the —wandering sword master“ archetype so often used in mediated productions.

Mythification According to David Desser the filmic representation of Samurai is a product of what he calls the —Mythification of history“ of Japan. He argues that Japanese film, much like the American Westerns, use legendary figures and certain archetypes to present a —Mythical“ historical representation instead of a realistic one. He states the following in his book:

—Both film genres (The American Western and the Japanese Jidai Geki genres, authors note) gave rise to iconic archetypes; both formulas transformed historical figures or folk heroes into mythic heroes; both genres require that the societies understand them —structurally“.“ (The Samurai films of Akira Kurosawa, David Desser, p 14)

Although Desser has a point that the American Western and the Japanese Jidai Geki films do have similarities he overestimates the influence film has on the shaping of the —Wandering sword master Ronin“ archetype. In the previous chapters I have attempted to show that this archetype is not unique to film, and as such it was not just inspiration derived from films that ensured the archetype‘s transition to videogames, novels, manga and animé all have influenced game developers. Another aspect in Desser‘s book is his erroneous assumption that the Chinese (or ) film industry is too archaic to have much international appeal and as such is not as influential on the formation of iconic archetypes. Today Chinese films have a large appeal to international audiences and even in the 1960‘s the Chinese martial arts

32 films enjoyed huge popularity.64 In these Chinese films iconic archetypes frequently appear and also display superhuman abilities to defeat their foes. A second film genre that Desser completely ignores in his book is the epic/historical film genre of Hollywood and Europe. If one specifically looks at the depiction of European medieval legendary figures one can see the same type of utilisation of certain archetypes, for example: Robin Hood is the ultimate —Noble robber“ and King Arthur and his knights represent the cream of the crop of the —Chivalrous knights“. In this case the representations of the archetypes were, like that of the —wandering sword master“, not the sole produce of film but more of an evolution of a popular image which was constantly updated to fit the expectations and cultural beliefs of an audience. From this perspective one can link the (fictitious) story of —Ivanhoe“ (written in 1819 by Sir Walter Scott: Scott, W. (1995). Ivanhoe, Hertfordshire, Wordsworth Editions limited) to that of the partially biographical work of Eji Yoshikawa (Yoshikawa, E. (1981). Musashi. Tokyo, Kodansha) as both contain a strong historical theme laced with the author‘s own creations, and both have been the subject of films and television series. Therefore, In my opinion, Desser‘s assumption about the archetypes of the Samurai which, he claims, are conceived by filmmakers is not correct. Desser‘s has some usefull insights about the sub-genres within the Jidai Geki film genre but his callous assumption that the —Mythification of History“ is a phenomenon which can only be found in film is short sighted at best. Instead of looking at the —Mythification of History“ one can see the films, games and novels as a —new“ legends and myths that are produced by several individuals which have such an impact that they become widely known. Thus one can state that these productions are in fact —neo mythology“ where new stories are created using a particular historical period (that often consists of several centuries) as a setting. Like any good story these neo mythological tales often depend on strong and recognizable protagonists and antagonists, and as such it is not at all surprising that certain archetypes (i.e. —the wandering sword master“ or —the noble robber“) are readily incorporated herein. The fantastical elements in these tales are an inherent part of the neo mythological tales, without the fantastical elements many archetypes do not have a valid basis at all. Stating this, I must stress the point that not all Jidai Geki films or other film genres that use a certain historical setting are by definition

64 I refer specifically to the Chinese “ Pien” film genre which, like the Japanese “Jidai Geki” genre portrays a certain historical period in which heroes set out against huge odds in accomplishing a task. These films are frequently more graphic in the portrayal of the superhuman talents the heroes and antagonists possess, for example; magic bolts and flying through the air is rather the norm than an exception. The films “Crouching Tiger Hidden Dragon” (2000) by and “Swordswoman of Huangjiang” (1930) by Chen Kengran, Zheng Yi-sheng and Shang Guan-wu are good examples of the “Wuxia Pien” film genre.

33 neo mythological, by using Desser‘s sub genres one can determine that the —Zen fighter“ and the —Sword film“ are in fact more liable to be neo mythological then the other sub genres he describes, therefore it is not the Jidai Geki genre in its whole that is neo mythological or even (using Desser‘s assumption) mythified history.65 If one scrutinizes the videogames that are incorporated in this thesis it is easily to determine that these games can indeed be categorised as neo mythology: they all tell a new tale in a historical setting, there is a large amount of fantastical content (except in —Shogun: total war“) and they all incorporate a strong archetype of mythic proportions.66 Hence one can state that videogames continue using the same neo mythological content that novels, manga and (animated) film have used before.

Immersion, Interactivity and Representation Although I have determined that the popular archetype of the —wondering sword master Ronin“ has its origins in a myriad of media types, I still have to see what impact the videogame, as a medium, has on this image. Most of the games I have discussed use three dimensional computer graphics, all games portray the antagonist on screen. All games also try to portray a —realistic“ setting, and do so quite well as the games portray buildings and surroundings that are indeed reminiscent of Japan in feudal times. As such the games endevour, despite the unrealistic nature of the story and characters, to portray some sort of —authentic“ historical setting.67 This useage of authentic elements in fiction is also noted by Julian Kücklich in the —The playability of texts vs. the readability of games: towards a holistic theory of fictionality“:68

—- the process of fiction-making must necessarily begin by taking elements of the real and putting them into a fictional context.“ (The playability of texts vs. the readability of games: towards a holistic theory of fictionality, Julain Kücklich)

65 See: Desser, D. (1983). The Samurai films of Akira Kurosawa. Ann Ambor, Michigan, UMI research press. Another good example of a film that is part of the Jidai geki genre but has no resemblance to neo mythology is: “The Twilight Samurai”, 2002, Yoji Yamada. This film can be more accurately described as an historical drama. 66 The fantastical content ranges from warrior with superhuman prowess (also seen in the “Kensai” unit of Shogun: total war) and the incorporation of magic and magical/supernatural powers. 67 Much like the “Sword film” and “Zen fighter” sub genres found in Jidai Geki films. 68 Copier, M & Reassens, J (ed) (2003). Level up, digital games research conference, Utrecht, University of Utrecht faculty of Arts. Page 100-107

34 This quote underlines the idea that elements of the real, in this case a historical setting and surroundings, are used as a reference point to the —reader“ of fiction. Moreover Kücklich adds the following, recognizable, description:

—Or they (the creators of fiction, authors note) might take a historical person whose image already in the mind of the potential readers and can be —activated“ by the mere mention of his or her name. (The playability of texts vs. the readability of games: towards a holistic theory of fictionality, Julain Kücklich)

This usage of familiar names is what is inherent in all the videogames I have discussed with the exception of —The way of the Samurai“, and is also widely applied in other mediated production which I mentioned earlier. In this respect videogames continue with the trend in line with other, —older“ media (like the novel and film). Moreover, the way the main characters are depicted in —the Sword of the Samurai“ and —the Way of the Samurai“ are clearly derived from the way the antagonists are portrayed in the —Sword films“ and —Zen Fighter“ sub genres. Again the game developers refer to a popular image that has its origin in —older“ media to make it recognizable for the player of the games.69 Hence it is without a doubt that in the case of —The Sword of the Samurai“ and —the Way of the Samurai“, the creators of the games had a long hard look at the way the main protagonists are portrayed in film, Animé and Manga, and more or less copied that style into their games. Thus it can be determined that the visualisations of the main protagonists and his or her environment are taken form other media. In his book —More than a game“, Barry Atkins also has noticed this when scrutinizing the game —Tomb Raider III“:

Tomb Raider, and Lara Croft, is also more than just a rather aggressive Indiana Jones without the whip, and the series finds its inspiration (or if we were to be theoretically generous, it intertexts) in many places. In its reference to films ranging from horror to gangster to science fiction to kung fu to dinosaur films, among many others, Tomb Raider is cheerfully eclectic. (More than a game, Barry Atkins, p 33)

69 In both games the player can customize the appearance of the main character, yet all customization options fit into the same type of visualization (e.g. the outfits, hairstyle and weaponry) which is utilized in the “Sword film” and “Zen fighter” sub genres.

35 This intertextual convergence of several film genres can also be seen in —Onimusha warlords“ where the —Sword Film“ sub genre is neatly combined with the genre, but this is not —new“ or even original as directors of many Animé films and writers of many Manga comic books have done so before. The only thing which is —new“ about —Onimusha warlords“ is that it takes the narrative approach of a Manga or Animé and combines this with the visual representation of a Jidai Geki film. Videogames are already converging several characteristics from several media into an unique and recognisable whole, yet the representation of the Samurai in videogames relies heavily on the foreknowledge of the audience on previously released mediated productions (like novels, film, animé and manga). The primary reason is the interactive nature of the videogame: the player must, at all times, feel like he or she is in control of the main protagonist and in order to underline this the creators of the game include different interfaces and screens so that the player can customize his or her character within the boundaries of the actual rules of the game. This form of interactivity is also found in the book —Rules of Play“ by Salen and Zimmerman, they call this particular form —explicit interactivity“, they explain it as following:

—This is —interaction“ in the obvious sense of the word: overt participation like clicking non-linear links of a hypertext novel, following the rules of a board game-“ (Rules of Play, Salen and Zimmerman, p 60)

The videogame is the only medium that combines this explicit interactivity with the pre-dominantly visual aspects of film. Explicit interactivity is presented to the player when he or she has the oprion to alter (or —customize“) the appearance of the main protagonist (possible in all games with the exception of —Onimusha warlords“ and —Shogun: total war“), assign various abillities to the main protagonist (possible in all games with the exception of —Shogun: total war“). The incorporation of this optional customization works in such a manner that a player will indentify him or herself more strongly with the main protagonist. It gives player the sense of creating the antagonist themselves and as such it is no longer seen as a main character but as their main character. This stronger sense of identification with the main protagonist ensures that the player will be immersed even more in the game, and that is exactly what the game developers intended. Secondly the player has the option in the majority of the games (all except —Onimusha warlords“) to freely move through the diegetic world which is presented to them. The effect this has on the representation

36 of the Samurai is that a player can actively influence the road the protagonist will take; will he or she become a antihero or not? Yet the choices the player has is bound to what the game offers, and as such the player cannot become a —villain“ in any of the games, and even if the player chooses the his or her character to become an antihero, it will be represented in same manner antiheroes were (and still are) represented in the —Sword film“ and —Zen fighter“ films.70 Another form of interactivity which has an impact on the effects of the representation of the Samurai in videogames: this type of interactivity is called —Cognitive interactivity“ by Salen and Zimmerman:

—This is the psychological, emotional and intellectual participation between a person and a system“ (Rules of Play, Salen and Zimmerman, p 59)

Crucial parts of this type of interaction in videogames are the narrative genre(s) and the gameplay genre. The narrative genre contains the visual representation of both the setting and the protagonists/antagonists, thus a game which utilises Samurai characters and is set in feudal Japan can be seen as a —Samurai game“. Whilst a game that relies on tactical and strategic insight is seen as a —strategy game“, a game that relies on action is an —action game“ and a game that relies on solving puzzles and exploring environments is normally designated as a —adventure game“. Thus —Shogun: total war“ is a Samurai strategy game, and as such the player is mostly concerned about the leadership of his virtual armies than anything else. The other games either fall into the Samurai adventure games or the Samurai role playing games genre. The main difference of these genres on the aspect of the representation of the Samurai lies in the way the player actually controls the characters, in a strategy game it‘s impersonal: the player controls armies and there is little or no personal interaction between the payer and the characters, in a adventure or role playing game the player controls the main protagonists constantly and directly, which in turn makes the player identify with the character. It is for this identification that archetypes are used; the player already has a certain preconception on what the protagonist is and what he or she is capable of. Therefore it is, according to me, inescapable for videogames to use archetypes that have been used in various mediated productions, and that the potential players know and are

70 The antihero path in both “The Sword of the Samurai” as in “The way of the Samurai” resemble the way Sanjuro is represented in Akira Kurosawa’s “Yojimbo” (1962) and “Sanjuro” (1967).

37 capable of identifying with this archetype in a direct manner. As quoted from Desser‘s book previously: —genres require that the societies understand them —structurally““. This structural understanding is something that Salen and Zimmerman also write about, they define this understanding as a reflection of culture, or as they put it:

—As systems of representation the (videogames) reflect culture, depicting images of gender (think of Barbie fashion designer, Duke Nukem or Tomb Raider), as well as portrayals of race and class ( II, State of emergency, or Dope Wars). In this case, the cultural dimensions of a game are part of the game itself, reflecting values and ideologies of surrounding context.“ (Rules of Play, Salen and Zimmerman, p 507)

Indeed the representation of the Samurai in videogames is a reflection of what is understood as being a —Samurai“ in contemporary popular culture. The Samurai depicted in the videogames are a direct descendant of the Samurai depicted in other mediated productions. This continual representation of the Samurai as a sword master has assured that a large populace has grown accustomed to, or even adopted lovingly into the way one interprets the concept of the Samurai. Thus the popular image of the Samurai is upheld in videogames as well, for the videogame does give its own dimension to the Samurai genre in its whole (mainly in its interactivity and customization options), it does not alter from the way the Samurai is represented in popular mediated productions in general.

38 Conclusion

I hope I have given understandable and cohesive overview on how the Samurai are represented in videogames and why they are represented in such a manner. I have determined that this representation depends on the audience‘s understanding of previous representations given in other —older“ media types. One of the more powerful representations of the Samurai which is inherent in all media types is the —wondering sword master“ archetype: it is this archetype that constantly appears in every contemporary videogame I discussed in this thesis. And as such it is this type of representation which is, undoubtedly, the most prevalent and powerful portrayal of the Samurai which is present in popular culture. It is indeed a continuation of popular archetypes that ensure that there is an audience for the games itself. The representation of the Samurai in videogames continues in the same manner than that of film and othe mediated productions that produce —neo mythological“ tales. These tales, although new, use a strong archetype (with superhuman abillities) and a historical setting for a fantastical storyline. Neo mythology is just that; the creation of new tales that, through the usage of a historical setting, seem interwoven in history, whilst it is clear that it is not historical fact but fiction of —mythic“ proportions. In the videogame the archetype of the —wandering sword master“ is often portrayed by a historical figure, like Miyamoto Musashi or Yagyu Jubei. This is just as —new“ as it is for videogames (or any other media type) to use Robin Hood as the representation of the —Noble Robber“ archetype or King Arthur as that of the —Chivalrous Knight“. And as such the depiction of historical, legendary personas in videogames is used as a point of recognition towards the potential gamer. The videogames, in short, combine archetypes and narrative structures which are used in other media to create its own particular hybrid, yet this hybrid is in no means completely unique in itself. The only truly unique aspect videogames as a medium have produced is combining the fantastical (or mythical), which usually represented in animation or comics, with a —filmic“ (and thus a more realistic) way of portrayal. The videogame continues to represent the Samurai and ensures they remain a part of popular culture, the representation of these legendary warriors may have changed throughout the years but the core —mythos“ surrounding the Samurai remains the same. Maybe the retired HLjL Daimyo, Ujimasa, was prophetic when he wrote this haiku on the eve of his death in 1590:

39 Autumn wind of eve Blow away the clouds that mass O‘er the moon‘s pure light. And the mists that cloud our mind. Do thou sweep away as well.

Now we disappear Well, what must we think of it? From the sky we came Now we may go back again That‘s at least one point of view.71

The Samurai may have dissapeared as a class, but they remain ever in the mind of man.

71Turnbull, S. (2004). The Samurai sourcebook. London, Weidenfeld & Nicholson military, page 308.

40 Bibliography

Primary

Atkins, B. (2003). More than a game. Manchester, Manchester University press.

Desser, D. (1983). The Samurai films of Akira Kurosawa. Ann Ambor, Michigan, UMI research press.

Prince, S. (1991). The warrior‘s camera: the cinema of Akira Kurosawa, Princeton, New Jersey University press

Copier, M & Reassens, J (ed) (2003). Level up, digital games research conference, Utrecht, University of Utrecht faculty of Arts.

Salen, K. (2004). Rules of play. Massachusets, MIT press.

Turnbull, S. (2004). The Samurai sourcebook. London, Weidenfeld & Nicholson military.

Wolf, M. J. P. (2003). The videogame theory reader. New York, Routledge.

Yoshikawa, E. (1981). Musashi. Tokyo, Kodansha.

Secondary

Munenori Y. (1996). The sword and the mind. New York, The Overlook press.

Musashi, M. (1994). The book of five rings. New York, Bantam Books.

Richie, D. (2001). A hundred year of Japanese film. Tokyo, Kodansha International.

Yamamoto, T. (1979) Hagakure. Tokyo, Kodansha International.

Rollins, A. (2004). Game architecture and design. Indianapolis, New Riders.

Soho, T. (1988). The unfettered mind, Kodansha Europe.

Daideoji, Y. (2000). The Code of the Samurai: A Contemporary Translation of the Bushido Shoshinshu of Taira Shigesuke. Boston, Tuttle publishing.

Ikeda, D. (1979). On the Japanese classics, New York, John Weatherhill, Inc.

Hadland Davis. F. (1992), Myths and legends from Japan, Mineola, Dover publications.

Shirane, M. (1989). Folk tales of old Japan, Tokyo, Japan Times

Reischauer, E.O. (1989). Japan, Sydney, Allen & Unwin Australia.

Mass, J.P. (1974). Warrior government in early medieval Japan: a study of the Kamakura Bakufu, Shugo and Jitto, new haven, Yale University press.

41

Glassner, A. (2004). Interactive storytelling, Massachusetts, A.K. Peter.

Napier, S. J. (2000) Animé, from Akira to Princess Mononoke, New York, Palgrave.

Tweet T., Cook M. & Williams S (2003). Dungeons and Dragons: Player‘s handbook, Atlanta, Wizards of the Coast

Sources

Videogames Sword of the Samurai, 2003, Genki co. Way of the Samurai, 2002, Acquire, Eidos Interactive Onimusha Warlords, 2001, Flagship, Capcom Throne of Darkness, 2001, Click entertainment, Sierra entertainment Shogun total war, 2000, Creative assembly, Electronic Arts Resident evil, 1997, Capcom

Films Zaitoichi, Kitano Akechi, 2003 Yoijimbo, Kurosawa Akira, 1961 The seven Samurai, Kurosawa Akira, 1954 Ninja Scrolls, Kawajiri Yoshiaki, 1995

Television series Ruruoni Kenshin, Watsuki Nobuhiro, 1997-2000

Manga Kojima Goseki and Koike Kazuo.(1970). Lone wolf and cub, Dark horse Takehiko Inou. (2002) Vagabond. San Francisco, VIZ LLC

Internet http://www.teachtime.com/en/wikipedia/y/ya/yagyu_jubei_mitsuyoshi.html, a description of the warlord Oda Nobunaga at wikipedia (last visited: 3-3-2005) http://www.furyu.com/archives/issue9/jubei.html, a description of the sword master Yagyu Jubei. (last visited: 3-4-2005 ) http://www.Samurai-archives.com, a site which has detailed descriptions of various Samurai and the way the Samurai lived in feudal Japan. (last visited: 3-3-2005 )

42 http://www.Samurai.com/5rings/transintro/life.html, This site not only provides a translation of Miyamoto Musashi‘s —Gorin no Sho“ but also provides a short biography of the enigmatic sword master. (last visited: 3-4-2005) http://www.umich.edu/~anime/genres_Samurai.html, a site that gives an overview of the different Animé genres. (last visited: 29-3-2005 ) http://www.animenfo.com/animetitle,933,mplzhx,Samurai_deeper_.html, a site which provides reviews on the —Samurai deeper Kyo“ television series. (last visited: 22-3-2005)

http://www.localcolorart.com/encyclopedia/Rurouni_Kenshin/#The_Series, a site that gives an overview of the —Rurouni Kenshin“ animé television series. (last visited: 23-3-2005) http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A681004, a site which gives a short overview of the —Musashi“ book written by Eji Yoshikawa. (last visited: 3-4-2005) http://www.abcb.com/jubei/index.htm, Review of Ninja scroll, by George Spirou (last visited 28-3-2005) http://www.gamespot.com, the primary source of all the pictures of the retail boxes of the games and screenshots. (Last visited 7-4-2005) http://www.IMDB.com, an online database containing a huge variety of films. (Last visited 3-4-2005)

43