Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science

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Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science (Abbreviation: Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci.)

ISSN: 2456-6632 (Online)

An International Research Journal of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences

Volume 1 Number 1 2016

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Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science (An International Research Journal)

Volume 1 Issue 1 December 2016

Content List

No Title Page No.

Research Articles

1. Remote sensing assessment of Jabi Lake and its environs: A developmental 1-8 perspective Susan E. Ajonye, Innocent E. Bello, Halilu Shaba, Ibrahim Asmau and Salman Khalid

2. Comparing efficacy of selected biopesticides and Lambdacot 500EC for 9-12 controlling leaf rollers in eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) Oshomah Musa Samuel and Degri Michael Mamman

3. Comparative assessment of phytoremediation feasibility of water caltrop 13-21 (Trapa natans L.) and water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes Solms.) using pulp and paper mill effluent Vinod Kumar, A.K. Chopra, Jogendra Singh, Roushan K. Thakur, Sachin Srivastava and R.K. Chauhan

4. Quantitative evaluation of essential oils for the identification of chemical 22-36 constituents by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry Ashish Uniyal, Sachin N. Tikara, Om P. Agrawal , Devanathan Sukumaran and Vijay Veer

5. Impact of tourism on water quality characteristics of Lidder Stream at 37-42 Pahalgam, (J&K), India Rizwan Mudathir Khandi and Sachin Srivastava

6. Monitoring of ground water quality in the province of district Dehradun, 43-48 (Uttarakhand), India Yasir and Sachin Srivastava

Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science 1 (1): 1-8 (2016) This content is available online at AESA

Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science

e-ISSN: 2456-6632 Journal homepage: www.aesacademy.org

ORIGINAL RESEARCH ARTICLE Remote sensing assessment of Jabi Lake and its environs: A developmental perspective

Susan E. Ajonye, Innocent E. Bello*, Halilu Shaba, Ibrahim Asmau and Salman Khalid National Space Research and Development Agency, Airport Road, PMB 437 Garki 2, FCT-Abuja, NIGERIA *Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected]

ARTICLE HISTORY ABSTRACT Received: 09 Sept. 2016 This paper is aimed at examining the relevance and impact of Jabi Lake in urban development and Revised received: 16 Sept. 2016 sustainable environmental change management. It uses a 2km radius buffer of remotely sensed Accepted: 25 Sept. 2016 satellite data from Landsat to examine the landuse/land cover dynamics within Jabi Lake and its environs in FCT-Abuja, Nigeria. Using maximum likelihood algorithm in ERDAS Imagine Keywords software, the supervised classification result shows that the lake water body decreased from 4.1 % Lake in 1987 to 3.1% in 2006 and later increased to 4.0% in 2014. Built up experienced the highest Landuse/Landcover Change landuse/land cover change from 3.17% in 1987 to 33.4% in 2006 and 37.5% in 2014. Light and Remote Sensing dense vegetation reduced the most, while bare surface also showed an increase due to rapid urban Social impact development around the lake in the last 27 years. The focused group discussion (FGD) reveals that Sustainable development the conversion of previous agricultural land use and unplanned land uses to residential land use was due to high demand for residential housing around the lake. The perceived ambience scenery and accessible good road network were ranked as the first and second major positive centripetal forces of attraction to building near the lake while expensive land purchase and high rent were ranked first and second as the most negative centrifugal impacts of the lake on the environment. In conclusion, there is the need to monitor the progression of urban development so as to safeguard the lake for aquatic agriculture and it‟s immediate environment from further deterioration. ©2016 Agriculture and Environmental Science Academy

Citation of this article: Susan, E. Ajonye, Innocent, E. Bello, Halilu Shaba, Ibrahim Asmau and Salman Khalid (2016). Remote sensing assessment of Jabi Lake and its environs: A developmental perspective. Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science, 1(1): 1-8. INTRODUCTION will slowly fill in with sediments or spill out of the basin containing them (John, 2014). Studies reveal that Lakes Conceptually, a lake could be described as an area of are generally known to be sources of inspiration, variable size filled with water, localized in a basin that is recreation, rejuvenation and discovery and also considered surrounded by land, apart from any river or other outlet as important elements in the heritage of many cultures that serves to feed or drain it (Bryant and Rainey, 2002; (Stewart, 2012). Husain, 2016). Spatially, Lakes lie on land and are not part Like many other water bodies, lakes are used by humans of the ocean and are also larger and deeper than ponds. for many purposes such as for fishing, transportation, Lakes may be contrasted with rivers or streams, which are irrigation, industrial water supplies, and receiving waters usually flowing. However most lakes are fed and drained for wastewater effluents. Aside from their importance for by rivers and streams (Henkel, 2015). A lake can either be human use, lakes have intrinsic ecological and environ- artificial or natural. While Natural lakes are generally mental values (Limgis, 2001) because they store water, found in mountainous areas, rift zones, and areas with thereby helping to regulate stream flow, recharge ground ongoing glaciation (Gupta, 2011) many lakes are artificial water aquifers, and moderate droughts. They also provide and are usually constructed for industrial or agricultural habitat to aquatic and semi aquatic plants and animals, use, for hydro-electric power generation or domestic water which in turn provide food for many terrestrial animals, supply, or for aesthetic or recreational purposes. In some and they add to the diversity of the landscape. Healthy parts of the world, there are many lakes because of chaotic lakes and their shores not only provide us with a number of drainage patterns left over from the last Ice Age. However, environmental benefits but they influence quality of life all lakes are temporary over geologic time scales, as they and strengthen the economy (John, 2014).

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Coastal zones are most vulnerable for land use changes in retaining its position as the fastest growing city on the this rapid industrialization and urbanization epoch and it is African continent and one of the fastest in the world. necessary to evaluate land use/land cover (LULC) changes The master plan for Abuja and the FCT was developed by to develop efficient management strategies (Prabaharan, International Planning Associates (IPA) with five consorti- Srinivasa Raju, Lakshumanan and Ramalingam, 2010). For ums (Eleh, 2001). Being centrally located, the study area is instance, recent research has found that 'blue space' blessed with a mix of agricultural activities and produce including sea, rivers, lakes and even urban water features such as tubers and root crops of the south (yams, cassava, can have a positive impact on wellbeing. Studies have also maize and plantains) and grain (sorghum, guinea corn and confirmed that people living closer to the coastline are rice) of the north. The creation of the new FCT and its healthier (Smedley, 2013). capital, Abuja, represents perhaps the most important Remote sensing is the use of a sensor to measure instrument for enhancing the overall socio-economic characteristics of an object without physically touching the development of the entire middle belt of Nigeria object. Satellite multi-sensor data have become important (Abumere, 1984). methodology used to investigate the evolution in time and Abuja has witnessed huge influx of people into the city space of Lake as demonstrated by Giardino, Bresciani, from different tribes and languages including foreigners Villa and Angiolo (2010) with a case study of Lake from abroad. Temperature in the study area ranges Trasimeno in Italy. Similar study was carried out by Zhu between 28 degree Celsius to as high as 39 degree Celsius (2002) using remote sensing of to monitor coastline in dry season. Rainfall is highest in August (WMO, 2016). changes in Pearl River Estuary. Also, Yu and Ng (2006) The influence of climate variability on lake water recharge integrated evaluation of landscape change using remote is envisaged especially during wet seasons. The peculiarity sensing and landscape metrics in Panyu, Guangzhou. of Jabi Lake and its environs as a Savannah Zone vegeta- According to Markogianni, Dimitriou and Karaouzas tion of the West African sub-region makes it unique for (2014), the study of degradation of water quality is a major change pattern analysis as a result of urbanization and problem worldwide and often leads to serious environmen- population growth. Since most Nigerian government agen- tal impacts and concerns about public health. Of particular cies and international embassies are now headquartered in relevance is the digital change detection in ecosystem Abuja, the value for land and rent is perceived to have monitoring of lakes and its environs (Coppin, Jonckheere, increased astronomically. While English is the official Nackaerts, Muys and Lambin (2004). language in the country in general, other languages often For instance, Marwa, Ahmed, Magaly, Rowaida and Iman spoken in the territory include Hausa, Edo, Yoruba, Ibo, (2013) used Remote sensing and integrated biological Idoma, Ijaw, Urhobo, Fulani and other local languages like monitoring program for assessing water quality of Lake Gbagyi which is the main local language of the indigenous Timsah, Suez Canal in Egypt. Further research at the inhabitant. Population surge has led to the emergence of European Centre for Environment and Human Health satellite towns such as Kuje, Kubwa, Bwari and Karu. (ECEHH) also showed the benefits of view over sea or Since Jabi Lake is a vital resource in Abuja providing a water from home or hospital windows on patients with number of social amenities to its inhabitants and the heart rate, blood pressure and mood problems. As a novel- ecosystem at large, the need to carry out detailed landuse/ ty, the study of Jabi Lake draws, in part, from these landcover change has become inevitable. To date, requisite benefits as no such study has been carried out before. data have not been collated and analyzed to document the Jabi Lake emerged from a stream which due to the low current changes taking place in the physical characteristics lying nature of the terrain was converted to a Lake so as to of the lake. Despite this, no research has been carried out harvest water for the peripheral urban use. Presently, it has on the spatial coverage, benefits as well as the centripetal been converted to a resort as shown in Figure 1. Jabi Lake and centrifugal forces at play on the landuse/landcover is situated within the Jabi district of Abuja. Abuja is dynamics of Jabi Lake and its environs. This and many located in the North Central region of Nigeria. other factors informed this research. The research is, in Based on Aguda report the centrality, security, accessibil- part, geared towards providing accurate information to ity and unifying factors to all Nigerians were among policy makers for proper harnessing of the lake resources reasons the city was chosen as the new capital territory and its protection (Abumere, 1984). In view of the above, after Lagos was presumed tool populated and not strategi- the present study is aimed at critically examining the spatio cally located (Abumere, 1984). Plans for Abuja were first -temporal landuse/landcover change in Jabi Lake and its announced by decree in 1976. Most of the construction for environs (Smedley, 2013). The objectives are to evaluate the city began in the 1980's. As of today, the city has the changes in the lake in terms of spatial extent and, at the become a densely populated land area such that leisure same time, examine the impact of the lake on the immedi- parks/gardens and lakes such as the Jabi lake are now been ate environment in terms of socio-economic and ecological encroached on despite repeated demolition by successive challenges and benefits. ministers of the Federal Capital Territory (FCT) (Polgreen, 2006). According to the United Nations, Abuja grew at the MATERIALS AND METHODS rate of 139.7% between 2000 and 2010, making it the fast- The study utilized both primary and secondary sources of est growing city in the world. As of 2015, the city is still data collection. The primary data used include direct field experiencing an annual growth of at least 35%, still observation of the prevailing activities within and around

Susan E. Ajonye et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 1 (1): 1-8 (2016) 3 the Lake as well as the use of Focused Group Discussions Imagine software. Due to mixed pixel (MIXEL) errors (FGDs) to elicit reactions on how the people perceive the during classification, the final results were further recoded prevailing socio-economic and environmental activities into appropriate landuse/landcover classes using IDRISI within and around the lake. Remote sensing image software. Thereafter, the result of classifications were present- classification method and FGDs approach were adopted in ed in a table using percentage (%) to show the composition of this study. each land cover class for the period studied. Land change A checklist was used to implement the FGDs and results of modeling statistics were generated using Modeling Simula- perception from 30 participants ranked in order of tion/Land Cover Modeler (LCM). Furthermore, the image magnitude with 1 being the highest in terms of impact: classification accuracy was examined using the “Confusion or whether positive or negative and 10, the least. The second- Error Matrix” table to show the user‟s accuracy (UA), ary data used include three epochs Landsat satellite images producer‟s accuracy (PA) and the overall accuracy (OA) for of 30m spatial resolution downloaded from the Global the three epochs studied. To examine the nature of landuse/ Land Cover Facility web link. The images covering the landcover class dynamics regarding what/how much was lost study area were buffered using 2km radius of the lake with or gained due to urbanization, a Cross tabulation (Crosstab) the Analyst/Proximity/Buffer Tools in ArcGIS software. image differencing of all the images were generated using The maximum likelihood algorithm was used to analyze GIS Analysis/Database query/Crosstab algorithm sequence. the supervised classification of the three images “Area Of Figure 3 shows a detailed Unified Markup Language (UML) Interest” (AOIs) into five landuse/landcover classes as 1: modeling of the image processing methodology adopted. The Water body (Lake), 2: Builtup, 3: Light vegetation, 4: Bare final results for the analyses were presented using maps, Surface, and 5: Dense vegetation respectively using Erdas tables and graphs.

Figure 1. Study area of Jabi Lake. Figure 2. Thirty years mean temperature and rainfall variability in the study area (Source: World Meteorological Organization, 2016).

Figure 3. UML Diagram showing satellite image analysis. Figure 4. Comparison of individual LULC change.

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Figure 5. Landuse/landcover change maps of Jabi Lake. Figure 6. Graph showing landuse/landcover Modeling: class gain and loss between 1987 and 2014. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Federal Capital Territory with different business and urban Landuse/landcover dynamics: As far back as 1984, development activities. In 2014, the builtup areas further Abumere (1984) already envisaged population surge in increased to 37.5%. Expectedly, the influx of people from Abuja in view of the significance of the city being the different parts of the country and the world is largely newly created federal capital. Table 1 further confirm the responsible for the occupation of the hitherto unoccupied gradual increase in the landuse/landcover of the study area urban space. Socio-economically, FGDs revealed that a num- within the twenty-seven (27) year reviewed (1987 – 2014). ber of indigenous/settler structures (later referred to as „illegal From Table 1 and Figure 4 respectively, the study shows structures‟ since they had no government approval) were that out of the five land cover classes studied, only water did demolished to pave way for the more modern and regulated not experience a major change for the period examined. In buildups by the government. Expectedly, the increase in 1987, the Jabi Lake water body constituted only 4.1% (1359 builtups implies that other land cover especially agricultural Ha) of the total landcover studied. It later decreased to 3.1% land had given way. The erection of buildings; whether in 2006 and within eight years, the water body increased to government or privately owned and other infrastructures, 4.0% (1316 Ha). One can argue that regardless of urbaniza- found expression in the concomitant reduction noticed in tion due to migration into the study area, there has not been vegetation cover as equally shown in Table 1 and figures 4 any remarkable change in the lake as the only period a and 5 respectively. Thus, in 1987, the light vegetation (which decrease was noticed was in 2006 as shown in Figure 5. The includes mostly farmlands) was 60.2% (19769 Ha) of the lake has been converted to a resort thus highlighting its total landcover. This figure reduced to 51.6% (16939 Ha) and significance to the people‟s social health. This finding is later drastically reduced to 39.1% (12843 Ha) within 8 years similar to Smedley‟s (2013) work. thus giving way for buildups and other construction According to the Nigeria Hydrological Services Agency activities. (NIHSA, 2015), in 2014, flood water occurred in most of the This findings also finds expression and similarity in the argu- states in the country as collated in local government areas ment presented by Henke (2015) on the 21st Century home- particularly the high flood risk areas and pockets of urban stead. Similar result is noticed in dense vegetation which was flood occurred in the FCT, Abuja and some neighbouring initially 31.6% in 1987, 11% in 2006 and further increased states. This could have been the major reason for the later slightly to 12.8% in 2014 because most of the artificially increase in lake size noticed in between 2006 and 2014. planted trees had matured to reflect dense vegetation spectral Currently, more artificial drainage networks have been con- signature as captured by the satellite. Common vegetation structed to divert water from entering the lake, hence, the types found in this region include; bombax costatum, oliveri, insignificant change observed. A more remarkable change khaya, Afzelia, Africana anogeissus, uapaca togoensis, was, however, observed in builtup land cover class. Table 1 leiocarpus, butyrospermum paradoxum, daniella senega- and Figures 4 and 5 show that as at 1987, builtup in the study lensis, vitex doniana, prosopis africana, albizia, zygia, and area was smaller in spatial size (3.17%, 1040 Ha) than the pterocarpus erinaceus. total area of the lake (4.1%). During this period, The Federal The study further revealed that as a result of continuous Capital City was still Lagos despite the fact that Abuja had urbanization, more bare surface area were opened for been earmarked for development as the new Federal Capital construction, hence the noticeable increase in Bare surface Territory (Abumere, 1984). Thus, Civil servants and other from 0.8% (273 Ha) in 1987 to a slight increment of 0.9% top government functionaries were still based in Lagos mak- (280 Ha) in 2006 and drastically to 6.5% (2138 Ha) in 2014. ing Abuja remain, more or less, a virgin land. This figure The implication of these findings is that, should more build- significantly increased to 33.4% (10966 Ha) in 2006 ngs be erected, there is the concomitant effect of losing more because more people had relocated to Abuja being the new vegetation cover (including agricultural lands) which actually

Susan E. Ajonye et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 1 (1): 1-8 (2016) 5 helps to balance the oxygen demand of the environment. have moved to the area because of the beautiful scenery and This, no doubt, may further lead to urban heat island as well the well navigable roads available. This re-emphasizes the as heat stress that may result to different kind of diseases such importance of lakeside to people as corroborated by Smedley as meningitis. Jabi Lake may also be severely polluted due to (2013). Thus, the field observation further revealed that the effluence discharged from domestic and semi-industrial resort/park just beside the Lake has a remarkable site for waste especially now that Shoprite shopping mall and more relaxation and hosting of civic/social events. Recently, the houses are encroaching on the lake. Rio 2016 Olympic African final qualifier sporting event was Landuse/landcover change: Image differencing/ held in the Jabi Park. There is also green vegetation along the cross-tabulation analysis: Tables 2a, b and c respectively bank of the lake that provides good atmospheric ambience show details of what happened to the various land cover that which is considered as part of the centripetal force of either in the past changed or not. In specific, Tables 2a, b and attraction of people to the lake and its environs. The lake in c show a cross-tabulation result of image difference between particular offers facilities such as speed boat rides, canoe 1987 and 2006, 2006 and 2014, as well as between 1987 and rides, horse rides and games such as draft, Ludo and scrabble. 2014 respectively. The result shows that water changed the The FGDs further revealed that entrance fee to the park is least without acceding to bare surface in 2006 and 2014. free but payments are made for tickets to enjoy the recrea- However, because vegetation has water content and support tional facilities available. Photographers are also on ground to plant growth, one can understand while most changes gave help cover social events being hosted in the park. way to builtup areas. A photograph cost an average of N200 (1USD) each while a Accuracy assessment: To ascertain the level of horse ride cost an average of N300 per ride. The FGDs fur- confidence to place on the landuse/landcover image classifi- ther revealed that Jabi Lake water is regulated through outlets cation results, the figures tabulated in Table 3 show the error based on lake size in different seasons. The field observation matrix for the three epochs examined. The study shows an and FGD also confirmed that the Lake provides prime oppor- overall accuracy of 93% while the user‟s and producer‟s tunities for recreation, tourism, economic and residential liv- accuracy are 95.7% and 90.2 % respectively for 1987 image. ing as evident in the fast growing houses around the lake The geographic agreement of the result to ground truth shows hence, the encroachment currently witness on the lake. The a Kappa of 0.9 (very high) results. In similar manner, the study also revealed that the lake is highly revered by many 2006 and 2014 classification shows overall accuracies of people for its historical and traditional values both for spiritu- 94.9% and 93.4% respectively while their Kappa statistics al and domestic usage. Domestically, it serves as source of equally revealed very high agreements of 0.92 and 0.88 to water for the Abuja Municipal Area Council (AMAC) water geographic reality respectively. The obtained classification board. The lake also serves as a source of water for irrigation accuracies are considered good enough hence, the result to the local farms around the lake. However, due to continued (maps) can be reliably accepted and used for policy planning urban encroachment on Jabi Lake, waste and silt has re- and implementation as far as Jabi Lake and environs are con- mained main sources of water pollution. Infrequent inunda- cerned. The policy planning with lake is also inclusive of tions are sometime observed as around the lake observed in agricultural development and ecological management (Gupta, similar study by Bryant and Rainey (2002). 2011; Henkel, 2015) It is, therefore, instructive to assert that as a very key Jabi Lake functionality and impacts assessment: Table 4 component of the ecosystem, Jabi Lake is much more than st shows that good view/ambience scenery (ranked 1 ) as well just a simple body of water used by many people to enjoy nd as good and accessible road network (ranked 2 ) are the recreational activities. Thus, the lake and its immediate topmost positive centripetal impacts of the lake on the urban urbanized neighborhood must be managed in a sustainable environment. Conversely, the main centrifugal reasons way so as to sustain a healthy balance of aquatic life, provide people are not attracted to the environment included expen- continuous recreation/leisure enjoyment, and help support st sive land purchase (ranked 1 ) and expensive property rent socio-economic market for petty vendors and traders without (ranked 2nd). The implication of the above findings is that, if compromising the interest of the future generation that may also not for the high cost of land and rent, a lot of people would enjoy the water resource. Table 1. Landuse/landcover change analyses in the Jabi Lake area. LULC Lake Light Dense Total % Builtu % % Bareland % % Change Water Veg. Veg. LULC Change p Change Change (ha) Change Change (year) (ha) (ha) (ha) (ha) 1987 1359 4.1 1040 3.17 19769 60.2 273 0.8 10387 31.6 32828 2006 1032 3.1 10966 33.4 16939 51.6 280 0.9 3611 11 32828 2014 1316 4.0 12321 37.5 12843 39.1 2138 6.5 4210 12.8 32828 Table 2. Cross-tabulation results for 1987, 2006 and 2014 classifications. (a) Cross 1987/2006 1 2 3 4 5 Total 1 994 6 4 0 28 1032 2 259 491 7052 138 3026 10966 3 28 439 10827 100 5545 16939 4 0 12 200 13 55 280 5 78 92 1686 22 1733 3611 Total 1359 1040 19769 273 10387 44916

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Table 2. Contd. (b) Cross (c) Cross 2006/ 1 2 3 4 5 Total 1987/ 1 2 3 4 5 Total 2014 2014 1 1021 233 23 0 39 1316 1 1226 40 7 0 43 1316 2 11 7206 4520 81 503 12321 2 80 410 8140 127 3564 12321 3 0 2614 8425 98 1706 12843 3 38 398 7919 116 4372 12843 4 0 610 1313 90 125 2138 4 0 95 1453 11 579 2138 5 0 303 2658 11 1238 4210 5 15 97 2250 19 1829 4210 Total 1032 10966 16939 280 3611 44916 Total 1359 1040 19769 273 1038 44916

Table 3. Error matrix result for 1987, 2006 and 2014 classification. Bare User 1987-LULC Types Water body Builtup Light vegetation Dense vegetation Total land Accuracy Water 22 0 0 0 0 22 100 Builtup 0 17 0 0 0 17 100 Light Vegetation 1 8 83 1 0 93 89.2 Bare land 0 0 4 83 2 90 92.2 Dense vegetation 0 0 0 1 33 34 97.1 Total 23 25 87 85 35 256 Producer Accuracy 95.7 68 95.4 97.6 94.3 Results: Overall Accuracy= 93, UA = 95.7%, PA = 90.2, Kappa Statistics= 0.9 Bare User 2006-LULC Types Water body Builtup Light vegetation Dense vegetation Total land Accuracy Water 7 0 0 0 0 7 100 Builtup 1 82 1 0 4 88 93.2 Light Vegetation. 0 0 104 1 4 109 95.4 Bare land 0 1 2 44 0 47 93.6 Dense vegetation 0 0 0 0 5 5 100 Total 8 83 107 45 13 256 Producer Accuracy 87.5 98.8 97.2 97.8 38.5 Results: Overall Accuracy= 94.9, UA = 97.2%, PA = 84%, Kappa Statistics= 0.92 Bare User 2014 LULC Types Water body Builtup Light vegetation Dense vegetation Total land Accuracy Water 8 0 0 0 0 8 100 Builtup 0 138 0 0 12 150 92 Light vegetation 0 0 6 0 0 6 100 Bare land 0 0 0 6 0 6 100 Dense vegetation 0 2 3 0 81 86 94.2 Total 8 140 9 6 93 256 Producer accuracy 100 98.5 66.7 100 87.1 Results: Overall accuracy = 93.4, UA = 97.2%, PA = 90.4%, Overall Kappa statistics = 0.88 Table 4. Impact assessment ranking of Jabi Lake and its environs. Centripetal impact Ranking Centrifugal impact Ranking Good view/ambience scenery 1st Expensive land purchase 1st Good/accessible road network 2nd Expensive property rent 2nd Recreation (for leisure, tourism and inspiration) 3rd Expensive lifestyle in the neighborhood 3rd Peaceful environment 4th Noise pollution from vehicles 4th Rapid development with modern infrastructure 5th Perceived Future congestion 5th Boat/canoe/horse ride 6th Water pollution 6th Easy Transportation 7th Rising Insecurity from touts/cab robbers 7th Suitability for fishing 8th Loss of cultural sites and heritage 8th Good for business 9th Micro-climate change/urban heat 9th Water supply for irrigation farming near lake 10th Siltation and Flooding 10th

Source: FGDs (2016)

Susan E. Ajonye et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 1 (1): 1-8 (2016) 7

Conclusions REFERENCES The paper examined the relevance and impact of Jabi Lake Abumere, S.I. (1984). The future population of the Federal on urban development and sustainable environmental Capital Territory, Abuja. The Nigerian Journal of Economic management using a focused group discussion and field and Social Studies, 26(3): 287-313. observation (with photographs) to complement the remote Bryant, R.G. and Rainey, M.P. (2002). Investigation of flood sensing-based landuse/landcover change analyses. A 2km inundation on playas within the Zone of Chotts, using a time -series of AVHRR. Remote Sensing of Environment, 82(2): buffered area of interest from remotely sensed medium reso- 360 -375. lution (30m) Landsat satellite images were utilized. The 1987, Coppin, P., Jonckheere, I., Nackaerts, K., Muys, B. and Lambin, 2006 and 2014 epochs were further subjected to supervised E. (2004). Digital change detection in ecosystem monitor- classification analysis using the maximum likelihood ing. International Journal of Remote Sensing, 25: 1565 - algorithm in ERDAS Imagine and recoded with IDRISI soft- 1596 ware. With overall accuracies of 93%, Kappa = 0.9 (for Eleh, N. (2001). Abuja: the single most ambitious urban design 1987); 94.9%, kappa = 0.92 (for 2006) and 93.4%, kappa = project of the 20th century. Volume 5 of Architektur der 0.88 (for 2014) classifications, the study revealed no remarka- Welt. University of Michigan: VDG, Verlag und Datenbank- ble change in water body of the lake. However, significant fürGeisteswissenschaften publishers. pp 98. Giardino, C., Bresciani, M., Villa, P. and Angiolo, M (2010). proportion of the land which were hitherto undeveloped agri- Application of Remote Sensing in Water Resource Manage- cultural lands have been taken over by urban development as ment: The Case Study of Lake Trasimeno, Italy. Water a result of that, builtups (mostly for residential landuse) expe- Resource Management, 24(14): 3885-3899. doi:10.1007/ rienced the highest landuse/landcover change from 3.17% in s11269-010-9639-3. 1987 to 33.4% in 2006 and 37.5% in 2014. Consequently, Gupta, S.K. (2011). Modern hydrology and sustainable water light vegetation and dense vegetation reduced the most paving development. UK: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN- 978-1-4051- 7124-3. way for builtups. However, due to continuous urban develop- st ment, bare surface also increased from 0.8% in 1987 to only Henkel, M. (2015). 21 Century Homestead: Sustainable Agricul- 0.9% in 2006 and sporadically to 6.5% in 2014. The ture II: Farming and Natural Resources. Retrieved Septem- ber 14, 2016 from /books.google.com.ng/books perceived ambience scenery and accessible good road id=jmHxCQAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge network are ranked as the first and second centripetal forces _summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false.ISBN: responsible for the influx of people into the study area 9781312939684 on 30 March, 2016. while expensive land purchase and high rent of properties Husain, Y. (2016). Monitoring and calculating the surface area of were ranked first and second as the most negative centrifu- lakes in northern Iraq using satellite images. Applied Re- gal forces impacting the lake and its environment. From search Journal, 2(2): 54-62. the above findings, it is recommended that there should be John, H. (2014). Bang to Eternity and Betwixt: Cosmos Kindle continuous monitoring of the progression of urban devel- Edition. New York: John Hussey. opment so as to safeguard the lake and its immediate envi- Limgis (2001). Limnology Essentials. Available at. Retrieved fromhttp://ces.iisc.ernet.in energymonograph1Lim- ronment from congestion and urban blight. Practice of page5.html on 02 February, 2016. basic ecosystem maintenance through individual and Markogianni, V.1., Dimitriou, E. and Karaouzas, I. (2014). Water collective efforts are expected to go a long way in protect- quality monitoring and assessment of an urban Mediterrane- ing the serenity of the lake and its environs. The idea of an lake facilitated by remote sensing applications. Environ- creating Lake Buffer plantings around the edge of the water mental Monitoring and Assessment, 186 (8): 5009-26. doi: is considered a protective and productive approach to 10.1007/s10661-014-3755-0. sustainable development and urban management. In addition, Marwa, S.E., Ahmed, G., Magaly, K., Rowaida, S.A. and Iman, preventing effluents from flowing down lake from sewers is a B. (2013). Remote Sensing Application for Water Quality good way to prevent pollution. 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cially, economically, and environmentally significant. cityId=324 on 05 March, 2016. Michigan State University. Retrieved from http:// Yu, X. and Ng, C. (2006). An Integrated Evaluation of Landscape msue.anr.msu.edu/news Change Using Remote Sensing and Landscape Metrics: A Case great_lakes_literacy_principle_eight_socially_economicall Study of Panyu, Guangzhou. International Journal of Remote _and_environmenta on 04 February, 2016. Sensing, 27(6):1075-1092. WMO (2016). World weather information service: Official Fore- Zhu, X. (2002) Remote Sensing of Coastline Changes in Pearl cast. Retrievedfromhttp://worldweather.wmo.int/en/city.html River Estuary. Marine Environmental Science, 21:19-22.

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH ARTICLE Comparing efficacy of selected biopesticides and Lambdacot 500EC for controlling leaf-rollers in eggplant (Solanum melongena L.)

Oshomah Musa Samuela and Degri Michael Mammanb* aDepartment of Crop Protection, University of Maiduguri, PMB 1069 Maiduguri, NIGERIA bDepartment of Agronomy, Federal University, Kashere PMB 0182 Gombe State, NIGERIA *Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected]

ARTICLE HISTORY ABSTRACT Received: 06 Sept. 2016 Field experiments were conducted during the 2012 and 2013 cropping seasons at the University of Revised received: 25 Sept. 2016 Maiduguri to compared the efficacies of selected aqueous plant extracts on the management of the Accepted: 27 Sept. 2016 population of eggplant leaf roller (Eublemma olivaceaWlk.) infesting eggplant (Solanum melongena L.). The extracts were from neem leaf; bitter melon; black current; ginger rhizome and wild onion. Keywords They were compared with a conventional insecticide, Lambdacot 500EC and the Adoption absolute control. Extracts were applied at 5 % w/v while Lambdacot was applied at 1.5 g a.i/ha. The Eggplant results indicated that the mean number of leaf rollers in treated plots were significantly (P< 0.05) Leaf-rollers lower than the control. The highest mean number of leaf rollers was 3.01 and 3.93. Lambdacot 500 Plant extracts EC had the lowest eggplant leaf roller counts per plant followed by neem, ginger rhizome and wild Synthetic pesticides onion. The mean number of leaves damaged per plant followed similar trend. There was significantly (P< 0.05) higher number of eggplant fruits/plant, fruit weight and fruit yield in the decreasing order of Lambdacot 500 EC, neem, wild onion, bitter melon and black current. The absolute control had the fewest number of eggplant fruits/plant, fruit weight and fruit yield. These aqueous extracts should be adopted by eggplant farmers as they are cost effective and friendly to the environment. However, the actual quantities of these extracts to be applied per plant depending on the variety of eggplant, season and weather condition of the cropping season and canopy architecture remain to be critically explored. ©2016 Agriculture and Environmental Science Academy

Citation of this article: Oshomah Musa Samuel and Degri Michael Mamman (2016). Comparing efficacy of selected biopesticides and Lambdacot 500EC for controlling leaf-rollers in eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science, 1(1): 9-12. Aetiba and Osekre, 2015). Among these complex INTRODUCTION arthropod pests that attack and damage eggplant, leaf roller Eggplant is a popular and very important vegetable crop is one of the most destructive pests in most major eggplant grown in the subtropics and tropics (Degri et al., 2012a, producing countries (Singh and Singh, 2002). Eggplant Akpabia, 1989). The eggplant is an important source of leaf roller caterpillars roll leaves and feed on chlorophyll vitamins, minerals and fibre and plant proteins in human while remaining inside the folds which later wither and dry diets throughout the world and is rapidly becoming an up. The infestation of the eggplant leaf roller starts right important source of income for rural population (Aetiba from the nursery and continues till advance stage of the and Osekre, 2015). plant (Akapabi, 1989; Singh and Singh 2002; AVRDC, Despite its nutritional, economic and social values, 2008) increasing infestation and damage by arthropod insect The application of synthetic insecticides is the primary pests are effecting eggplant production in Nigeria (Degri, control strategy against insect pests of the crop (Aetiba and 2014). Production of eggplant is hampered by various Osekre, 2015; Degri et al., 2012a). Although application of insect pests such as flea beetle (Podagrica spp.). Stem synthetic insecticides remains the primary agricultural pest borer (Euzophera villosa), leaf roller (Eublemma control strategy, it is evident that the society cannot olivacea), fruit and shoot borers (Daraba laisalis; continue to tolerate their harmful effects on the environ- Leucinodes orbonalis) and various species of grasshoppers ment and beneficial organisms. Degri et al. (2012b), (Owusu-Ansah et al., 2001; Onekuku Omoleye, 2012; Aetiba and Osekre (2005) reported that managing of

10 Oshomah Musa Samuel and Degri Michael Mamman /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 1 (1): 9-12 (2016) eggplant leaf roller could be to develop pest management lars were collected, counted and the number recorded. systems that are based on the development of alternative Sampling was done on randomly selected five plants from control strategies like the use of bio pesticides. Thus, there the middle rows each plot. was a need to screen more indigenous plants that are easy Number of leaves damaged by leaf rollers: Young leaves to prepare or use and non-hazardous to humans, animals, with signs of silk web and rolled leaves were and the environment (Degri et al., 2012a; Degri, 2014; visually assessed from each plant and the number of leaves Aetiba and Osekre, 2015). Keeping in view the present damaged was recorded. investigation was conducted to compare the efficacy of Number of eggplant fruits: Fruits of eggplant were selected biopesticides and Lambdacot 500EC for harvested from each plant every three day interval when controlling leaf-rollers on eggplant. they reached maturity and their number recorded. The actual size of harvest area measured 2 m × 2 m (4 m2). MATERIALS AND METHODS Weight and yield of eggplant fruits: All eggplant fruits Description of the study area: Field experiments were harvested in each plot were weighed using Metler conducted during 2012 and 2013 cropping seasons at the electronic weighing scale. The weight of eggplant fruits Teaching and Research Farm of Development of crop recorded were converted into fruit weight per individual protection, University of Maiduguri Nigeria. The field plant and then extrapolated into hectare basis such that: where the experiments were executed is located between -1 longitudes 13o10’ E and latitude 11o 51’N. The mean annu- Fruit yield (kgha ) = 10000 × FWT AH al rainfall is 562 mm whereas mean annual temperature is 2 27.2oc. Rainy seasons start from June to October while Where 10000 comes from 1 ha=10000 m , AH is the actual 2 short dry seasons are experienced between November and plot area (m ) where eggplant fruits were harvested, and May (Degri et al., 2010). The mean rainfalls recorded FWT is the weight of eggplant fruit (in kg) harvested in during the 2012 and 2013 cropping seasons in the each plot. study area were 561 mm and 560 mm, respectively. The Data analysis: The data collected were subjected to analy- experiments were laid down in a randomized complete sis of variance (ANOVA) using Statistix version 9.0 soft- block design replicated four times including the standard / ware. These were the mean number of leaf rollers per conventional Lambdacot 500 EC and the absolute control. plant, number of leaves damaged by the leaf rollers per Materials tested included the extracts of five plants one plant, number of fruits per plant, weight of eggplant fruits synthetic insecticide Lambdacot 500 EC (a combination of per plant, and fruit yield. Least significant difference Lambda cyhalothrin 350EC and dimethoate 150EC). (LSD) was used to separate the treatment means (SE±) at Eggplant seeds and the synthetic insecticides Lambdacot 5% level of probability. 500 EC were obtained from a reputable agricultural input RESULTS AND DISCUSSION distributor African Agro Company (AFCOT) at Bama road, Maiduguri. The five plant materials tested were Effect of biopesticides and Lambdacot on the number collected from plants in the Botanical Garden of the of eggplant leaf roller: The results of eggplant leaf Department of Biological Sciences, at the University of roller counts are presented in Table 2. Results showed that Maiduguri. the mean number of eggplant leaf roller in treated plots for Experimentation: Each treatment plot measured 4 m × 3 both years were significantly (P< 0.05) lower than the m (120 m2) in dimensions and plots within a replicate were untreated/control plots. The untreated plots had the highest separated at a 1 m alley. The plots between replications mean number of leaf rollers of 3.01 and 3.93 for the 2012 and borders were spaced at 2 m apart. One eggplant seed- 2013 cropping seasons, respectively. Results also indicated ling was transplanted per planting station. A replacement that Lambdacot 500 EC had the lowest eggplant leaf roller of dead seedling was done a week after transplanting to counts per plant followed by plots treated with A. indica, maintain the plant population. Aqueous extracts of the five Z. officinales and A. fistolusum. plant materials tested were prepared as described by Degri Effect of biopesticides and Lambdacot 500 EC on the et al. (2012a). These were then applied in all plots except number of leaves of eggplant damaged: The effect of the absolute control at 5% w/v concentration while Lamb- biopesticides on the number of leaves of eggplant damaged dacot was applied at 1.5g a.i. /ha using hand sprayer. per plant during 2012 and 2013 cropping seasons are Spraying of these treatments was re-applied at one week presented in Table 3. There were significant (P< 0.05) interval. Weeding was done throughout the experiment differences among treatments with respect to the number using a hand hoe. Fertilizer (NPK 20:10:10) was applied of leaves damaged per plant. Results indicated that the three weeks after transplanting at a rate of 15 g/stand. mean number of leaves damaged per plant were signifi- Data collection cantly (P< 0.05) higher in control plots than biopesticides Number of eggplant rollers on eggplant: Collection of treated plots in both cropping seasons. data on number of eggplant leaf rollers was done weekly Effect of biopesticides and Lambdacot 500 EC on yield commencing from when the insect build- up was becoming and yield components of eggplant: Results of the effect high. The leaf rollers were collected from the young of biopesticides and Lambdacot 500 EC on yield and yield leaves with signs of silk webbed and rolled leaves leaf. components of eggplant are presented in Table 4. Results The silk webbed and rolled were opened and the caterpil- indicated that there was significant (P< 0.05) difference

Oshomah Musa Samuel and Degri Michael Mamman /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 1 (1): 9-12 (2016) 11 among the biopesticides, Lambdacot 500 EC and the The higher number of eggplant leaf rollers and higher absolute control on fruit performance. It was revealed that number of leaves damaged per plant could have resulted to significantly (p<0.05) higher number of eggplant fruits/ the fewer number of eggplant fruits per plant, lower fruit plant, fruit weight and fruit yield were obtained in the de- weight, and reduced fruit yield per land of production. On creasing order of Lambdacot 500 EC, A.indica, A. the other hand, the significantly higher number of eggplant fistolusum, M. balsamina and R. nigrum. In addition, fruits, weight of fruits, and fruit yields obtained from the results indicated that the untreated absolute control plots eggplants treated with biopesticides could be attributed to had the smallest numbers of eggplant fruits/plant, fruit the marked reduction in the number of leaf rollers. This weight and fruit yield recorded during the two cropping also was a result of reduced level of damaged caused by seasons fewer leaf rollers to the leaves per plant (Degri et al., 2010; The significantly lower mean number of eggplant leaf 2012b). rollers recorded in plots treated with biopesticides indicate that A. indica, Z. officinales and A. fistolusum aqueous Table 1. Experimental materials used for the control of leaf-rollers in eggplant. plant extracts were effective against the leaf roller pest. These three plant biopesticides significantly reduced the S.N. Common name Scientific name rolling (folding), webbing and chewing damage of the larvae during both cropping seasons. Biopesticides contain 1 Neem leaf Azadirachta indica active ingredients with low half-life period and their effect 2 Bitter melon Momordica balsamina on the environment is not too detrimental making them 3 Ginger rhizome Zingiber officinales more acceptable for pest control (Degri et al., 2012a). The counts of eggplant leaf rollers in plots treated with the 4 Black current Ribens nigrum three biopesticides were lower than counts in plots treated 5 Wild onion Allium fistolusum with M. balsamina and R. nigrum. This difference could be 6 Lambdacot 500 EC due to the variety of active ingredients contained in these biopesticides, which are known to have repellent, 7 Control (untreated) antifeedant and phagodeterrent effects against the larvae Table 2. Effect of biopesticides and Lambdacot 500 EC on the (Banjo and Ode, 1996; Degri et al., 2010; Degri et al., mean number of eggplant leaf roller on eggplant. 2012b). Comparing these different plant extracts, fewer leaves Mean number of eggplant leaf roller per damaged per plant were recorded on Lambdacot 500 EC Treatment plant followed by A. indica; A. fistolusum and Z. officinales. 2012 2013 However, extracts from M. balsamina and R. nigrum recorded relatively moderate number of leaves damaged A. indica 0.86 0.90 per plant. In addition, the absolute control plots recorded M. balsamina 0.91 0.97 the highest number of leaves damaged per plant. Z. officinales 0.88 0.85 These inconsistent observations could be attributed largely R. nigrum 1.33 1.42 to the effectiveness of the aqueous plant extracts against A. fistolusum 0.89 0.92 the eggplant leaf roller. These extracts might have reduced Lambdacot 0.61 their rolling, webbing and feeding activities of the leaf 0.63 rollers on the leaves (Sinha and Sharma, 2010; Aetiba and 500EC Osekre, 2015). The highest number of leaves damaged in Control 3.01 3.13 plots which were not treated during both cropping seasons SE ± 0.03 0.02 was caused by the highest level of infestation by the leaf roller larvae. These larvae caused rolling, webbing and Table 3. Effect of biopesticieds and Lambdacot 500 ECon the subsequently damaging of the eggplant leaves. This find- number of leaves damaged per pant. ing is consistent with those of a study conducted by Banjo and Ode (1996). Their findings indicate that attack by egg- Mean number of eggplant leaf roller per plant plant leaf roller caused leaves damage when the leaves Treatment were not protected with insecticides at the appropriate 2012 2013 time. The findings of this study indicate that the biopesti- A. indica 3.06 3.12 cides applied were effective in reducing leaf roller infestation but their effectiveness differed among plant extracts M. balsamina 3.46 3.41 and the standard Lambdacot 500 EC. This was due to their Z. officinales 3.33 3.38 differences in pesticidal properties attributable to the active R. nigrum 4.18 4.11 ingredients contained in these plant materials (Stoll, 2001). These active ingredients are reported by Isman (2006) and A. fistolusum 3.12 3.17 Degri (2014) to be triterpenes, limonoidssalamin, Lambdacot 500EC 3.09 3.05 meliantriol and nimbin which repel and prevent the Leaf Control 9.78 9.91 roller larvae from feeding on the eggplant leaves. SE ± 0.06 0.09

12 Oshomah Musa Samuel and Degri Michael Mamman /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 1 (1): 9-12 (2016)

Table 4. Yield and yield components of eggplant as affected by biopesticides and Lambdacot 500 EC during the 2012 and 2013 cropping seasons.

Eggplant fruit response variables and yield

Treatment Number/plant Mean weight (kg/plant) Yield (Kg/ha)

2012 2013 2012 2013 2012 2013 A. indica 9.56 9.83 2.80 2.79 757.60 767.54 M. balsamina 8.01 7.98 2.59 2.63 643.96 633.80 Z. officinales 8.41 8.46 2.77 2.87 745.11 741.08 R. nigrum 7.89 7.84 1.87 1.84 603.01 602.97 A. fistolusum 8.70 8.67 2.35 2.37 725.19 725.14 Lambdacot 500EC 10.72 10.70 3.02 3.00 818.15 838.13 Control 5.11 5.13 1.31 1.28 318.16 217.91 SE ± 0.40 0.38 0.90 0.87 23.11 33.08 Conclusions www.avrd .org/K) Eggplant/leaf roller html. Banjo, A.D. and Ode, K.P. (1996). The potential for controlling The study revealed that aqueous biopesticides extracts of Selepadocilis, a pest of egg-plant Solanum melongena L. A. indica; Z. officinales; A. fistolusum; R. nigrum (5% w/ using the botanicals Azadirachta indica A. Juss, Vernonia v/ concentration) applied at one week interval were effec- amygdalina and Jatropha curcas. 14th HORTSON Conf., tive against eggplant leaf roller (E. olivacea). These find- April, 1 -4 Ago IWoye, Nigeria. ings were also statistically similar with the conventional Degri, M.M., Kaltungo, J.H., Dike, M.C. and Onu, I. (2010). Lambdacot 500 EC. The application of biopesticides Evaluation of bitter leaf (Vernonia Sp) and wild onion extracts reduced the number of E. olivacea on eggplant (Allium fistolusum) for the control insects of eggplant. leaves and reduced the number of eggplant leaves International Journal of Crop Science, 2(1): 52-55. Degri, M.M., Maina, Y.T. and Mailafiya, D.M. (2012a). damaged. They also improved performance of eggplant in Evaluation of three aqueous plant Lambdacot in controlling terms of increased number of fruits, weight of fruits and eggplant fruits borer (Darabalaisalis WIK) (Lepidoptera: fruit yield. It is therefore recommended that these aqueous Pyralidae) in North- East Nigeria. Archives of Pytopatholo- extracts should be adopted by eggplant farmers as they are gy and Plant Protection, 45 (20): 2519- 2524. DOI: cost effective and friendly to the environment. However, 10.1080/03235408. 2012.731337. the actual quatities of these extracts to be applied per plant Degri, M.M., Ayuba, M.M. and Yoriyo, K.P. (2012b). depending on the variety of eggplant, season and weather Bioefficacy of some aqueous plant extracts and Cyromazine condition of the cropping season, and canopy architecture (Trigard 169) in the management of leaf miner (Liriomyza remain to be critically explored. sp.) on eggplant in the Northern Guinea Savanna of Nigeira. Nigerian Journal of Experimental and Applied Biology, 13 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS (2): 125-130. Degri, M.M. (2014). The effect of spacing of eggplant (Solanum The authors are grateful to Mal. Farouk M. and Mal. Mala melongena L.) (Solanaceae) on Shoot and fruit borer Bulama of the Department of Crop Protection, Teaching (Leucinodesorbonalis Guen.) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) and Research Farm for assisting in Land preparation and infestation in the dry Savanna zone of Nigeria. Agriculture data collection. We also thank Mr. Zakaria Dauda for and Biology Journal of North America, 5 (1): 10-14 DOI: helping in data analysis and Mr. Solo B. for typesetting. 10.5251/ abjna. 2014. 5.1.10.14. Isman, M.B. (2006). Botanical insecticides, deterrents, and Open Access: This is open access article distributed under repellents in modern agriculture and an increasingly regulat- the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution ed world. Annals of Reviews in Entomology, 51:45- 66. License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and Onekuku, A. and Omoleye, A.A. (2012). Planting date of reproduction in any medium, provided the original author eggplant (Solanum gilo) on eggfruit and shoot borer (s) and the source are credited. (Leucinodesorbonalis) infestation. Nigerian Journal of Horticulture Science, 17: 14-19. REFERENCES Owusu Ansah, F., Alfred- Nuamah, K, Obeng, D’Ofosu Budu, KG (2001). Managing infestation levels of major insect Aetiba, J.P.N. and Osekre, E.A. (2015). Field evaluation of Levo pests of garden eggs (Solanum intergrifolium L.) with Botanical insecticide for the management of insect pest of aqueous neem seed extracts. Journal of Ghana Science eggplant (Solanum melongena L.). American Journal of Association, 3:70-84. Experimental Agriculture, 8(1): 61-67 DOI: 10. 9734/ Sinha, S.R. and Sharma, R.K. (2010). Effect of insecticides on AJEA/2015/17111. insect pests of Brinjal. AGRIS, 18(1): 82-85. Akpabi, I.G.K. (1989). A guide to garden egg production in Stoll, G. (2001). Natural Crop protection in the tropics: letting Ghana. In: Horticulture crops A. report by the Commodity information come to life. Germany, MargratVerla. Committee of the Commodity Committee of NARP, CSIR, Singh, Y.P. and Singh, P.P. (2002). Pest Complex of eggplant Accra, Ghana, 3: 20-40. (Solanum melongena) and their succession at medium-high AVRDC (2008). Eggplant production retrieved from http:// altitude hills. Indian Journal of Entomology, 64(3): 335-342.

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH ARTICLE Comparative assessment of phytoremediation feasibility of water caltrop (Trapa natans L.) and water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes Solms.) using pulp and paper mill effluent

Vinod Kumara*, A.K. Chopraa, Jogendra Singha, Roushan K. Thakura, Sachin Srivastavab and R.K. Chauhanc aAgro-ecology and Pollution Research Laboratory, Department of Zoology and Environmental Science, Gurukula Kangri University, Haridwar-249404 (Uttarakhand), INDIA bDepartment of Agricultural Sciences, Desh Bhagat University, Mandi, Gobindgarh, Fatehgarh Sahib-147301 (Punjab), INDIA cDepartment of Chemistry, Indira Gandhi National College, Ladwa, Kurukshetra-136132 (Haryana), INDIA *Corresponding authors. E-mail: [email protected]

ARTICLE HISTORY ABSTRACT Received: 15 Aug. 2016 Experiments for the comparative assessment of phytoremediation feasibility of water Revised received: 17 Aug. 2016 caltrop (Trapa natans L.) and water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes Solms.) using paper mill efflu- Accepted: 19 Aug. 2016 ent were carried out for 60 days. The results revealed that the pulp and paper mill effluent was var- 3- + + 2+ ied in characteristics and highly loaded with TDS, EC, BOD5, COD, TKN, PO4 , Na , K , Ca , Keywords Mg2+, Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb, Zn, SPC and MPN. It was observed that and both the plant spe- Accumulation cies T. natans and E. crassipes significantly (P<0.05/P<0.01/P<0.001) reduced the contents of 3- + + 2+ 2+ Heavy metals TDS, EC, BOD, COD, TKN, PO4 , Na , K , Ca , Mg , Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb, Zn, SPC and Phytoremediation potential MPN of pulp and paper mill effluent after phytoremediation experiments. Albeit, the maximum Pulp and paper mill effluent removal of these parameters were obtained at 60 days of the phytoremediation experiments but the Removal rate removal rate of these parameters were gradually increased from 15 days to 45 days and it was de- Translocation creased at 60 days. The most contents of Cd, Cu, Fe, Mn and Zn was translocated in the leaves of T. natans and E. crassipes during the phytoremediation experiments whereas, the least contents of Cr, Ni and Pb was translocated in the leaves of T. natans and E. crassipes. Among both the macrophyt- ic species (i.e. T. natans and E. crassipes) used for the phytoremediation, E. crassipes was found to be more effective for the removal of different parameters of pulp and paper mill effluent in comparison to T. natans. Therefore, T. natans and E. crassipes can be used effectively to reduce the pollution load of pulp and paper mill effluent. ©2016 Agriculture and Environmental Science Academy

Citation of this article: Kumar, V., Chopra, A.K., Singh, J., Thakur, R.K., Srivastava, S., and Chauhan, R.K. (2016). Comparative assessment of phytoremediation feasibility of water caltrop (Trapa natans L.) and water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes Solms.) using pulp and paper mill effluent. Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science, 1(1): 13-21. INTRODUCTION wastewater which is varied in characteristics with Application of aquatic macrophytes in phytoremediation of higher inorganic, organic and biological pollution load industrial effluent has become popular due to the high cost (Kumar and Chopra, 2014, 2015). The treatments of indus- and energy intense treatment technologies (Sooknah and trial effluents are quietly expensive and time Wilkie, 2004; Padmapriya and Murugesan, 2012; consuming (Kumar and Chopra, 2011, 2012). The Kumar and Chopra, 2016). Ever increasing human industrial effluents contains various nutrients like population, extensive industrialization and urbanization is nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), sodium (Na), potassium (K), 2- continuously creating pressure on the water resources calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), sulphate (SO4 ) and (Kumar and Chopra, 2013a, b; Rohit et al., 2015). chlorides. Besides this the effluent also have heavy metals Industries like pulp and paper mills consume a large such as cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), iron amount of fresh water and generate huge quantity of (Fe), nickel (Ni), lead (Pb) and zinc (Zn) (Dar et al., 2011;

14 Vinod Kumar et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 1 (1): 13-21 (2016)

Luqman et al., 2013). Besides this, an extensive range of harmful chemicals from the ground when their roots take inorganic and organic compounds including heavy metals, in water and nutrients from the contaminated soil, hazardous wastes and chlorinated hydrocarbons present in sediment, or groundwater. Plants can help clean up the paper mill effluent cause contamination of potable contaminants as deep as their roots can reach using natural water (Kumar et al., 2010; Singh et al., 2012; Kumar and processes to store the contaminants in the roots, stems, or Chopra, 2016).Discharge of untreated or partially treated leaves and also convert them to less harmful pulp and paper mill effluent is major cause of aquatic chemicals within the plant or, more commonly, the root pollution in India (Kulkarni et al., 2008; Kumar and zone (Fox et al., 2008; Singh et al., 2012). Chopra, 2012). A large number of treatment technologies Furthermore, plants used for phytoremediation must be are using to prevent the pollution of aquatic resources capable to tolerate the types and concentrations of caused due to the discharge of industrial effluent contaminants present. They also must be able to grow and (El-Gendy et al., 2004; Alade and Ojoawo, 2009; Singh et survive in the local climate. A number of plants species al., 2012). Among different methods phytoremediation is can accumulate remarkable contents of different heavy one of the most feasible methods for the treatment of metals such as arsenic (As), cobalt (Co), Cu, Zn, Mn, Pb, industrial effluent and municipal wastewater (Alves et al., selenium (Se), Ni, and Cd, in their tissues (Alves et al., 2003; Shah et al., 2010; Ajibade et al., 2013). 2003; Singh et al., 2012) and are considered as hyper accu- Phytoremediation is the use of aquatic plants to mulating species. These species are characterized by their remediate the organic and inorganic contaminants tolerance to toxic contents of heavy metals are often present in the industrial effluent (Jayaweera and endemic to metal-rich substrates and are rare in their Kasturiarachchi, 2004; Kumar and Chopra, 2016). distribution (El-Gendy et al., 2004; Jayaweera and Phytoremediation uses plants to clean up contaminated Kasturiarachchi, 2004; Rohit et al., 2015). environments. Plants can help clean up many types of Water caltrop and water hyacinth are the floating aquatic contaminants including metals, pesticides, explosives, and macrophytes, have been of particular interest for effluent oil. However, they work best where contaminant levels are remediation (Raskin and Ensley 2000; Alves et al. 2003; low because high concentrations may limit plant growth Fox et al., 2008). Although water hyacinth is considered and take too long to clean up (Kumar and Chopra, 2016). one of the world’s most noxious weeds, the characteristics During phytoremediation plants eliminate, detoxify or that make it weedy also make it a good plant for remedia- immobilize the contaminants of wastewater (Sooknah and tion (Fox et al., 2008). These plants are easily adaptable to Wilkie, 2004). Therefore, phytoremediation technology a wide range of environmental factors including pH, has been receiving attention recently as an innovative, cost electrical conductivity, and temperature (El-Gendy et al. -effective alternative for the treatment of hazardous waste 2004; Kutty et al., 2009). The dense fibrous root system of (Mahmood et al., 2005; Letachowicz et al., 2006; Kumar these plant species provides an extensive surface area for and Chopra, 2016). Likewise, phytoremediation utilizes a absorption, adsorption of pollutants (Pollard et al., 2002; variety of plant biological processes and the physical Pilon-Smits and Pilon, 2002; Fox et al., 2008). Both the characteristics of plants to remediate the various contami- macrophyte species expend the majority of their lifecycle nants (Shah et al., 2010; Kumar and Chopra, 2016). in a vegetative state and rapidly reproduce by vegetative Additionally, phytoremediation may be applicable for the propagation. Increased biomass leads to increased filtering remediation of metals, pesticides, solvents, explosives, capacity (Alves et al., 2003). These plants absorb exces- crude oil, PAHs, and landfill leachates. Some plant species sive contents of N, P, and K along with heavy metals that have the ability to store metals in their roots (Mahmood et requires for their luxurious growth (Zhu et al., 1999; Alves al., 2005; Shah et al., 2010). They can be transplanted to et al., 2003; Fox et al., 2008). Although, numerous studies sites to filter metals from wastewater. As the roots become have evaluated the efficacy of water hyacinth; yet, results saturated with metal contaminants, they can be harvested. differ widely on their phytoremediation potential whereas Hyperaccumulator plants may be able to remove and store there is no sufficient scientific reports are available on the significant amount of metallic contaminant (Letachowicz phytoremediation efficiency of water caltrop (Mojiri, et al., 2006; Kumar and Chopra, 2016). Therefore, 2011; Singh et al., 2012; Rohit et al., 2015; Kumar and phytoremediation is a low cost, solar energy driven Chopra, 2016). Keeping above in view the present study cleanup technique and most useful at sites with shallow, was undertaken to assess the comparative phytoremedia- low levels of contamination (Liao and Chang, 2004; Singh tion feasibility of water caltrop (Trapa natans L.) and wa- et al., 2012). ter hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes Solms.) using pulp and Aquatic macrophytes are accomplished to eliminate a paper mill effluent. broad range of nutrients as well as heavy metals from industrial effluent (Sooknah and Wilkie 2004; Fox et al., MATERIALS AND METHODS 2008). The achievement of phytoremediation depends on Study sites and experimental design: The phytoremedia- the availability of plant species ideally those native to the tion experiments were carried out in the Multipurpose region of interestable to tolerate and accumulate high Experimental Area (MEA) at Department of Zoology and concentrations of heavy metals (Alves et al., 2003; Environmental Science, Gurukula Kangri University, Jayaweera and Kasturiarachchi, 2004). Moreover, Haridwar (Uttarakhand), India (29°55'13"N 78°7'23"E). certain plants are competent to eradicate or break down Sagar Pulp and Paper Mills Ltd. Manglaur, Haridwar

Vinod Kumar et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 1 (1): 13-21 (2016) 15

(29°45'47"N 77°50'15"E) was selected for the collection of using acetone extraction method using spectrophotometer pulp and paper mill effluent samples. The plants species of (Porra, 2002) whereas; LAI was determined by canopy water caltrop (Trapa natans) and water hyacinth analyzer. Biochemical parameters like crude protein was (Eichhornia crassipes Solms.) were collected from the determined by acid digestion and distillation method, crude local pond situated at Sarai, Haridwar (Uttarakhand). For fiber of T. natans and E. crassipes was estimated by acid the phytoremediation experiments twelve tanks were and alkali treatment method, total carbohydrate and total constructed inside the MEA and arranged in two blocks, sugar were determined by anthrone reagent method while each with two parallel rows of six tanks. Each tank had total fat was analysed by ether extraction method cited in dimensions of 1.5×1.5×1.0 m. Tanks were constructed Anonymous (1980) and Chaturvedi and Sankar (2006). with concrete and cement block. Each tank was filled with Extraction of heavy metal analysis: The contents of 100 liter of pulp and paper mill effluent and the water level heavy metals Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb and Zn in the was marked on the side wall of each tank. Ten healthy pulp and paper mill effluent and plant materials (root, plants (known biomass) of water caltrop (Trapa natans L.) leaves and fruit of T. natans and root and leaves of E. cras- and water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes Solms.) were sipes) were determined using acid digestion method. For transferred in each tank having the pulp and paper mill digestion of samples, 10 ml samples of pulp and paper mill effluent and the experiments were conducted for 60 days. effluent, 1g each of T. natans and E. crassipes were taken The study was a randomized complete block (RCB) with in the digestion tubes separately. In each tube 3 ml of con- six replicates of each experiment was maintained through- centrate HNO3 was added and it was digested in an out the study period. electrically heated block for 1 hour at 145oC. In this mix- o Analysis of pulp and paper mill effluent: The pulp and ture 4 ml of HClO4 was added and heated to 240 C for 1 paper mill effluent samples were analyzed before and after hour. The mixture was cooled and filtered through What- phytoremediation using T. natans and E. crassipes at 0 man # 42 filter paper and the volume was made to 50 ml (before phytoremediation experiments), 15, 30, 45 and 60 with double distilled water and used for metals analysis. days, respectively. The pH, total dissolved solids (TDS) The contents of Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb and Zn in the and conductivity (EC) of the effluent were determined pulp and paper mill effluents, T. natans and E. crassipes using pH meter (pH System 362 Systronics, India), TDS was analyzed for heavy metals using AAS (Model ECIL- meter (TDS meter 661E Systronics, India) and conductivi- 4129) following methods of APHA (2012) and Chaturvedi ty meter (Conductivity meter 306 Systronics, India), and Sankar (2006). respectively. Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5) of Quality assurance and statistical analysis: Necessary paper mill effluent was analyzed by 5 days incubation quality assurance procedures and precautions were carried method, while the chemical oxygen demand (COD) was out during the study. The coefficient of variation of repli- determined by Open Reflux Method using potassium cate analysis was determined for the measurements to cal- dichromate as oxidative agent. The total Kjeldahl nitrogen culate analytical precision. All the reagents and standards (TKN) was determined by Kjeldahl method, phosphate were of analytical grade. One-way analysis of variance 3- + (PO4 ) by Olsen method. Sodium (Na ) and potassium (ANOVA) was performed determine the significant differ- (K+) were measured by Stanford and English method using ence of values at different days of phytoremediation exper- the flame photometry (Flame photometer 128, Systronics, iments. Means were calculated with the help of MS Excel India). Calcium (Ca2+) and magnesium (Mg2+) were ana- MS Excel (ver. 2013, Microsoft Redmond Campus, Red- lyzed using versenate titration method. Total bacteria in mond, WA). Graphs were plotted with the help of Sigma pulp and paper mill effluent were counted as standard plate plot, 2000 (ver. 12.3, Systat Software, Inc., Chicago, IL). count (SPC) using Petri plate culture method on sterile nutrient agar media (ingredients: Beef extract 1.0g, yeast RESULTS AND DISCUSSION extract 2.0g, peptone 5.0g, NaCl 5.0g, agar 15.0g, distilled Characteristics of pulp and paper mill effluent: During water 1000ml; final pH 7.40), while the coliforms bacteria the present investigation, the pulp and paper mill effluent as most probable number (MPN were recorded by culture was found varied in characteristics and considerably tube method using McConkey’s broth (ingredients: Pep- loaded with higher values of TDS, EC, BOD5, COD, TKN, 3- + + 2+ 2+ tone 20.0g, lactose 10.0g, bile salt 5.0g, NaCl 5.0g, neutral PO4 , Na , K , Ca , Mg , Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb, red 0.075g, distilled water 1000ml; final pH 7.4) following Zn, SPC and MPN (Tables 1, 2). Here, it is interesting to 3- + + 2+ 2+ methods cited by (APHA, 2012; Chaturvedi and Sankar, note that TKN, PO4 , Na , K , Ca , Mg of the pulp and 2006). paper mill effluent are considered as plant nutrients and Determination of plants parameters: The plants viz., T. significantly contributed for eutrophication of aquatic natans and E. crassipes used for the phytoremediation of resources if present in higher concentration. The heavy pulp and paper mill effluent was analyzed for fresh weigh, metals Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb and Zn are considered dry weight, chlorophyll content and leaf area index (LAI) as micronutrients and associated with synthesis of different before and after phytoremediation experiments at 0, 15, 30, biochemical components and catalyze various biochemical 45 and 60 days. Fresh weight of T. natans and E. crassipes processes of aquatic plants in lower contents but they was determined by weighing of plants using digital produce toxicity when present in higher concentration. In 2+ balance. Dry weigh was estimated by drying of plants at the present study, TDS, BOD5, COD, Ca , Cd, Cu, Fe, 105 oC in the oven. Chlorophyll content was analysed Mn, SPC and MPN of the pulp and paper mill effluent

16 Vinod Kumar et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 1 (1): 13-21 (2016)

Table 1. Changes in characteristics of pulp and paper mill effluent after phytoremediation using T. natans at different days.

Before After phytoremediation BISa for inland Parameter phytoremediation 15 days 30 days 45 days 60 days disposal TDS (mg L-1) 1840 1685.54ns 1420.00* 1225.80** 1150.45*** 1500 EC (dS m-1) 2.64 2.56ns 2.28ns 1.93* 1.84* -b pH 7.82 7.76ns 7.68ns 7.48ns 7.32ns 5.5-9.0 -1 BOD5 (mg L ) 475.10 425.66ns 389.20* 328.10** 290.35*** 100 COD (mg L-1) 880.50 838.75ns 745.87* 634.12** 598.56*** 250 TKN (mg L-1) 192.65 165.40* 132.25** 110.85** 96.55*** 100 3- -1 PO4 (mg L ) 145.60 120.39ns 108.65* 85.70** 76.97*** - Na+ (mg L-1) 285.44 265.82ns 225.15* 185.78** 165.30*** - K+ (mg L-1) 175.50 153.40* 132.70** 110.45** 103.65** - Ca2+ (mg L-1) 435.80 410.65ns 386.94* 334.82** 315.85** 200 Mg2+ (mg L-1) 148.35 134.70ns 118.90* 88.50** 74.60*** - Cd (mg L-1) 2.45 2.26* 2.09** 1.75** 1.45** 2.0 Cr (mg L-1) 1.38 1.24ns 1.13* 0.89** 0.78** 2.00 Cu (mg L-1) 5.64 5.48* 4.88** 3.96** 3.75** 3.00 Fe (mg L-1) 8.95 8.56* 7.68** 6.35** 5.80** 1.0 Mn (mg L-1) 3.66 3.38ns 2.68* 1.88** 1.62** 1.00 Pb (mg L-1) 1.74 1.62* 1.45** 1.16** 0.85** - Ni (mg L-1) 1.02 0.95* 0.76** 0.53** 0.47** - Zn (mg L-1) 6.90 6.58* 5.58** 4.24** 3.75** 15 SPC (CFU ml -1) 6.66×106 5.67×105* 2.84×104** 4.84×103*** 1.23×103*** 10000 MPN (MPN 100 ml -1) 3.85×108 4.33×107* 6.92×106** 5.24×105*** 3.74×104*** 5000 The values are mean of six replicates; aBIS- Bureau of Indian standard; b- Not defined in standard; ns, *, ** non-significant or significantly different at P<0.05 or P<0.01 or P<0.001 level of ANOVA, respectively.

Table 2. Changes in characteristics of pulp and paper mill effluent after phytoremediation using E. crassipes at different days.

After phytoremediation Before BISa for inland Parameter phytoremediation 15 days 30 days 45 days 60 days disposal TDS (mg L-1) 1840 1640.80ns 1385.60* 1175.50** 1060.30*** 1500 EC (dS m-1) 2.64 2.53ns 2.22ns 1.80* 1.76* -b pH 7.82 7.72ns 7.64ns 7.44ns 7.29ns 5.5-9.0 -1 BOD5 (mg L ) 475.10 412.65ns 372.58* 308.94** 275.68*** 100 COD (mg L-1) 880.50 827.50ns 735.64* 612.40** 570.40*** 250 TKN (mg L-1) 192.65 156.84* 124.36** 104.84** 82.50*** 100 3- -1 PO4 (mg L ) 145.60 116.30ns 96.38* 72.75** 64.57*** - Na+ (mg L-1) 285.44 258.64ns 216.60* 170.49** 150.33*** - K+ (mg L-1) 175.50 148.95* 127.45** 102.37** 96.37** - Ca2+ (mg L-1) 435.80 405.64ns 369.80* 314.50** 305.80** 200 Mg2+ (mg L-1) 148.35 127.66ns 109.64* 73.60** 66.40*** - Cd (mg L-1) 2.45 2.18* 1.92** 168** 1.34** 2.0 Cr (mg L-1) 1.38 1.21ns 1.08* 0.74** 0.69** 2.00 Cu (mg L-1) 5.64 5.32* 4.42** 3.55** 2.94** 3.00 Fe (mg L-1) 8.95 8.22* 6.85** 5.75** 4.86** 1.0 Mn (mg L-1) 3.66 3.32ns 2.54* 1.74** 1.42** 1.00 Ni (mg L-1) 1.74 1.57* 1.36** 1.07** 0.73** - Pb (mg L-1) 1.02 0.92* 0.70** 0.42** 0.36** Zn (mg L-1) 6.90 6.22* 5.14** 4.05** 3.10** 15 SPC (CFU ml -1) 6.66×106 4.36×105* 3.95×104** 2.85×103*** 4.65×103*** 10000 MPN (MPN 100 ml -1) 3.85×108 3.77×107* 2.74×105** 4.69×104*** 4.12×103*** 5000 The values are mean of six replicates; aBIS- Bureau of Indian standard; b- Not defined in standard; ns, *, ** non-significant or significantly different at P<0.05 or P<0.01 or P<0.001 level of ANOVA, respectively.

Vinod Kumar et al./Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 1 (1): 13-21 (2016) 17 were recorded beyond the permissible limit of inland Changes in biometric parameters of T. natans and E. disposal for wastewater prescribed by BIS (2010). The crassipes after phytoremediation: The values of different higher EC of the pulp and paper mill effluent are associat- growth parameters of T. natans and E. crassipes during ed with the presence of more ionic species in the pulp and phytoremediation experiment of the pulp and paper mill paper mill effluent. Higher values of TDS, BOD5 and COD effluent at different days are presented in Tables 3 and 4. indicates higher organic and inorganic pollution load of the The fresh weigh, dry weight, chlorophyll content and leaf pulp and paper mill effluent. The more values of total area index (LAI) of T. natans and E. crassipes was bacteria as SPC and MPN are concerned with higher increased from 15 days to 60 days of phytoremediation biological activities in the pulp and paper mill effluent. experiments (Tables 3, 4). The most values of fresh weigh The higher contents of Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb and Zn (296.37g and 312.65g), dry weight (74.68g and 78.94g), of the pulp and paper mill effluent are likely due the use of chlorophyll content (4.78 mg/g fwt and 4.86 mg/g fwt) and various dyes to manufacture coloured papers in the pulp LAI (3.52 and 3.57) of T. natans and E. crassipes was and paper mill. The findings of the present study are in the recorded at 60 days of phytoremediation experiments using conformity of Kumar and Chopra (2016) who reported the pulp and paper mill effluent, respectively (Tables 3 and 4). higher values of various plant macro and micro nutrients in The fresh weight, dry weight, chlorophyll content and LAI the agro-residue based paper mill effluent. The findings of of T. natans and E. crassipes was recorded to be signifi- the present study are according to Kumar and Chopra cantly (P<0.05/P<0.01) different after phytoremediation (2012) who reported the higher values of TDS, BOD5 and experiments at different days (Tables 3, 4). Among both COD in the paper mill effluent. Therefore, the characteris- the macrophyte species used for the phytoremediation, E. tics of pulp and paper mill effluent clearly indicated the crassipes greatly achieved their vegetative growth luxuri- presence of various macro and micro plant nutrients ously in comparison to T. natans and it might be due to the required for the luxurious growth of aquatic macrophytes. presence of plenty of nutrients in the pulp and paper mill Changes in characteristics of pulp and paper mill effluent. The increase in fresh weigh, dry weight, chloro- effluent after phytoremediation using T. natans and E. phyll content and LAI of T. natans and E. crassipes are in crassipes: The changes in characteristics of pulp and the conformity of the presence of various plant nutrients 3- + + 2+ 2+ paper mill effluent after phytoremediation using T. natans like TKN, PO4 , Na , K , Ca , Mg , Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, and E. crassipes are presented in Tables 1 and 2. The Ni, Pb, Zn in the pulp and paper mill effluent needed to ANOVA analysis on data indicated that T. natans and E. achieve the maximum vegetative growth as also earlier crassipes significantly (P<0.05/P<0.01/P<0.001) decreased reported by Sooknah and Wilkie (2004). These findings 3- + the contents of TDS, EC, BOD5, COD, TKN, PO4 , Na , are in the agreement of a phytoremediation experiments K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb, Zn, SPC and carried out by Kumar and Chopra (2016) who reported that MPN of the pulp and paper mill effluent. Here it is inter- fresh weigh, dry weight, chlorophyll content and LAI of T. esting to note that the removal rate of different natans was increased due to the uptake of different nutri- parameters of the pulp and paper mill effluent was progres- ents present in the paper mill effluent. sively increased from 15 days to 45 days of phytoremedia- Changes in biochemical parameters of T. natans and E. tion experiments, and there was a slight crassipes after phytoremediation: The values of bio- decline in the removal rate at 60 days of the phytoremedia- chemical parameters viz., crude protein, crude fiber, total tion experiments using T. natans and E. crassipes. The carbohydrates, total ash and total fat of T. natans and E. most reduction of the pulp and paper mill effluent parame- crassipes during the phytoremediation experiments are ters was noted at 60 days of phytoremediation experiments shown in Figures 1, 2. The results revealed that the con- using T. natans and E. crassipes. The reduction of TKN, tents of crude protein, crude fiber, total carbohydrates, 3- + + 2+ 2+ PO4 , Na , K , Ca and Mg Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb, total ash and total fat of T. natans and E. crassipes was Zn, SPC and MPN of the pulp and paper mill effluent is increased significantly (P<0.05/P<0.01) at different days might be due to the uptake of these nutrients by T. natans of phytoremediation experiments using pulp and paper mill and E. crassipes required for their growth during phytore- effluent (Figures 1, 2). The contents of crude protein, crude mediation experiments. The findings of the present study fiber, total carbohydrates, total ash and total fat of T. na- were in accordance with Alade and Ojoawo (2009) who tans and E. crassipes were observed in the order of total also reported that E. crassipes significantly reduced the carbohydrates > crude protein > crude fiber > total ash > 3- BOD, COD, TKN and PO4 of sewage effluent. Dar et al. total fat after phytoremediation experiments using pulp and (2011) reported that water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) paper mill effluent. The increase in crude protein, crude have the potential for the treatment of sewage wastewater fiber, total carbohydrates, total ash and total fat of T. na- and it can used for the removal of nitrogen, phosphorus, tans and E. crassipes during the phytoremediation experi- calcium, magnesium, cadmium, chromium, iron and zinc ments of the pulp and paper mill effluent are in the con- of the sewage wastewater. Kumar and Chopra (2016) also formity of the presence of various macro and micro nutri- 3- + + 2+ 2+ reported that T. natans significantly reduced the contents ents like TKN, PO4 , Na , K , Ca , Mg , Cd, Cr, Cu, of Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn and Zn of the paper mill effluent. Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb, Zn in the pulp and paper mill effluent Ajibade et al. (2013) also reported that water hyacinth was required for the synthesis of these biochemical components found to be effective for the removal of heavy metals in as earlier reported by Sooknah and Wilkie (2004). In a domestic sewage in the University of Ilorin, Nigeria. phytoremediation study, Alves et al. (2003) also reported

18 Vinod Kumar et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 1 (1): 13-21 (2016) that water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) was found to be Sooknah and Wilkie, 2004). Least contents of Cr, Ni and effective for the removal of different nutrients from Pb was translocated in the leaves of T. natans and E. wastewater and increased their biomass, crude fiber, crude crassipes and this might be due to that these metals protein, total fat and total ash, and it can be cultivated for produce toxicity in plants and reduced the growth thereduction of pollution load of excessively nutrients rich attributes (Figures 3-10). Thus, root act as a barrier for the wastewater. Moreover, Kumar and Chopra (2016) also translocation of Cr and Pb in aerial plant parts. However, reported the synthesis of various biochemical parameters the observed differences in the metals accumulation in the like crude protein, crude fiber, total sugar and total carbo- different parts of the plant suggest different cellular hydrates of T. natans during the phytoremediation of paper mechanisms of metal bioaccumulation, which may control mill effluent. their translocation and partitioning in the plant. The Cd, Translocation of heavy metals in various parts of T. Cu, Fe, Mn and Zn are essential for the survival and natans and E. crassipes after phytoremediation: proliferation of all plants. There is more demand for Cu, During the study, the translocation of Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Fe, Mn and Zn in the photosynthetic apparatus as a result Ni, Pb and Zn in different parts of T. natans (root, leaves plants accumulates and translocates these metals in their and fruit) and E. crassipes (root and leaves) was recorded photosynthetic parts (Porra 2002; Sooknah and Wilkie, after phytoremediation experiments (Figures 3-10). It was 2004; Kumar and Chopra, 2014). observed that the most contents of Cd, Cu, Fe, Mn and Zn It should be renowned that Cr, Ni and Pb are toxic and non was translocated in the leaves of T. natans and E. crassipes -essential element to plants and hence the plants may not during the phytoremediation experiments and it is likely possess any specific mechanism to transport the Cr and Pb due to that these metals are associated with synthesis of (Rohit et al., 2015). Poor translocation of Cr, Ni and Pb to chloroplast and photosynthesis processes (Porra, 2002; the leaves might be due to the sequesterization of most of

70 Crude protein Crude fiber 8 Crude protein Crude fiber Total ash Total carbohydrates Total ash Total sugar Total fat 60 Total fat 7

50 6 5 40 4 30 3 20 2

10 1

Content (mg/100g fresh wt.) (mg/100g fresh Content Content (mg/100g fresh wt.) (mg/100g fresh Content 0 0 0 Days 15 Days 30 Days 45 Days 60 Days 0 Days 15 Days 30 Days 45 Days 60 Days

After phytoremediation at different days After phytoremediation at different days Figure 1. Contents of biochemical components of E. Figure 2. Contents of biochemical components of T. natans after crassipes after phytoremediation of pulp and paper mill effluent phytoremediation of pulp and paper mill effluent at at different days. Error bars are the standard error of the mean. different days. Error bars are the standard error of the mean.

Root of E. crassipes Root of T.natans 0.7 Root of E. crassipes Root of T.natans 1.4 Leaves of E. crassipes Leaves of T.natans Leaves of E. crassipes Leaves of T.natans Fruits of T.natans Fruits of T.natans 1.2 0.6

1 0.5

0.8 0.4

0.6 0.3

0.4 0.2 Content of Cr (mgof Cr Kg-1) Content Content of Cd (mg Kg-1) Content 0.2 0.1

0 0 0 15 30 45 60 0 15 30 45 60 After phytoremediation at different days After phytoremediation at different days

Figure 3. Translocation of Cd in different parts of E. Figure 4. Translocation of Cr in different parts of E. crassipes and T. natans after phytoremediation of pulp and paper crassipes and T. natans after phytoremediation of pulp and paper mill effluent at different days. Error bars are the mill effluent at different days. Error bars are the standard error of the mean. standard error of the mean.

Vinod Kumar et al./Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 1 (1): 13-21 (2016) 19

Root of E. crassipes Root of T.natans Root of E. crassipes Root of T.natans 3 Leaves of E. crassipes Leaves of T.natans 4.5 Leaves of E. crassipes Leaves of T.natans Fruits of T.natans Fruits of T.natans 4 2.5 3.5 2 3 2.5 1.5 2 1 1.5

1 Content of Cu (mg Kg-1) Content

0.5 of Fe (mg Kg-1) Content 0.5 0 0 0 15 30 45 60 0 15 30 45 60 After phytoremediation at different days After phytoremediation at different days Figure 5. Translocation of Cu in different parts of E. Figure 6. Translocation of Fe in different parts of E. crassipes and T. natans after phytoremediation of pulp and paper crassipes and T. natans after phytoremediation of pulp and mill effluent at different days. Error bars are the standard error paper mill effluent at different days. Error bars are the of the mean. standard error of the mean.

Root of E. crassipes Root of T.natans 2.5 Root of E. crassipes Root of T.natans 1.4 Leaves of E. crassipes Leaves of T.natans Leaves of E. crassipes Leaves of T.natans Fruits of T.natans Fruits of T.natans 1.2 2 1 1.5 0.8

1 0.6

0.4

0.5 Content of Ni (mg Content Kg-1) Content of Mn (mg Content Kg-1) 0.2

0 0 0 15 30 45 60 0 15 30 45 60 After phytoremediation at different days After phytoremediation at different days Figure 7. Translocation of Mn in different parts of E. Figure 8. Translocation of Ni in different parts of E. crassipes T. natans after phytoremediation of pulp and paper mill crassipes and T. natans after phytoremediation of pulp and effluent at different days. Error bars are the standard error of the paper mill effluent at different days. Error bars are the mean. standard error of the mean.

Root of E. crassipes Root of T.natans Root of E. crassipes Root of T.natans 0.8 Leaves of E. crassipes Leaves of T.natans 4 Leaves of E. crassipes Leaves of T.natans Fruits of T.natans Fruits of T.natans 0.7 3.5

0.6 3

0.5 2.5

0.4 2

0.3 1.5

0.2 1 Content of Zn (mg Content Kg-1) Content of Pb (mgContent Kg-1) 0.5 0.1 0 0 0 15 30 45 60 0 15 30 45 60 After phytoremediation at different days After phytoremediation at different days Figure 9. Translocation of Pb in different parts of E. Figure 10. Translocation of Zn in different parts of E. crassipes and T. natans after phytoremediation of pulp and crassipes and T. natans after phytoremediation of pulp and paper mill effluent at different days. Error bars are the paper mill effluent at different days. Error bars are the standard error of the mean. standard error of the mean.

20 Vinod Kumar et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 1 (1): 13-21 (2016) the Cr, Ni and Pb in the vacuoles of the root cells to render it of University of Ilorin, Nigeria). The International Journal non-toxic, which may be a natural protective response of this of Engineering and Science, 2(12): 16-27. plant (Shah et al., 2010; Kumar and Chopra, 2014). There- Alade, G.A., and Ojoawo, S.O. (2009). Purification of domestic fore, the tolerant mechanism of plants appears to be compart- sewage by water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes). Interna- tional Journal of Environmental Technology and mentalization of metals ions, i.e. sequestration in the vacuolar Management, 10(3): 286-294. compartment, which excludes them from celular sites where Alves, E., Cardoso, L.R., Scavroni, J., Ferreira, L.C., Boaro, processes such as cell division and respiration occur, thus C.S.F., and Cataneo, A.C. (2003). Physiological and proving to be as effective protective mechanism (Singh et al., biochemical evaluations of water hyacinth (Eichhornia 2012; Kumar and Chopra, 2014). The findings are in crassipes), cultivated with excessive nutrient levels. Planta accordance with Kumar and Chopra (2014) who reported the Daninha, Vicosa-MG, 21: 27-35. translocation of Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Pb and Zn in the root, Anonymous (1980). Official methods of analysis. Association of shoot, leaves and fruits of French bean (Phaseolus vulgaris Official Analytical Communities. Washington D.C. L.) cultivated in sewage sludge amended soil. Zhu et al. APHA (2012). Standard methods for the examination of water and waste water, 21st Edn. American Public Health Associa- (1999) also reported that water hyacinth showed significant tion, Washington pp 2462. accumulation of various trace metals Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn and Chaturvedi, R.K., and Sankar, K. (2006). Laboratory manual for Zn from a wetland of China. the physico-chemical analysis of soil, water and plant. Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun. Conclusions Dar, S.H., Kumawat, D.M., Singh, N., and Wani, K.A. (2011). The present study concluded that pulp and paper mill Sewage treatment potential of water hyacinth (Eichhornia effluent collected from ASP based STP was crassipes). Research Journal Environmental Science, 5(4): 3- 377-385. considerably loaded with TDS, EC, BOD, COD, TKN, PO4 , + + 2+ 2+ El-Gendy, A.S., Biswas, N., and Bewtra, J.K. (2004). Growth of Na , K , Ca , Mg , Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb, Zn, SPC and water hyacinth in municipal landfill leachate with different MPN. Phytoremediation treatments of the pulp and paper mill pH. Environment & Technology, 25: 833-840. effluent using T. natans and E. crassipes significantly Fox, L.J., Struik, P.C., Appleton, B.L., Rule, J.H. (2008). Nitro- (P<0.05/P<0.01/P<0.001) removed the contents of TDS, EC, gen phytoremediation by water hyacinth (Eichhornia cras- 3- + + 2+ 2+ BOD, COD, TKN, PO4 , Na , K , Ca , Mg , Cd, Cr, Cu, sipes (Mart.) Solms). Water Air and Soil Pollution, 194: 199 Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb, Zn, SPC and MPN of the pulp and paper mill -207. effluent. The fresh weight, dry weight, chlorophyll content Jayaweera, M.W., and Kasturiarachchi, J.C. (2004). Removal of and LAI of T. natans and E. crassipes was recorded to be nitrogen and phosphorus from industrial wastewaters by significantly (P<0.05/P<0.01) different after phytoremediation phytoremediation using water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms). Water Science and Technology, experiments at different days. The most contents of Cd, Cu, 50: 217-225. Fe, Mn and Zn was translocated in the leaves of T. natans and Kulkarni, B.V., Ranade, S.V., Wasif, A.L. (2008). Phytoremedia- E. crassipes during the phytoremediation experiments where- tion of textile effluent by using water hyacinth: A polishing as, the least contents of Cr, Ni and Pb was translocated in the treatment. International Journal of Environment Manage- leaves of T. natans and E. crassipes. The contents of crude ment and Technology, 5(1): 18-27. protein, crude fiber, total carbohydrates, total ash and total fat Kumar, V., Chopra A.K., Pathak, C., and Pathak, S. (2010). of T. natans and E. crassipes were observed in the order of Agro-potentiality of paper mill effluent on the characteristics total carbohydrates > crude protein > crude fiber > total ash > of Trigonella foenum-graecum L. (Fenugreek) New York total fat after phytoremediation experiments using pulp and Science Journal, 3(5): 68-77 Kumar, V., and Chopra, A.K. (2011). Alterations in paper mill effluent which is in the conformity of the presence physico-chemical characteristics of soil after irrigation with of various macro and micro nutrients in the pulp and paper paper mill effluent. Journal of Chemical and Pharmaceuti- mill effluent. Therefore T. natans and E. crassipes can be cal Research, 3(6):7-22 used for the effective treatment of the paper mill effluent. Kumar, V., and Chopra, A.K. (2012). Effects of paper mill effluent irrigation on agronomical characteristics of Vigna radi- Funding ata (L.) in two different seasons. Communications in Soil The University Grants Commission, New Delhi, India is Science and Plant Analysis, 43(16):2142-2166. Kumar, V., and Chopra, A.K. (2013a). Ferti-irrigational acknowledged to provide Meritorious Fellowship effect of paper mill effluent on agronomical characteristics (F.7-70/2007-2009 BSR) to VK. of Abelmoschus esculentus L. (Okra). Pakistan Journal of Open Access: This is open access article distributed under the Biological Sciences, 16 (22): 1426-1437. terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Kumar, V., and Chopra, A.K. (2013b). Distribution, enrichment and accumulation of heavy metals in soil and Trigonella License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and foenum-graecum L. (Fenugreek) after fertigation with paper reproduction in any medium, provided the original author(s) mill effluent, Open Journal of Metals, 3: 8-20. and the source are credited. Kumar, V., and Chopra, A.K. (2014). Ferti-irrigation effect of paper mill effluent on agronomical practices of Phaseolus REFERENCES vulgaris (L.) in two different seasons. Communications in Ajibade, F.O., Adeniran, K.A., and Egbuna, C.K. (2013). Soil Science and Plant Analysis, 45: 2151–217 Phytoremediation efficiencies of water hyacinth in Kumar, V., and Chopra, A.K. (2015). Fertigation with agro-residue removing heavy metals in domestic sewage (A Case Study based paper mill effluent on a high yield spinach variety. International Journal of Vegetable Science, 21(1): 69-97.

Vinod Kumar et al./Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 1 (1): 13-21 (2016) 21

Kumar, V., Chopra, A.K. (2016). Reduction of pollution load of Pilon-Smits, E.A.H., and Pilon, M. (2002). Phytoremediation of paper mill effluent by phytoremediation technique using metals using transgenic plants. Critical Reviews in Plant water caltrop (Trapa natans L.). Cogent Environmental Sciences, 21: 439-456. Science, 2: 1153216. Pollard, A.J., Powell, K.D., Harper, F.A., and Smith, J.A.C. Kutty, S.R.M., Ngatenah, S.N.I., Isa, M.H., and Malakahmad, A. (2002). The genetic basis for metal hyper accumulation in (2009). Nutrients removal from municipal wastewater plants. Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences, 21: 539-566. treatment plant effluent using Eichhorina crassipes. World Porra, R.J. (2002). The chequered history of the development and Academic Science Engineering and Technology, 60: 826- use of simultaneous equations for the accurate determination 831. of chlorophylls a and b. Photosynthesis Research, 73: 149- Letachowicz, B., Krawczyk, J., and Klink, A. (2006). 156. Accumulation of heavy metals in organs of Typha latifolia. Raskin, I., and Ensley, B.D. (2000). Phytoremediation of toxic Polish Journal of Environmental Studies, 15(2a): 407-409. metals: Using plants to clean up the environment. John Liao, S.W., and Chang, W.L. (2004). Heavy metal phytoremedia- Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York. pp 53-70. tion by water hyacinth at constructed wetlands in Taiwan. Rohit, A., Kale, Vinayak, Lokhande, H., and Avinash, B. (2015). Journal of Aquatic Plant Management, 42: 60-68. Investigation of chromium phytoremediation and tolerance Luqman, M., Butt, T., Tanvir, A., Atiq, M., Hussan, M.Z.Y., and capacity of a weed, Portulaca oleracea L. in a hydroponic Yaseen, M. (2013). Phytoremediation of polluted water by system. Water and Environment Journal, 10: 1111-12106. trees: A review. International Journal of Agricultural Shah, R.A., Kumawat, D.M., Singh, N., Wani, K.A. (2010). Research and Reviews, 1(2): 022-025. Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) as a remediation tool Mahmood, Q., Zheng, P., Islam, E., Hayat, Y., Hassan, M.J., for dye effluent pollution. International Journal Science and Jilani, G., and Jin, R.C. (2005). Lab scale studies on water Nature, 1(2):172-178. hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes Marts Solms) for Singh, D., Tiwari, A., and Gupta, R. (2012). Phytoremediation of biotreatment of textile wastewater. Caspian Journal of lead from wastewater using aquatic plants. Journal of Environmental Sciences, 3(2): 83-88. Agricultural Technology, 8(1): 1-11. Mojiri, A. (2011). Phytoremediation of heavy metals from Sooknah, R.D., and Wilkie, A.C. (2004). Nutrient removal by municipal wastewater by Typha domingensis. African floating aquatic macrophytes cultured in anaerobically Journal of Microbiology Research, 6(3): 643-647. digested flushed dairy manure wastewater. Ecological Padmapriya, G., and Murugesan, A.G. (2012). Phytoremediation Engineering, (22): 27- 42. of various heavy metals (Cu, Pb and Hg) from aqueous Zhu, Y.L., Zayed, A.M., Quian, J.H., DeSouza, M., Terry, N. solution using water hyacinth and its toxicity on plants. (1999). Phytoaccumulation of trace elements by wetland International Journal of Environmental Biology, 2(3): plants: II. water hyacinth. Journal of Environmental Quality, 97-103. 28: 339-344.

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH ARTICLE Quantitative evaluation of essential oils for the identification of chemical constituents by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry

Ashish Uniyala*, Sachin N. Tikara, Om P. Agrawalc, Devanathan Sukumarana and Vijay Veerb aVector Management Division, Defence R & D Establishment, Gwalior-474002 (Madhya Pradesh), INDIA bDefence Research Laboratory, Tezpur - 784001 (Assam), INDIA cSchool of Studies in Zoology, Jiwaji University, Gwalior-474 011 (Madhya Pradesh), INDIA *Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected]

ARTICLE HISTORY ABSTRACT Received: 18 Sept. 2016 Essential oils are greatly strenuous aromatic materials having various constituents. They are used in Revised received: 22 Sept. 2016 the preparation of various precious substances like making perfumes, medicines, cleaning agent, Accepted: 25 Sept. 2016 and aromatic treatment etc. The purpose of the present investigation was to identify the major and minor chemical constituent in eighteen essential oils viz., amyris, basil, black pepper, camphor, Keywords catnip, chamomile, cinnamon, citronella, dill, frankincense, galbanum, jasmine, juniper, lavender, Chemical constituents peppermint, rosemary, tagetes and thyme with the help of gas chromatography /mass spectrometry Essential oils (GC/MS). In eighteen essential oils the identified compounds studied by GC-MS contain various Gas chromatography types of high and low molecular weights of chemical ingredients. Therefore, GC/MS efficiently and Mass Spectrometry speedily screened all the volatile elements present in the essential oils for the quantitative use of these identified chemical constituents for various reasons. ©2016 Agriculture and Environmental Science Academy

Citation of this article: Uniyal, A., Tikar, S.N., Agrawal, O.P., Sukumaran, D. and Veer, V. (2016). Quantitative evaluation of essential oils for the identification of chemical constituents by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science, 1(1): 22-36.

INTRODUCTION climates. The same plant grown in different regions and under different conditions can produce essential oils of Essential oils are natural secondary plant products contain widely diverse characteristics, which are known as highly volatile liquid contain many chemicals. Most of the "chemotypes". Common thyme (Thymus vulgaris) for essential oils grouped into major chemical categories like example produces several chemotypes depending on the alkaloids, phenolics and terpenoids are major constituents conditions of its growth and dominant constituent, notably of essential oils. Essential oils are extracted from various the citral or linalool types, and the thymol or carvacrol parts of plants with the help of distillation methods such as type. It is therefore important not only to know the botani- hydro distillation, steam distillation hydro-steam distilla- cal name of the plant from which an oil has been produced, tion and solvent extraction. A variety of biological activi- but also its place of origin and main constituents which are ties including behavioural responses have been recorded concerned to define its qualities (Lawless, 1992). towards such essential oils in different living organisms. Essential oils are extracted from almost every conceivable The response of biological agents comprises all activities plant part, such as flowers like rose and chamomile, leaves that these volatile compounds or their mixtures exert on as peppermint and rosemary, fruits of orange and lemon, humans, animals, and other plants (Marcelle Gonny et al., seeds as in coriander and fennel, grasses like lemongrass 2006; Suleiman Afsharypuor and Nahid Azarbayejany, and ginger grass, roots and rhizomes as ginger, wood of 2006; Baser and Buchbauer, 2010). cedar wood and sandalwood, bark like in cinnamon, gum The important oil producing plants are represented in more as in frankincense (Tisserand, 1990). There are also essen- than thirty families of plants, comprising some ninety tial oil from bulbs like garlic, dried flower buds like clove, species. The majority of spices (cardamom, clove, nutmeg, and from stems or twig like clove stem. Usually they are ginger etc.) originate from tropical countries. Conversely liquid but can also be solid or semisolid, according to the majority of herbs (bay, cumin, dill, marjoram, fennel, temperature such as rose. The majority of essential oils are lavender, rosemary, thyme, etc.) grow in temperate clear or pale yellow in color, although a few are deeply

23 Ashish Uniyal et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 1 (1): 22-36 (2016) colored like German chamomile (blue). They are damaged ment used to analyze different chemical components by the effects of light, heat, air and moisture, and should present in essential oil. GC/MS is a method that combines always be kept in a cool environment, in tightly Stoppard the features of gas-liquid chromatography and mass spec- dark glass bottles. Essential oils are dissolved in pure trometry to identify different substances within a sample. alcohol, fats and are not soluble in water (Tisserand, 1990; The identification of component in 23 essential oils was Suleiman Afsharypuor and Nahid Azarbayejany, 2006). analyzed by gas chromatography/ mass spectrometry (GC/ The chemical constituents present in the different essential MS). GC/MS analysis of the oil was carried out on an oils are used in perfumes, cosmetics, soaps, Agilent gas chromatograph (2880A) with a (30 m × for flavoring foods, drinks and household cleaning prod- 0.32mm × 0.25 μ ID) equipped with an Agilent mass selec- ucts and various essential oils have been used in medical tive detector in the electron impact mode (Ionization ener- formulations. Keeping above in view, the present investi- gy: 70 eV). Helium gas was used as the carrier gas at con- gation was carried out this study, to determine the various stant flow rate 2 ml/minute and an injection volume of 1 μl chemical constituents present in the different essential oils was employed (Split ratio of 100:1) injector temperature using gas chromatography /mass spectrometry (GC/MS) 250°C; ion-source temperature 260°C, capillary: 30 m × and identified with their retention time and molecular 230μm, film thickness 0.25 μm, average velocity 44.6 cm/ weight. s, pressure 1.9 psi, purge flow 3 ml/minute, purge time 0.20 minute. The oven temperature was programmed from MATERIALS AND METHODS 50 to 325°C (isothermal for 2 minutes) with an increase of Collection of essential oils: Eighteen essential oils namely 5°C/minute to 160°C, then 20°C/minute to 260°C, equili- amyris (Amyris balsamifera), basil (Ocimum basilicum), bration time 1 minute, ramp 5°C/min, ending with a 30 black pepper (Piper nigrum), camphor (Cinnamomum minutes isothermal at 290°C. Total GC running time was camphora), catnip (Nepeta cataria), chamomile (Anthemis 30 minutes. The volume of injected specimen of 1μl of nobilis), cinnamon (Cinnamamomus zeylanicum), citronella diluted oil in methanol solution (1%). (Cymbopogon winterianus), dill (Anethum graveolens), Identification of chemical constituents: The chemical frankincense (Boswellia carteri), galbanum (Ferula galba- constituents of essential oils were identified in comparison niflua), jasmine (Jasminum grandiflorum), juniper (Juniperus with their retention indices. Identification of components communis), lavender (Lavendula angustifolia), peppermint of essential oil was based on retention indices (RI) and (Mentha piperita), rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis), computer matching with the PBM libraries. tagetes (Tagetes minuta), thyme (Thymus serpyllum) RESULTS AND DISCUSSION were obtained from the authentic source of trade/ Fragrance and Flavour Development Center (FFDC), Essential oils are highly concentrated aromatic substances Kannuj (Uttar Pradesh) for the identification of essential found in plants contain numbers of organic constituents oils and chemical constituents. including hormones, vitamin and other natural elements. Gas chromatography /Mass spectrometry analysis: Gas Therefore, it is important to identification the components of chromatography /mass spectrometry are standard equip- essential oils using gas chromatography /mass spectrome-

Table 1. Major chemical components of different essential oils identified by GC/MS. Oil Chemical R.T. IUPAC Name Molecular M.W. Qual. Structure Name Formula %

4a,5-dimethyl-3-prop-1-en-2-yl- eremophilene 20.917 C H 204 90 2,3,4,5,6,7-hexahydro-1H-naphthalene 15 24

1,1,3a,7-tetramethyl-1a,2,3,3a,4,5,6,7b- β-maaliene 22.593 C H 204 95 octahydro-1H-cyclopropa(a)naphthalene 15 24

2-Isopropyl-5-methyl-9-methylene- β-amorphene 22.666 C H 204 93 bicyclo-1-decene(4.4.0) 15 24

4-isopropyl-1,6- Amyris β- cadinene 22.824 C H 204 97 dimethyldecahydronaphthalene 15 24

1,1,7,7a-tetramethyl-2,3,5,6,7,7b- (+)-calarene 23.296 C H 204 97 hexahydro-1aH-cyclopropa(a)naphthalene 15 24

2,5,5,8a-tetramethyl-1,4,4a,6,7,8- driminol 24.928 C H O 222 94 hexahydronaphthalen-1-yl) 15 26

Ashish Uniyal et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 1 (1): 22-36 (2016) 24

Table 1. Contd.

2-Methyl-2-vinyl-5-(1-hydroxy-1- linalool oxide 8.483 C H O 170 80 methylethyl)tetrahydrofuran 10 18 2

2-Methyl-2-vinyl-5-(1-hydroxy-1- linalool oxide 8.926 C10H18O2 170 90 methylethyl)tetrahydrofuran

Basil linalool 9.277 3, 7-dimethylocta-1, 6-dien-3-ol C10H18O 154 93

estragole 11.949 1-allyl-4-methoxybenzene C10H12O 148 98

4-methyl-1-propan-2-ylbicyclo(3.1.0) α-thujene 4.854 C H 136 93 hex-3-ene 10 16

6,6-Dimethyl-2-methylenebicyclo β-pinene 5.007 C H 136 97 (3.1.1)heptanes 10 16

4-methylene-1-(1-methylethyl)bicycle sabinene 5.91 C H 136 97 (3.1.0)hexane 10 16

6,6-Dimethyl-2-methylenebicyclo β-pinene 6.019 C10H16 136 97 (3.1.1)heptanes

Black

Pepper δ -3-carene 6.781 3,7,7-trimethylbicyclo(4.1.0)hept-3-ene C10H16 136 97

1-Methyl-4-(1-methylethenyl)- DL-limonene 7.371 C H 136 99 cyclohexene 10 16

P-mentha 1- 1-methyl-4-propan-2- 15.598 C H 136 91 ,4(8)-dine ylidenecyclohexene 10 16

8-isopropyl-1,3-dimethyltricyclo (-)-α-copaene 16.663 C H 204 99 (4.4.0.02,7)dec-3-ene 15 24

2,4-Disopropenyl-1-methyl-1- β-elemene 17.005 C H 204 99 Venylcyclohexane 15 24

β- caryo- 4, 11, 11-trimethyl-8-methylene-bicyclo 17.733 C H 204 99 phyllene (7.2.0) undec-4-ene 15 24.

25 Ashish Uniyal et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 1 (1): 22-36 (2016)

Table 1. Contd.

2,6-dimethyl-6-(4-methylpent-3-en α-bergamotene 18.103 C H 204 91 -1-yl)bicycle(3.1.1)hept-2-ene 15 24

2,6,6,9-Tetramethyl-1,4-8- α-humulene 18.63 C H 204 97 cycloundecatriene 15 24

1-Methyl-4-(6-methyl-5-hepten-2- curcumene 19.308 C H 204 96 yl)benzene 15 22

β-selinene 19.447 Eudesma-4(14),11-diene C15H24 204 99

Black Pepper α-selinene 19.623 Eudesma-3,11-diene C15H24 204 97

1-Methyl-4-(6-methylhepta-1,5- β-bisabolene 19.658 C H 204 97 dien-2-yl)cyclohex-1-ene 15 24

4,5-dimethyl-3-prop-1-en-2-yl- eremophilene 20.942 2,3,4,5,6,7-hexahydro-1H- C15H24 204 90 naphthalene

caryophyllene 4,12,12-trimethyl-9-methylene-5- 21.676 C H O 220 94 oxide oxatricyclo(8.2.0.04,6)dodecane 15 24

ethylbenzene 3.16 Ethylbenzene C H 106 94 8 10

m-xylol 3.765 1,3-Dimethylbenzol C8H10 106 97

O-xylene 4.17 1,2-Dimethylbenzol C8H10 106 97

Camphor 2,2-dimethyl-3-methylene-bicyclo camphene 5.366 C H 136 97 (2.2.1)heptanes 10 16

3,7,7-trimethylbicyclo(4.1.0)hept-3 δ -3-carane 5.549 C H 138 58 -ene 10 16

2,2,3-Trimethylbicyclo(2.2.1) isocamphane 5.865 C H 138 97 heptanes 10 18

norbornane 6.045 Bicyclo(2.2.1)heptanes C7H12 138 96

Ashish Uniyal et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 1 (1): 22-36 (2016) 26

Table 1. Contd.

p-menthane-3,8- 2-(1-Hydroxy-1-methylethyl)-5- 6.364 C10H20O2 140 74 diol methylcyclohexanol

1-Methyl-4-(1-methylethyl) p-cimene 7.198 C H 134 97 benzene 10 14

1,3,3-Trimethylbicyclo(2.2.1) fencone 8.944 C H O 154 95 heptan-2-one 10 16

Camphor

acetaldehyde 9.422 Ethanal C2H4O 152 90

1,7,7-Trimethylbicyclo(2.2.1) camphor 10.547 C H O 152 98 heptan-2-one 10 16

2-methyl-4- 15.828 2-Methyl-4-nitrosoresorcinol C H NO 153 50 nitrosoresorcinol 7 7 3

dimethyl benzene-1,2- dimethyl phalate 18.508 C H O 194 94 dicarboxylate 10 10 4

linalool 9.268 3, 7-dimethylocta-1, 6-dien-3-ol C10H18O 154 91

β-citronellol 12.794 3,7-Dimethyloct-6-en-1-ol C H O 156 98 10 20

geraniol 13.434 3,7-Dimethyl-2,6-octadien-1-ol C10H18O 154 94

neral 14.012 3,7-dimethylocta-2,6-dienal C10H16O 152 49

Catnip 2,6-Octadine,2,6- 15.816 2,6-Octadine,2,6-Dimethyl C H 138 92 Dimethyl 10 18

2,6-Octadine,2,6- 16.058 2,6-Octadine,2,6-Dimethyl C H 138 98 Dimethyl 10 18

butanoic acid 16.282 Butanoic acid C4H8O2 224 91

4-cyclopropyl 16.702 4-Cyclopropyl Cyclohexane C9H16 112 58 cyclohexane

27 Ashish Uniyal et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 1 (1): 22-36 (2016)

Table 1. Contd.

2,6-Octadien-1-ol, 3,7-dimethyl-, geraniol ester 16.807 196 91 acetate C10H18O

4, 11, 11-trimethyl-8-methylene- caryophyllene 17.718 C15H24 204 99 bicyclo (7.2.0) undec-4-ene

Catnip 1- 19.459 Nitrocyclohexane C6H11NO2 127 50 nitrocyclohexene

β-caryophyllene 4,12,12-trimethyl-9-methylene-5 21.668 220 94 oxide oxatricyclo(8.2.0.04,6)dodecane C15H24O

tricyclene 4.768 1,4,7,10-tetrazacyclododecane C10H16 136 50

2, 6, 6-Trimethyl bicycle (3.1.1) α-pinene 5.003 C H 136 86 hept-2-ene 10 16

2,2-dimethyl-3-methylene-bicyclo camphene 5.366 C H 136 94 (2.2.1)heptanes 10 16

6,6-Dimethyl-2-methylenebicyclo β-pinene 6.016 C H 136 94 (3.1.1)heptanes 10 16

Chamo- mile 1-Methyl-4-(1-methylethyl) cymene 7.193 C10H14 134 87 benzene

1,3,3-Trimethyl-2-oxabicyclo 1,8-cineole 7.428 C H O 154 98 (2,2,2)octane 10 18

3,7,7-trimethylbicyclo(4.1.0)hept- δ -3-carene 7.781 C H 136 50 3-ene 10 16

3,7-Dimethyl-2,6-octadien-1-yl neryl acetate 9.274 C H O 196 53 acetate 12 20 2

4-Methyl-1-(1-methylethyl)-1,3- α- terpinene 11.882 C H 136 60 cyclohexadiene 10 16

3,7,11-trimethyldodeca-1,3,6,10- β-farnesene 18.633 C H 204 96 tetraene 15 24

1,6-cyclodecadine 19.252 1,6-Cyclodecadiene C10H16 204 94

4-[(1Z)-1,5-Dimethyl-1,4- Cis α-bisabolene 19.784 hexadienyl]-1-methyl-1- C15H24 204 90 cyclohexene

Ashish Uniyal et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 1 (1): 22-36 (2016) 28

Table 1. Contd.

3,7,11-trimethyldodeca- α-franesene 19.892 C H 204 91 1,3,6,10-tetraene 15 24

Trans- caryo- 4,11,11-trimethyl-8-methylene- 19.948 C H 204 72 phyllene bicycle(7.2.0)undec-4-ene 15 24 Chamomile 2,6,6,9-Tetramethyltricyclo α-longipinene 20.01 C H 204 64 (5.4.0.02.8)undec-9-ene 15 24

4-[(1Z)-1,5-Dimethyl-1,4- Cis α-bisabolene 20.73 hexadienyl]-1-methyl-1- C15H24 204 93 cyclohexene

cinnamal 13.966 2-Propenal, 3-phenyl C15H20O 132 98

5-[(1E)-Prop-1-en-1-yl]-1,3- β-isosafrole 14.403 C H O2 162 49 benz 10 10

2-methoxy-4-prop-2- p-eugenol 16.054 enylphenol C10H12O2 164 98

4, 11, 11-trimethyl-8- β-caryophyllene 17.721 methylene-bicyclo (7.2.0) un- C H 204 90 15 24. dec-4-ene

cinnamaldehyde 18.191 (2E)-3-phenylprop-2-enal C9H8O 230 93

Cinnamon

2-propen-1-ol 18.446 2-Propen-1-ol C3H6O 176 53

2,6,6,9-Tetramethyl-1,4-8- α-humulene 18.621 C H 204 39 cycloundecatriene 15 24

1-Methyl-4-(1-methylethenyl)- DL-limonene 7.306 C H 136 99 cyclohexene 10 16

1-Methyl-4-(propan-2-ylidene) α-terpinolene 9.297 C H 136 91 cyclohex-1-ene 10 16

Citronella

5-methyl-2-prop-1-en-2- isopulegol 10.602 C10H18O 154 98 ylcyclohexan-1-ol

citronella 10.712 3,7-dimethyloct-6-enal C10H18O 154 98

29 Ashish Uniyal et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 1 (1): 22-36 (2016)

Table 1. Contd.

2,2-dimethyl-3-methylene- camphene 10.859 C H 136 91 bicyclo(2.2.1)heptanes 10 16

β-citronellol 12.799 3,7-Dimethyloct-6-en-1-ol C10H20O 156 98

3,7-Dimethyl-2,6-octadien- geraniol 13.44 C H O 154 87 1-ol 10 18

3,7,11-trimethyldodeca- farnesol L 15.631 C H O 222 49 Citronella 2,6,10-trien-1-ol 15 26

geranyl propio- 2,6-Octadien-1-ol, 3,7- 16.803 C H 210 90 nate dimethyl-, propanoate 15 24

2,4-Disopropenyl-1-methyl- β-elemene 17.001 C H 204 95 1-Venylcyclohexane 15 24

4,7-dimethyl-1-(propan-2- δ -cadinene 20.175 yl)-1,2,3,5,6,8a- C15H24 204 99 hexahydronaphthalene

3,3,7-trimethyl- 8- (+)-longifolene 20.928 methylenetricyclo- (5.4.0.0) C15H24 204 95 undecane

2, 6, 6-Trimethyl bicycle α-pinene 4.981 C H 136 95 (3.1.1) hept-2-ene 10 16

7-Methyl-3-methylene-1,6- β-myrcene 5.856 C H 134 94 octadiene 10 16 1-methyl-2-propan-2- O-cymol 7.177 ylbenzene C10H14 134 97

1-Methyl-4-(1-

DL-limonene 7.298 methylethenyl)- C H 136 99 10 16 cyclohexene

Dill 2-Methyl-1- 2-methylprop-1- propenyl, ben- 8.928 C H 132 97 enylbenzene 10 12 zene

6-methyl-3-prop-1-en-2-yl- limonene 10.264 7-oxabicyclo(4.1.0) C H O 152 76 epoxide 10 16 heptanes

6-methyl-3-prop-1-en-2-yl-

limonene oxide 10.527 7-oxabicyclo(4.1.0) C H O 134 78 10 16 heptanes

(2R,5R)-5-Isopropenyl-2- (+)- 11.95 C H O 152 99 methylcyclohexanone 10 16 dihydrocarvone

cyclohexanone 12.124 Cyclohexanone C6H10O 152 98

Ashish Uniyal et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 1 (1): 22-36 (2016) 30

Table 1. Contd.

2-Methyl-5-(1- carveol 12.524 methylethenyl)-2- C H O 152 55 10 16 cyclohexen-1-ol

5-Isopropenyl-2-methyl-2- (+)-carvone 13.211 cyclohexenone, p-Mentha- C10H14O 150 97 Dill 6,8-dien-2-one

2-Isopropyl-5- thymol 14.489 C H O 150 95 methylphenol 10 14

1-Allyl-2,3-dimethoxy-4,5- dillapiole 22.536 C H O 222 97 (methylenedioxy)benzene 12 14 4

4-Methyl-1-(propan-2-yl) α-thujene 4.85 C H O 134 93 bicycle(3.1.0)hexan-3-one 10 16

2, 6, 6-Trimethyl bicycle α-pinene 5.006 C H 136 97 (3.1.1) hept-2-ene 10 16

4-methylene-1-(1- sabinene 5.907 methylethyl) bicycle(3.1.0) C10H16 136 96 hexane

6,6-Dimethyl-2- β-pinene 6.06 methylenebicyclo(3.1.1) C10H16 136 96 heptanes

3,7-dimethylocta-1,3,6- β-ocimene 6.312 C10H16 136 45 triene

1-Isopropyl-4-methyl-1,4- γ-terpinene 6.778 C10H16 136 87 cyclohexadiene

1-Methyl-4-(1-methylethyl) p-cimene 7.197 C10H14 134 90 benzene

1-Methyl-4-(1- Frankin- DL-limonene 7.306 C H 136 93 methylethenyl)-cyclohexene 10 16 cense 2,4a,8,8-Tetramethyl- 1,1a,4,4a,5,6,7,8- thujopsene 8.765 C H 204 38 octahydrocyclopropa(d) 15 24 naphthalene

Methyl-1-(propan-2-yl) α-thujone 9.74 C H O 134 90 bicycle(3.1.0)hexan-3-one 10 16

p-allylanisole 11.934 1-allyl-4-methoxybenzene C10H12O 148 96

31 Ashish Uniyal et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 1 (1): 22-36 (2016)

Table 1. Contd.

6,7,7-trimethyl-2,3,4,5- tricyclene 4.755 tetrahydro-1H-tricyclo C10H16 136 96 (2.2.1.02,6)heptanes

2, 6, 6-Trimethyl bicycle α-pinene 4.991 C H 136 97 (3.1.1)hept-2-ene 10 16

2,2-dimethyl-3-methylene- camphene 5.357 C H 136 98 bicyclo(2.2.1)heptanes 10 16

1-methyl-3-propan-2- β-cimene 5.856 C H 134 94 ylbenzene 10 14

6,6-Dimethyl-2- β-pinene 6.005 methylenebicyclo (3.1.1) hep- C10H16 136 97 tane

3,7,7-trimethylbicyclo(4.1.0) δ -3-carene 6.765 C10H16 136 97 hept-3-ene Galbanum

o-cimene 7.182 1-Menthyl-2-isopropylbenzene C10H14 134 97

1-Methyl-4-(1-methylethenyl)- DL-limonene 7.298 C H 136 99 cyclohexene 10 16

6,6-Dimethyl-2- pinocarveol 10.355 methylenebicyclo(3.1.1)heptan C10H16O 152 56 -3-ol

mentha-1,4,8- 1-methyl-4-prop-1-en-2- 10.527 C H 134 78 triene ylcyclohexa-1 10 14

6,6-Dimethylbicyclo(3.1.1) (-) myrtenol 11.895 hept-2-ene-2-methanol C10H16O 152 97

Jasmine α-toluenol 7.496 Phenylmethenol C H O 108 97 7 8

1-Methyl-4-(propan-2-ylidene) α-terpinolene 9.227 C H 136 90 cyclohex-1-ene 10 16

eugenol 16.5 4-Allyl-2-methoxyphenol C H O 164 98 10 12 2

Ashish Uniyal et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 1 (1): 22-36 (2016) 32

Table 1. Contd.

ascabin 24.899 Benzyl benzoate C14H12O2 212 98

palmatic acid 26.2772 hexadecanoic acid C16H32O2 270 96

Jasmine 3,7,11,15-Tetramethyl-1- isophytol 26.417 hexadecen-3-ol C20H40O 296 86

3,7,11,15- phytol 27.407 C H O 290 43 tetramethyl-2-hexadecen-1-ol 20 40

7,11,15-trimethyl-3- neophytadiene 27.937 C H 278 90 methylidenehexadec-1-ene 20 38

p- ocimene 4.838 3,7-Dimethyl-1,3,6-Octatriene C10H16 138 83

2, 6, 6-Trimethyl bicycle (3.1.1) α-pinene 5.00 C H 136 97 hept-2-ene 10 16

4-methylene-1-(1-methylethyl) sabinene 5.898 C H 136 91 bicycle(3.1.0)hexane 10 16 Juniper 6,6-Dimethyl-2- β-pinene 6.011 methylenebicyclo(3.1.1) C10H16 136 97 heptanes

1-Isopropyl-4-methyl-1,4- γ-terpinene 6.769 C H 136 90 cyclohexadiene 10 16

1-Methyl-4-(1-methylethenyl)- DL-limonene 7.309 C H 136 98 cyclohexene 10 16

1-1-methyl-3-propan-2- β-Cymene 7.188 C H 134 87 ylbenzene 10 14

6-methyl-3-prop-1-en-2-yl-7- limonene oxide 9.199 oxabicyclo(4.1.0)heptane C10H16O 152 53 (Click)

para- mentha- 1-methyl-4-prop-1-en-2- 9.505 C H 134 22 Lavender triene ylcyclohexa-1,3-diene 10 14

1,7,7-Trimethylbicyclo(2.2.1) camphor 10.536 C H O 152 72 heptan-2-one 10 16

benzyl acetate 10.978 Benzyl acetate C9H10O2 150 64

3,7,7-trimethylbicyclo(4.1.0) δ -3-carene 13.395 C H 136 94 hept-3-ene 10 16

33 Ashish Uniyal et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 1 (1): 22-36 (2016)

Table 1. Contd.

2,2-dimethyl-3-methylene- camphene 10.597 C H 136 93 bicyclo(2.2.1)heptanes 10 16

cyclohexanone 10.794 Cyclohexanone C6H10O 154 98

2-Isopropyl-5- DL-menthol 11.182 C H O 156 91 methylcyclohexanol 10 20

2-Isopropyl-5- Peppermint L-(-) menthol 11.419 methylcyclohexanol, 5-Methyl-2 C10H20O 156 91 -(1-methylethyl)cyclohexanol

3-p-menthanol 11.685 3-p-Menthanol C10H20O 156 91

norcarane 14.468 Bicyclo(4,1,0)heptanes C7H12 136 96

2, 6, 6-Trimethyl bicycle (3.1.1) α-pinene 5.004 C H 136 97 hept-2-ene 10 16

2,2-dimethyl-3-methylene- camphene 5.37 C10H16 136 98 bicyclo(2.2.1)heptane

6,6-Dimethyl-2- Rosemary β-pinene 6.011 methylenebicyclo(3.1.1) C10H16 136 96 heptanes

2,6-dimethyl-3-propan-2- cymol 7.197 C10H14 134 95 ylpheno

1-Methyl-4-(1-methylethenyl)- DL-limonene 7.31 C H 136 99 cyclohexene 10 16

1,3,3-Trimethyl-2-oxabicyclo 1,8-cineole 7.441 C H O 154 99 (2,2,2)octane 10 18

Methyl-4-(propan-2-ylidene) α-terpinolene 9.274 C H 136 78 cyclohex-1-ene 10 16

1,7,7-Trimethylbicyclo(2.2.1) camphor 10.55 C10H16O 152 98 heptan-2-one

Ashish Uniyal et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 1 (1): 22-36 (2016) 34

Table 1. Contd.

4,7,7-trimethylbicyclo(2.2.1) isobroneol 10.993 C H O 154 86 heptan-3-ol 10 16

2, 6, 6-Trimethyl bicycle (3.1.1) α-pinene 11.892 C H 136 87 hept-2-ene 10 16 Rosemary

Bicyclo(2.2.1)heptan-2-ol, 1,7,7 pichtosine 14.359 C H O 196 91 -trimethyl-, acetate 12 20 2

β- 4,12,12-trimethyl-9-methylene- caryo- 21.667 5-oxatricyclo(8.2.0.04,6) C H O 220 87 phyllene 15 24 dodecane oxide

2, 6, 6-Trimethyl bicycle α-pinene 4.999 C H 136 95 (3.1.1) hept-2-ene 10 16

6,6-Dimethyl-2- β-pinene 6.001 methylenebicyclo(3.1.1) C10H16 136 94 heptanes

1-Methyl-4-(1-methylethyl) p-cymene 7.188 C H 134 86 benzene 10 14

DL- 1-Methyl-4-(1-methylethenyl)- 7.311 C H 136 99 limonene cyclohexene 10 16

1,3,3-Trimethyl-2-oxabicyclo 1,8-cineole 7.428 C H O 154 52 (2,2,2)octane 10 18

Tagetes

dihydro- 7.959 2,6-Dimethyloct-7-en-4-one C10H18O 154 78 tagetone

linalool 2-Methyl-2-vinyl-5-(1-hydroxy 8.483 C10H18O2 170 72 oxide trans -1-methylethyl)tetrahydrofuran

furfuryl 8.921 2-Furanmenthanol C H O 170 49 alcohol 5 6 2

3,7,7-trimethylbicyclo(4.1.0) δ -3-carene 9.274 C H 136 87 hept-3-ene 10 16

35 Ashish Uniyal et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 1 (1): 22-36 (2016)

Table 1. Contd.

2, 6, 6-Trimethyl bicycle (3.1.1) α-pinene 4.986 C H 136 97 hept-2-ene 10 16

6,6-Dimethyl-2- β-pinene 5.997 C H 136 97 methylenebicyclo(3.1.1)heptanes 10 16

1-Methyl-4-(1-methylethyl) cymene 7.188 C H 134 97 benzene 10 14

1-Methyl-4-(1-methylethenyl)- DL-limonene 7.297 C H 136 97 cyclohexene 10 16 Thyme

1,4-Cyclohexadiene, 1-methyl-4- moslene 8.075 C H 136 97 (1-methylethyl) 10 16

2, 6, 6-Trimethyl bicycle (3.1.1) α-pinene 11.092 C H 136 42 hept-2-ene 10 16

5-isopropyl-2-methylphenol carvacrol 14.709 2-Methyl-5-(1-methylethyl)- C10H14O 150 94 phenol try (GC/MS) for detection of major and trace constituents. and also known as Cinnamic aldehyde or trans Cinnamal- In the present study, the identification of highly volatile dehyde (98%) (Adams, 1989) and the dominant chemical chemical components present in essential oils with the help constituent of chamomile oil is 1, 8-Cineole 98% (RT- of GC/MS showed many monoterpenes such as hydrocar- 7.428). 1, 8-Cineole or Eucalyptol is a bicyclic monoter- bons (α-Pinene), alcohol (geraniol, menthol, linalool), pene alcohol also called 1, 8-Epoxy-p-menthane (Adams, ethers (1,8-cineol), aldehydes (cinnamaldehyde) etc. The 1989). In frankincense oil α-Pinene 97% (RT- 5.006) a composition of essential oils is highly diverse in different bicyclic monoterpene is the dominant constituent. It is an plant species and chemical components present in essential alkene and it contains a reactive four-membered ring oils and some chemical constituents are common in few (Woolley et al., 2012). Moreover, Linalool (96%) is the essential oils. The chemical compositions of essential oil main component of lavender oil (Afsharypuor and are different in different stages of plant development and Azarbayejany, 2006) and the major component in amyris the chemical components of essential oils especially mono- essential oil is β- Cadinene 97% (RT- 22.824) also called terpenes directly depend on temperature, weather condition Cadina-3,9-diene. and soil acidity as earlier reported by Clark and Manery Chemically, the Cadinenes are bicyclic sesquiterpenes (1981). (Lawrence, 1990). However, from the dominant constitu- The components of essential oils were analyses and ent of dill oil is (+)-Carvone 97% (RT- 13.211) (Radulescu identified by GC-MS using DB-5 fused silica capillary et al., 2010) also called p-Mentha-6,8-dien-2-one a mono- column (Table 1). The major constituent α-Pinene (97%) cyclic monoterpene ketone and DL-Limonene 99% (7.298) of Juniper was dominant monoterpine (Gonny et al., is the dominant constituents in galbanum oil a monocyclic 2005). A monocyclic monoterpene DL-Limonene 98 (R.T- monoterpene hydrocarbon (Adams, 1995). The major 7.311) is a major constituent of tagetes oil (Chamorro et dominant component identified in catnip oil is Caryo- al., 2008) and Linalool 93% (RT- 9.277) is an acyclic phyllene 99% (RT- 17.718). Caryophyllene or β Caryo- monoterpene alcohol also known as 3, 7-dimethylocta-1, 6 phyllene is a natural bicyclic sesquiterpene (Wesolowska -dien-3-ol (Benedec et al., 2009). Cinnamon essential oil et al., 2011) and Thymol 95% (RT- 14.514) is the domi- contains Cinnamaldehyde 93% (RT- 18.191) as a major nant constituent of thyme oil. Thymol is a monocyclic component and it is a monocyclic monoterpene alcohol monoterpine alcohol (Ahmad et al., 2006). The major

Ashish Uniyal et al. /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 1 (1): 22-36 (2016) 36 component of black pepper oil is β- Caryophyllene (99%) Adams, R. P. (1989). Identification of essential oils by ion trap (Jirovetza et al., 2012) and the major component of citron- mass spectroscopy. Academic Press, New York, NY, USA. ella oil is citronella (98%), citronella oil contains two Adams, R. P. (1995). Identification of essential oils components by gas chromatography/mass spectroscopy. Allured Publ. derivatives such as alcohol citronellol and the alde- Corp., Illinois. hyde citronellal (Cassel and Vargas, 2006). Rosemary Ahmad, M. A., Khokhar, I., Ahmad. I., Kashmiri, A. M., Adnan, A. essential oil contains Camphene 98% (RT- 5.370) as a and Ahmad, M. (2006). Study of antimicrobial activity and dominant constituent identified by GC/MS is a bicyclic composition by GC/MS spectroscopic analysis of the essential monoterpene (Martinez et al., 2009) and jasmine contain oil of Thymus sperphyllum. Internet Journal of Food Safety, 5: Eugenol (98%) (Adams, 1989). Moreover, menthol (91%) 56-60. is the dominant chemical constituent in peppermint also Baser, C. H. K. and Buchbauer, G. (2010). Hand book of essential known as 3-p-menthanol is a monocyclic monoterpene oils: Science, technology and applications. Raton Florida: alcohol (Derwich et al., 2010) and camphor oil contains CRC Press, Boca Raton, New York. Benedec, D., Oniga, I., Oprean, R. and Tames, M. (2009). Chem- camphor 98% (RT- 10.547) is abicyclic monoterpene as a ical composition of the essential oils of ocimum basilicum main constituent (Guenther, 1950). L. cultivated in Romania. Farmica, 57(5): 625-629. Therefore, the essential oils were analyzed using GC/MS Clark, R. J. and Menary, R. C. (1981). Variations in composition to get some major constituents with their retention time of peppermint oil in relation to production areas. Economic and molecular weight with quality percentage but some Botany, 35: 59-69. constituents are common in some essential oils with Derwich, E., Benziane, Z., Taouil, R., Senhaji, O. and Touzani, slightly difference in retention time such as Linalool M. (2010). Aromatic plants of Morocco: GC/MS analysis of present in lavender and basil as dominant component with the essential oils of leaves of Mentha piperita. Advances in Environmental Biology, 4(1): 80-85. retention time ranging from 9.271RT to 9.277RT. Gonny, M., Cavaleiro, C., Salgueiro, L. and Casanova, J. (2005). Conclusions Analysis of Juniperus communis subsp. alpina needle, berry, wood and root oils by combination of GC, GC/MS and 13C- The present study concluded that several major chemical con- NMR. Flavour Fragrance Journal, 21: 99–106. stituents were identified from different essential oils like Guenther, E. (1950). 3RD Ed. The Essential Oils. D. Van Nos- amyris (A. balsamifera), basil (O. basilicum), black pep- trand, New York. per (P. nigrum), camphor (C. camphora), catnip (N. ca- Jirovetza, L., Buchbauera, G., Ngassoumb, B. M. and Geisslerc, M. (2012). Aroma compound analysis of Piper nigrum and taria), chamomile (A. nobilis), cinnamon (C. zeylanicum), Piper guineense essential oils from Cameroon using solid- citronella (C. winterianus), dill (A. graveolens), frankin- phase microextraction–gas chromatography, solid-phase cense (B. carteri), galbanum (F. galbaniflua), jasmine (J. micro extraction GC/MS and olfactometry. Journal of Chro- grandiflorum), juniper (J. communis), lavender (L. angusti- matography, 976: 265–275. folia), peppermint (M. piperita), rosemary (R. officinalis), Lawrence, B. M. (1990). Amyris oil. Progress in essential oils. tagetes (T. minuta), thyme (T. serpyllum) using GC/MS. Perfumer and Flavorist, 15 (2): 78. These essential oils have several chemical constituents and Lawless, J. (1992). The encyclopedia of essential oils. Shaftes- can be used for multiple purposes such as use in national bury, Dorset. Rockport, Massachusetts. and international market of flavor and fragrances, cosmetic Marcelle Gonny, Carlos Cavaleiro, Ligia Salgueiro and Joseph Casanova (2006). Analysis of Juniperus communis subsp. industries, agricultural industries, household insecticides, alpina needle, berry, wood and root oils by combination of pharmacy, alternative medicine, integrated pest manage- GC, GC/MS and 13C-NMR. Flavour and Fragrance ment, etc. Therefore, GC/MS can be effectively used for Journal, 21: 99–106. the identification of different chemical constituents present Martinez, A. L., Gonzalez-Trujano, M.E., Pellicer, F., Lopez- in the various essential oils. Munoz, F.J. and Navarrete, A. (2009). Antinociceptive effect and GC/MS analysis of Rosmarinus officinalis L. essen- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS tial oil from its aerial parts. Planta Medicine, 75: 508–511. The authors are grateful to Prof. (Dr.) M.P. Kaushik, Radulescu, V., Popescu, M. L. and Ilies, D. (2010). Chemical composition of the volatile oil from different plants parts of Anthum former Director, Defence Research & Development gravelens L. cultivated in Romania. Farmica, 58(5): 594-600. Establishment (D.R.D.E), Gwalior and all the colleagues in Suleiman Afsharypuor and Nahid Azarbayejany (2006). the Department of Vector Management Division for their Chemical constituents of the flower essential oil of help and support while carrying out this investigation on Lavandula officinalis Chaix. from Isfahan (Iran). Iranian essential oils. Fragrance and Flavor Development Center Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 2(3): 169-172. (FFDC), Kannuj, Uttar Pradesh, India is also kindly Tisserand, R. (1990). The essential oil safety data manual. Tisserand acknowledged by the authors for providing essential oils. Aromatherapy Institute Brighton. Sussex. England. 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ORIGINAL RESEARCH ARTICLE Impact of tourism on water quality characteristics of Lidder Stream at Pahalgam, (J&K), India

Rizwan Mudathir Khandi* and Sachin Srivastava Department of Environmental Sciences, Uttaranchal College of Science and Technology, Nagal Hatnala, P.O. Kulhan, Sahastradhara road, Dehradun-248001 (Uttarakhand), INDIA *Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected]

ARTICLE HISTORY ABSTRACT Received: 8 Aug. 2016 The present study was conducted to assess the impact of touristic activities at Lidder stream in Revised received: 27 Aug. 2016 Pahalgam, (J&K), India. The main reasons for the deterioration of the water quality of Lidder Accepted: 10 Sept. 2016 stream are increase in tourist flow, which increases the concentration of nutrients due to sewage disposal, bathing and washing in the vicinity of the stream. The physico-chemical analysis shows Keywords variations in most of the water quality parameters such as pH changes gradually, whereas EC, - - + Lidder stream F.CO2, BOD, Cl , NO3 N, NH4 N, OPP, TA and TP increased, while DO decreased. The water of Pahalgam Lidder stream serves domestic, agriculture, irrigation and other commercial sectors (including Physico-chemical parameters hotels at Pahalgam), which have a directly impact on the water quality of Lidder stream. It is Touristic activities contingent from the present study that pollution load due to tourism increased. Water quality ©2016 Agriculture and Environmental Science Academy

Citation of this article: Rizwan Mudathir Khandi and Sachin Srivastava (2016). Impact of tourism on water quality characteristics of Lidder Stream at Pahalgam, (J&K), India. Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science, 1(1): 37-42. industries in the world economy over the last Decade. Its INTRODUCTION total contribution comprised of 9% global GDP (US $6.6 Perched securely among the lofty snow-sprinkled mighty trillion) and generated over 260 million jobs, 1 in 11 i.e. Himalayan mountain chain, the emerald blue skies peeping 10% of new job creation in the world’s total job market. through the chinks of the clouds, the tall Chinar trees Tourism industry showed faster growth than other notable swaying to the rhythm of the gusts of wind, all condense industries such as manufacturing, financial services and into a kindly smile, forming the lovely state of Jammu and retail (WTTC, 2013). Tourism can be a major tool for Kashmir (Rashid and Romshoo, 2013). The tall mountains economic development but, if not properly planned, it can that surround the valley rising up to 16,000 feet ensure that have destructive effects on biodiversity and pristine the weather here is pleasant for most of the year and attract environments and can result in the misuse of natural tourists from all over the world. But according to present resources such as freshwater, forests and marine life scenario due to overpopulation, rapid soil erosion, inade- (Rabbany et al., 2013). quate tourism management and intensive deforestation The Lidder or the “Yellow” stream is formed by two have caused major destruction of environment. The mountains torrents which flowing from the north and north alarming situation has aroused in the urban areas due to east, unite near Pahalgam and flow rapidly over the big careless disposal of industrial waste and faulty drainage boulders with milky color. Lidder stream comprising two system that has badly affected the environmental quality streams flowing from Kolhoi Glacier and Sheshnag Lake and tourism industry. Although, tremendous work has been make confluence at Nunwan. The stream is rich with indig- done on the various aspects of the Pahalgam, but hardly enous brown trout fish attract the Anglers throughout the any information is available on the impact of tourism on world. Rafting in Kolhoi Nallah is a charming activity of the Pahalgam valley (Rashid and Romshoo, 2013). adventurous tourists. The Lidder valley opens into the Tourism has emerged as one of the most important south east end of Kashmir valley, giving passage to the segment of the world economy. It is a major activity not Lidder stream. It extends in the northerly direction from only for developing countries but also for most developed near Islamabad to Pahalgam, a distance of about 35 km. At countries. Today tourism is one of the world’s largest Pahalgam, the valley divides into defiles, which stretched industries. Tourism has emerged as one of the chief obliquely, one towards the north-west towards the Sindh

38 Rizwan Mudathir Khandi and Sachin Srivastava /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 1 (1): 37-42 (2016) valley and one can foot the distance from Pahalgam to (November- February) are cold. The temperature in the Sind valley following the course of the Lidder water summer months reaches as high as 250C and the tempera- stream, the other towards the north-east leading up to ture in winter goes as low as -100C.This is because the Sheshnag on the sacred Amarnath cave. Lidder stream valley is located at an altitude of 2130 meters above sea serves as a drinking water source to a huge population level and is covered by dense forests. More over the Lidder lying in its catchment. Besides, Lidder stream is important River also influence the climate of Pahalgam and keep it for agriculture as it serves as a source of irrigation for the moderate in hot summer. In Pahalgam one needs light same. The stream also harbours rich resource of fisheries woollen clothes even in summer and heavy woollen particularly brown trout. Hence, the stream is socioeco- clothes in winter. Pahalgam receives the large amount of nomically important for the population in its catchment precipitation in the form of snow which is also a mark of (Rabbany et al., 2013; Rashid and Romshoo, 2013). attraction for adventurous tourist and those who enjoys the Lots of recreational activities are on the offer in Pahalgam, games of skiing and skating. Summer is the best in Pahal- such as horse riding, golf and fishing. The Lidder stream gam valley. However, the place can be visited during the has excellent fishing beats for brown trout. The fishing annual Amarnath yatra in July-August. season stretches from April-September. Fishing equipment Water quality analysis: The impact of tourism on water can be hired in Srinagar. Live baits and spinning are not quality of Lidder stream is assessed mainly through the allowed for permits contact the Directorate of Fisheries, physic-chemical study of water quality because it is an Tourist Reception Centre, Srinagar. The environment of outstanding indicator of human utilization of the ecosys- Pahalgam offer exciting trekking opportunities, the best tem. Tourism data were acquired from Jammu and Kash- know are Pahalgam- Chandanwari-Sheshnag-Panchtarni- mir Tourism Department to analyse the seasonal variation Amarnath cave temple-Sonnamarag trekking can be under- in tourist flow. Tourism data were correlated with water taken as the 35 km trailed traverses through pine woods to quality results in order to assess the impact of tourism on the spectacular Kolahoi Glacier which is very beautiful via water quality. Present study was carried out at different Aru village a charming meadow. Pahalgam originally a sampling sites located nearby Lidder valley, Anantnag sphered village is naturally known for products made of (J&K) India in order to record the physico-chemical pa- wool, Gabbas and Namdas can be purchased from Local rameters of water quality of Lidder stream. shops (Rabbany et al., 2013; Rashid and Romshoo, 2013). Three water sampling sites were taken along the length of The most important tourism resources are the natural the river for physico-chemical analysis. The physico- beauty of the place, their distinctive or exotic character, chemical characteristics of water have been monitored on their recreational possibilities and the cultural interest of monthly basis. The surface water samples were collected the people. The hotels, resorts, transportation networks, 10.00 am to 1.00 pm from each of sampling sites in one recreational facilities and other tourism infra-structure can liter plastic bottles for the laboratory investigations. The complement but never completely replaced the dependence parameters including air temperature (AT), water temperature on environmental resources (Aggarwal and Arora, 2012). The (WT), pH and electrical conductivity (EC) were analyzed on disadvantages of haphazard and unplanned development of the spot, while the rest of parameters such as total alkalinity - tourism are well illustrated by many areas of the world. (TA), free carbon dioxide (F.CO2), chloride (Cl ) dissolved Similarly Pahalgam valley in Kashmir is facing environmen- oxygen (DO), biological oxygen demand (BOD), Nitrate - + tal problems (Kumari et al., 2013; Rashid and Romshoo, nitrogen (NO3 N), ammonical nitrogen (NH4 N), orthophos- 2013). Keeping in view the varied dimensions of the proposed phate (OPP) and Total Phosphorus (TP) were determined in problems, the present study has been carried out to study the the laboratory within 24 hours of sampling. The analysis was tourist flow in the Pahalgam valley during study period and to done by adopting standard methods of APHA (2012). assess the impact of tourism on the surfaces water of Lidder stream at Pahalgam (J&K), India. MATERIALS AND METHODS Study area: Present study was carried out at different sampling sites located nearby Lidder valley, Anantnag (J&K) India in order to record the physico-chemical parameters of water quality of Lidder stream (Figure 1). The following sites were selected for the present study: Site I: - Aru village; Site II: - Outer Pahalgam; Site III: - Inner Pahalgam Climatic variables: The state of Jammu and Kashmir including Ladakh is peculiar, in having a varied climate. The variability in climate in these diverse territories of the state is so marked than even for a small area, it is not possible to depend on the averages for purposes of the study of climate conditions. The weather in Pahalgam is Figure 1. View of drainage system at Pahalgam and study alpine. Summers (April-June) are mild while winters sites.

Rizwan Mudathir Khandi and Sachin Srivastava /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 1 (1): 37-42 (2016) 39

Statistical analysis: All the data obtained subjected to F.CO2 (7.00 mg/L) was recorded at Site II, whereas statistical analysis. In statistical analysis, a correlation maximum mean value (7.40 mg/L) was recorded at Site developed between tourist flow and parameters by using III. Lower F.CO2 was recorded in winter, while higher Karl Pearson’s coefficient of correlation for data analysis was recorded in summer month.The increase in carbon of Lidder stream water to measure the variations between dioxide level during the present study at Site III may be Site I, Site II and Site III parameters. MS Excel, 2013 was due to decay and decomposition of organic matter released used to measure the Mean and Standard deviation (SD) of during anthropogenic activities, which was the main causal the data. factor for increase in carbon dioxide in the water bodies. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Kumar et al. (2014) reported higher concentration of Free CO2 (1.58-4.29 mg/L) in kali river Pithoragarh district of The Mean±SD values of various physcio-chemical Uttarakhand, India. Lower concentration of Free CO2 was characteristics of different sites of Lidder valley were recorded in winter and higher in monsoon seasons. given in Tables 1-4. Results assess the variation in physico In the present study there was much variation in the total -chemical characteristics which are of paramount alkalinity of Lidder stream. At site III, maximum mean importance for accessing the quality of water, which may value of TA (87.4 mg/L) was recorded, whereas minimum be influenced by tourism in the river. The findings of the mean value (74.4 mg/L) was recorded at Site II. Lower TA present study are described as follows. was recorded in winter, while higher was recorded in Temperature is one of the most significant characteristic summer month. Agarwal and Arora (2012) recorded higher that influence nearly all the physical, chemical and concentrations of alkalinity than the present study, which biological characteristics of water and thus the water was ranged between 234mg/L and 330mg/L in Kaushalya chemistry. It never remains steady in rivers due to varying River at submountaneous Shivalik region. The high value environmental conditions (Kumari et al., 2013). Change in of alkalinity indicates the presence of weak and strong air temperature naturally affects the water temperature and base such as carbonates, bicarbonates and hydroxides in cause thermal variations in water. the water body. The high values of alkalinity may also be In the present study minimum WT (5.60 0C) were recorded due to increase in free carbon dioxide in the river which at Site (I-II) and maximum WT (6.40 0C) was recorded at ultimately results in the increase in alkalinity. Matta and Site III. Lower temperature was recorded in January, while Kumar (2015) recorded the lower mean concentration of higher was recorded in May. This may be due to change in alkalinity than the present study with 39.2± 6.26 to 44.1 ± air temperature, which naturally affects the water tempera- 3.53 mg/L in winters followed by summer and monsoon ture and cause thermal variations in water. Khan et al. season with 39.5± 15.2 to 43.9 ± 6.18 mg/L and 28.9 ± (2012) reported minimum air temperature was recorded in 0.96 to 50 ± 5.0 mg/L in Ganga river water at Haridwar. the month of January, with the lowest recorded tempera- Oxygen is the regulator of metabolic processes of plant ture as (2.12oC) at site A, while as the maximum in the and animal communities and indicator of water condition. month of July, with the highest 35.42oC at site C. Overall The oxygen is most important gas, produced during photo- the temperature was high in summer and low in winter on synthesis by the phytoplankton in aquatic environment. an average. There was a moderate increase in temperature During the present study minimum mean DO value (7.86 while moving downstream of the river Jhelum at J&K mg/L) was recorded at Site III, while as maximum mean (India). DO value (8.80 mg/L) was recorded at site I. In the present During the present study gradual increase (7.30-7.81) in context DO reduces during the summer season as com- pH from Site (I-III) was related to increasing pollution pared to winter it may be due to huge amount of organic pressure resulting because of tourist and agricultural matter being released by the tourist in the river in the form activities in the catchment of Lidder valley. A similar of polythene plastic bottles, rappers of synthetic items or it result for pH (7.50-7.83) was recorded by Khanna et al. may be due to seasonal variation. Similar trend in DO was (2008) in the water of stream Nalhota at Guchupani, reported by Bhadula et al. (2014), who reported the overall Dehradun (India) due to the effect of touristic activity. lowest and highest mean value of DO were observed 7.0 Chauhan et al. (2016) also recorded an increased pH (6.88- mg/L and 10.8 mg/L in the month of June and January at 7.90) in the water of Mansar lake, (J&K) India due to the Site-II and Site-I, respectively at Sahashtradhara activities of tourism like boating and fishing. Stream, Dehradun. BOD is the amount of oxygen required The EC is measured to assess the total nutrient level of for the oxidation of organic matter by micro-organisms in media and used to indicate the tropic status of the water aerobic condition. Kumar and Chopra (2012b) also bodies. In the present study maximum EC (127µs/cm) was reported the reduction in the DO content of Old Ganga recorded at Site III, while minimum EC value (108.80 µs/ Canal at Haridwar (Uttarakhand) India due to disposal of cm) recorded at Site-I. The present study was in accord- sewage effluent. ance with Rashid and Romshoo, (2013) who reported EC In the present study a site II, the minimum mean value of (90-130μS/cm) in water quality of Lidder River at Kashmir BOD (12.74 mg/L) was recorded, whereas maximum mean Himalayas. Carbon dioxide is fundamental in the existence value of (14.18 mg/L) was recorded at Site-III during study of plants and microorganisms. It is produced due to period at Lidder stream. During the present study, there is respiration of aquatic organisms. gradual increase in BOD from January to May. During the present study the minimum mean value of Similarly, Bhadula and Joshi (2011) recorded lowest and

40 Rizwan Mudathir Khandi and Sachin Srivastava /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 1 (1): 37-42 (2016) highest mean value of BOD (1.0 mg/L and 3.0 mg/L) in Phosphorus is obtained from the rocks converting then in to the month of January and June at the Site 1 and Site 2, its soluble forms and may also occur, in agricultural runoff, respectively at Sahashtradhara Stream, Dehradun and industrial wastes, municipal sewage and synthetic detergents. concluded that various anthropogenic activities increased the The high concentration of phosphorus is always indicative of BOD of the river water. Liu et al. (2014) also recorded higher eutrophication. ranged BOD (5.1–49 mg/L) in the samples of urban streams During the present study OPP was recorded minimum (31.40 at Guangzhou, China. Chlorides concentration is an important µg/L) at Site I, while it was recorded maximum (46.40 µg/L) ion required by photosynthesizing cells. The water from hu- at Site III. TP was recorded minimum (48.60 µg/L) at Site II, man excreta is rich in chlorides. Human body discharge about while it was recorded maximum (50.80 µg/L) at Site III. 8.0 gm to 15.0 gm chloride per day. Therefore chlorides Maximum concentrations of OPP/TP were recorded in sum- concentration serves as an indicator of pollution. mer months at all the three sites due to high anthropogenic During the present study minimum mean value of Cl- (26.4 pressure at Lidder valley. Rashid and Romshoo (2013) report- mg/L) was recorded at Site (I and II), while maximum mean ed maximum concentrations of OPP/TP (32 µg/L/54 µg/L) in value (30.6 mg/L) was recorded at Site III. In the present summer month and minimum concentrations (18 µg/L to 36 study an increased was observed in Cl- concentration in sum- µg/L) in winter month at various sites of Lidder stream I mer month with rise of tourist flow that raises the Cl- concen- Kashmir region, respectively. tration. Tripathi et al. (2014) reported maximum concentra- Correlation study: The correlation coefficients (r) value tion of Cl- (81.36±3.84 mg/L) in summer and minimum in among the flow of tourists and water parameters are winter season at Ganga River, (Allahabad) India. Matta et al. presented in Tables 1-4. During the present study correlation (2015) also reported maximum concentration of Cl- (5.70 mg/ coefficient (r) at different sites revealed that Water tempera- L) in summer and lower in winter season at Ganga canal ture were positively correlated with tourist flow, while pH and system, (Haridwar) India. EC are also positively correlated with Site 1 and Site 3. At - In the present study minimum mean value of NO3 N (198.40 Site 2 both pH and conductivity are negatively correlated with µg /L) was recorded at Site I and maximum mean value the tourist flow. Free carbon dioxide and Alkalinity are posi- (222.00 µg /L) was recorded at Site II, whereas tively correlated with tourist flow at all the sites, while as dis- + minimum mean value of NH4 N (137.20 µg/L) was recorded solved oxygen is negatively correlated with the tourist flow at - - + at Site II and maximum mean value (156.60 µg/L) was all the sites. The other parameters BOD, Cl , NO3 N, NH4 N, - recorded at Site III. Nitrate-nitrogen (NO3 N) and Ammonical OPP and TP are positively correlated with the tourist flow. + + Nitrogen (NH4 N) in surface water may result from anthropo- NH4 N showed significant (P<0.05) positive correlation close genic activities such as bathing and use of soaps and to 1 at all the sites. Kumar and Chopra (2012a) also reported detergents. The non-point sources such as fertilized cropland, the significant alteration in the water quality of sub Canal of parks, golf courses, lawns, gardens and naturally occurring Upper Ganga Canal at Haridwar (Uttarakhand), India due to sources of nitrogen also increased the concentrations of discharge of textile effluent. Moreover, Joshi et al. (2009) also nitrogen. This was in accordance with Rashid and Romshoo reported an appreciable significant positive correlation was - + - - (2013), they reported maximum increased in NO3 N/NH4 N found for Free CO2 with Cl , TDS, TSS; turbidity with Cl , - - (180.00 µg/L/112.00 µg/L) in summer months and (160.00 EC, TSS; Cl with EC, Free CO2, TSS; EC with Cl , TDS, µg/L/94.00 µg/L) in winter months at Lidder stream water TSS. A significant negative correlation was found for DO - samples at different sites in Kashmir region respectively. with Free CO2, COD, turbidity, Cl , EC, TDS and TSS.

Table 1. Correlation coefficient (r) between WT, pH and EC with tourist flow in Lidder stream at three sites. WT pH EC Months TF Site 1 Site 2 Site 3 Site 1 Site 2 Site 3 Site 1 Site 2 Site 3 January 6740 2 3 3 7.1 7.2 7.96 90 130 96 February 8200 6 5 5 7.13 7.48 7.92 120 128 98 March 15262 7 6 8 7.6 7.6 7.8 130 112 116 April 26032 6 5 7 7.35 7.5 7.7 146 116 112 May 60826 7 9 9 7.36 7.5 7.7 149 120 122 5.60± 5.60± 6.40± 7.30± 7.45± 7.81± 108.80± 121.20± 127.00± Mean±SD 2.07 2.19 2.40 0.20 0.15 0.12 11.36 7.69 23.83 r value 0.51 0.89 0.76 0.74 -0.34 0.81 0.74 -0.34 0.81

Table 2. Correlation coefficient (r) between DO, BOD and F.CO2 with tourist flow in Lidder stream at three sites. DO BOD F.CO Months TF 2 Site 1 Site 2 Site 3 Site 1 Site 2 Site 3 Site 1 Site 2 Site 3 January 6740 10.40 10.20 9.60 11.00 10.10 12.60 4.00 5.00 5.00 February 8200 7.80 8.20 8.60 12.60 11.00 14.10 6.00 5.00 6.00 March 15262 7.80 7.70 8.20 14.60 14.00 14.20 8.00 7.00 9.00 April 26032 6.80 7.00 9.60 15.00 14.60 15.10 9.00 8.00 8.00 May 60826 6.50 7.40 8.00 15.00 14.00 14.90 9.00 10.00 9.00 8.80± 8.10± 7.86± 13.64± 12.74± 14.18± 7.20± 7.00± 7.40± Mean±SD 0.76 1.25 1.53 1.77 2.03 0.98 2.16 2.12 1.81 r value -0.69 -0.55 -0.49 0.67 0.61 0.64 0.64 0.73 0.71

Rizwan Mudathir Khandi and Sachin Srivastava /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 1 (1): 37-42 (2016) 41

- Table 3. Correlation coefficient (r) between TA, Cl and NO3 N with tourist flow in Lidder stream at three sites. TA Cl NO -N Months TF 3 Site 1 Site 2 Site 3 Site 1 Site 2 Site 3 Site 1 Site 2 Site 3 January 6740 88.00 62.00 75.00 18.00 20.00 22.00 11.00 10.10 12.60 February 8200 82.00 75.00 66.00 24.00 30.00 20.00 12.60 11.00 14.10 March 15262 80.00 87.00 99.00 34.00 24.00 32.00 14.60 14.00 14.20 April 26032 92.00 68.00 78.00 20.00 24.00 37.00 15.00 14.60 15.10 May 60826 95.00 80.00 79.00 36.00 34.00 42.00 15.00 14.00 14.90 79.40± 74.40± 87.40± 26.40± 26.40± 30.60± 198.40± 222.00± 208.20± Mean±SD 12.09 9.81 6.38 8.17 5.54 9.47 11.26 29.99 23.01 r value 0.75 0.32 0.09 0.62 0.70 0.87 0.67 0.61 0.64 - Table 4. Correlation coefficient (r) between TA, Cl and NO3 N with tourist flow in Lidder stream at three sites. NH +N OPP TP Months TF 4 Site 1 Site 2 Site 3 Site 1 Site 2 Site 3 Site 1 Site 2 Site 3 January 6740 112.00 124.00 136.00 24 28 44 38 46 44 February 8200 118.00 130.00 142.00 34 44 48 52 48 49 March 15262 122.00 138.00 149.00 38 48 48 54 50 52 April 26032 167.00 143.00 169.00 36 38 38 56 52 52 May 60826 188.00 151.00 187.00 25 48 54 52 47 57 141.40± 137.20± 156.60± 31.40± 41.20± 46.40± 50.40± 48.60± 50.80± Mean±SD 33.96 10.61 21.05 6.46 8.43 5.89 7.12 2.40 4.76 r value 0.93 0.90 0.95 -0.34 0.48 0.50 0.62 0.70 0.87 Conclusions REFERENCES The present study concluded that touristic activities in the Aggarwal, R. and Arora, S. (2012). A study of water quality of catchment of Lidder stream have deteriorated the water Kaushalya River in the sub-mountainous Shivalik Region. quality. 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ORIGINAL RESEARCH ARTICLE Monitoring of ground water quality in the province of district Dehradun, (Uttarakhand), India

Yasir* and Sachin Srivastava Department of Environmental Sciences, Uttaranchal College of Science and Technology Nagal Hatnala, P.O. Kulhan, Sahastradhara road, Dehradun-248001, (Uttarakhand), INDIA *Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected]

ARTICLE HISTORY ABSTRACT Received: 10 Aug. 2016 The present study focused on the groundwater in Dehradun city to assess the quality of groundwater Revised received: 25 Aug. 2016 for determining its suitability for drinking and agricultural purposes. Groundwater samples were Accepted: 5 Sept. 2016 collected monthly from four sites of Dehradun city. Comparison of physic-chemical parameters with WHO (world health organization) and I.S (Indian Standards) revealed that, the status of Keywords groundwater is better for drinking purposes. Results indicate that physico-chemical parameters such Correlation as Temperature, EC, TDS, BOD, COD, Total Alkalinity, Total Hardness, Chloride, Sodium and Dehradun Potassium were slightly increased at Site III and IV, while pH and DO were decreased. Correlation Ground water coefficient value indicates high positive and negative relationships (p<0.05 level) and also show Industrialization and significant positive and negative relationship between the GW quality parameters and different Urbanization Monitoring sites. The present study revealed water quality of all the four sites (I-IV) were better and safe and Water quality monitoring of ground water quality periodically, prevent further contamination. ©2016 Agriculture and Environmental Science Academy

Citation of this article: Yasir and Sachin Srivastava (2016). Monitoring of ground water quality in the province of district Dehradun, (Uttarakhand), India. Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science, 1(1): 43-48.

INTRODUCTION groundwater resources for a variety of uses. Population growth and the augment in demand for water and food Water is one of the copiously accessible assets in nature. supplies place an growing pressure on the groundwater Solitary 2.5% of the Earth's water is fresh water and 98.8% quality and quantity (Taj et al., 2013). is accounted for ice and groundwater. A lesser amount of But the present scenario on ground water contamination than 0.3% of all freshwater is present in water bodies such worldwide is increasingly affected by pollution that comes as rivers, lakes and the atmosphere. Still slighter quantity from industrial, scientific research, armed forces and agri- of the Earth's freshwater (0.003%) is contained within cultural activities either due to unawareness, lack of vision, biological bodies and manufactured products (Jain et al., negligence, or high cost of waste discarding and treatment, 2014). which results in pollution. Progression in industrialization, Groundwater is the water situated underneath the earth's urbanization and agricultural throughout the previous few surface in soil pore spaces and in the cracks of rock for- decades has deteriorated the groundwater quality. Ground- mations. A component of rock deposit is called water contamination can often have severe ill effects on an aquifer when it be able to give up a functional amount human health. Environmental property values can reduce of water. The intensity at which soil pore spaces or frac- with the decline in groundwater quality along pollution tures and voids in rock be converted into entirely saturated belts (Yao et al., 2016). with water is called the water table. Groundwater provides Dehradun is situated in Doon Valley on the base of the nearly 22% of the world’ supply of fresh water. Ground- Himalayas snuggled among two of India's great rivers the water has become as a remarkably vital freshwater reserve Ganges on the east and the Yamuna on the west. It is be- and its rising demand for agriculture, domestic and indus- tween latitudes 29 °58' N and 31°2'N and longitudes 77° trial uses ranks it as of strategic importance. Worldwide 34' E and 78° 18'E. The general elevation is 450 m above approximation proved that groundwater cover 1/6 of the sea level. The city is famous for its picturesque landscape whole freshwater resources obtainable in the world. and slightly milder climate and provides a gateway to the Numerous regions all over the world entirely depend on surrounding region. It is interim capital of the newly

44 Yasir and Sachin Srivastava /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 1 (1): 43-48 (2016) formed state of Uttarakhand is one of the 3 towns of pH meter, thermometer and other accessories were used Uttarakhand listed under the Jawaharlal Nehru National for on-site monitoring. Water samples for the examination Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM). of physico-chemical parameters were collected simultane- In view of the ground contamination, increasing population ously. and industrial as well as urban expansion, the production Water analysis method: Samples were analyzed for of wastewater and its disposal on land and water bodies physico-chemical parameters such as Temperature (ºC), has grown rapidly. Hence, regular monitoring and stringent Electrical Conductivity (EC dSm-1),Total Dissolved Solids law enforcement is required to develop a strategy to man- (TDS mg/l), pH (Hydrogen ion concentration), Dissolved age the environmental hazards due to wastewater pollution Oxygen (DO) (mg/l), Biochemical Oxygen Demand and to improve water quality of ground and surface water (BOD) (mg/l), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) (mg/l), for aquatic ecosystem and disease free human population, Chloride (Cl mg/l), Alkalinity (mg/l), Total hardness (TH respectively. Keeping in view the present study has been mg/l), Sodium (Na mg/l) and Potassium (K mg/l) using undertaken to assess the impact of urbanization and standard method (APHA, 2012 and Trivedy and Goel, industrialization on ground water samples to assess the 1986). Samples were analyzed for the physico-chemical physico-chemical characteristics viz., temperature, EC, pH parameters. and TDS, DO, BOD, COD, alkalinity, hardness, Cl-, Na+ Statistical analysis: All the data obtained subjected to and K+ of water samples collected from different regions statistical analysis. In statistical analysis, a correlation of Dehradun (Uttarakhand), India. developed between parameters by using Karl Pearson’s coefficient of correlation for data analysis of Ground water MATERIALS AND METHODS to measure the variations between Site I, Site II, Site III Study sites: Present study was carried out at different and Site IV parameters. MS Excel, 2013 was used to meas- sampling sites to record the following physico-chemical ure the Mean and Standard deviation (SD) of the data. parameters. The following sites were selected for the RESULTS AND DISCUSSION present study at Dehradun (30°15' N and 79015' E) (Uttarakhand). The Nakronda (site-I), Harrawala (site-II), Variations in physico-chemical properties of GW in Kuanwala (site-III) and Doiwala (site-IV) sampling sites Dehradun at site-I (Nakronda), site-II (Harrawala), site-III were selected for the present study (Fig.1). (Kuanwala) and site-IV (Doiwala) sampling sites are appended in Table 1. The physico-chemical analysis of GW showed that, GW quality of all the four sites (site-I to site-IV) were till now under the permissible limit as prescribed by ISI and WHO. But due to increasing urbanization and industrialization at these sites of Dehradun will further deteriorate the GW quality. Temperature: Temperature is one of the most significant characteristic that influence nearly all the physical, chemical and biological characteristics of water and thus the water chemistry. The rise in temperature of water acceler- ates chemical reactions, decreases the solubility of gases, increases taste and odour and elevates metabolic activity of organisms (Usharani et al., 2010; Kumari et al., 2013). During the present study Temperature of GW samples Fig.1. Map showing different sampling sites at Dehradun. were found in an agreeable range in all the sampling months (February-April) and at all the sampling sites Collection of samples and analysis: Ground water (I-IV) (Table 1). The maximum temperature (23.67 0C) samples were collected during January-2016 to June-2016 was recorded in at site IV, while minimum Temperature for the analysis of the physico-chemical parameters. A (20.67 0C) was recorded at site-I. This might be due total of 4 samples were taken from different sources like-1 increasing rates of pollution due to industrial wastewater tube well, 1 hand pump and 2 boring taps present in the discharged and high air temperature at site IV, which study area. Sampling was done fortnightly at different brought thermal changes in natural waters. This was in sampling stations in morning hours (7 am to 10 am) twice accordance with Bartarya and Bahukhandi (2012), they in a month. Water samples were collected from different recorded maximum temperature range (22-25.10 0C) in sources at varying interval in thoroughly washed and steri- industrial area and (14-24 0C) in urban area of Dehradun lized bottle and transported to the laboratory on ice and district. Hussian et al. (2012) reported maximum range of stored in a deep freezer (-20oC) till analysis. Samples were temperature (26.00-28.00 0C) in GW samples around collected in triplicate from each Site and average value for Pioneer Distilleries Limited, Dharmabad District Nanded each parameter was reported. Physico-chemical analysis (Maharashtra), India. was done within 48 hours and the sample was stored at EC: Conductivity is ability of water to carry an electrical room temperature. A sampling kit containing sample current. This ability mainly depends on presence of anion collection bottles, standard chemical reagents, glassware, and cations in water and also depends on availability,

Yasir and Sachin Srivastava /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 1 (1): 43-48 (2016) 45 valence of ions and temperature. High electrical conductiv- the permissible range as prescribed by WHO and ISI in all ity impacted the germination of crops and it may result in the sampling months (February-April) and at all the sam- much reduced yield. Higher the ionizable solids, greater pling sites (I-IV) (Table 1). will be the EC (Rao et al., 2013). In the present study, the pH values were in the range (6.80- During the present study EC of GW samples were found in 7.12). The least value was recorded to be 6.80 at site-III, a satisfying range in all the sampling months (February- while maximum was recorded to be 7.12 at site-IV. This April) and at all the sampling sites (I-IV) (Table 1). The was in consideration with Bartarya and Bahukhandi maximum EC (0.94 dSm-1) was recorded in at site IV, (2012), they reported that pH of groundwater in industrial while minimum Temperature (0.47 dSm-1) was recorded at area of Dehradun district does not show much variation site-I. Maximum EC at site-IV indicates addition of some and remains at 6.7, 6.4 and 7.2 respectively in summer, pollutants, due to which groundwater salinity increased. post monsoon and winter season except that of Selaqui The EC recorded instability in the groundwater quality of industrial area where groundwater becomes slightly acidic the study area which as per field observation is due to in post monsoon possibly due to leaching of acids from industries and dumping site. The increased EC indicates soil into ground water. Rajender et al. (2014) observed the that there must be an increase in number of ions which is maximum value of pH (6.95) and minimum (4.66) at supported by salinity values. This was in consideration Selaqui, Dehradun (Uttarakhand), India. They also report- with Ramesh and Thirumangai (2014), they recorded EC ed that water pollution level of nearby area of Selaqui in very high concentration (>12,000 μScm-1) during pre region of Dehradun district was increasing due to improper and post monsoon period in the South eastern and South- treatment of wastewater discharged from industrial area of western part of Pallavaram, Chennai due to the influence Selaqui. of industrial effluent and solid waste dumping site on DO, BOD and COD: DO is not simply a key factor for groundwater quality. Hiremath et al. (2011) reported high- find out the value of water but also it helps us to under- er EC (3.5mS/m) and lower (0.9mS/m) in the GW samples stand the natural self-purification ability of water as well of municipal area of Bijapur (Karnataka), India. as the impacts of urbanization and industrialization on TDS: Total dissolves solids (TDS) are naturally present in water. During the present study DO of GW samples were water or are the result of mining or some industrial found under the permissible range in all the sampling treatment of water. Total Dissolved Solid (TDS) in water months (February-April) and at all the sampling sites (I- mainly composed of various salts like chlorides, nitrate, IV) (Table 1). The values of DO were found better at the phosphates, carbonates and bicarbonates sulphates of sampling site-I (6.84 mg/l) and site-II (6.25 mg/l), whereas calcium, organic matter, sodium, potassium, magnesium lower values were recorded at site-III (5.35 mg/l) and site- and manganese, and other particles (Bhadula et al., 2014; IV (5.60 mg/l). The DO in site-I-IV GW samples showed Hasan and Miah, 2014). a good range of DO i.e. > 5 mg/l which indicates that During the present study TDS of GW samples were found ground water samples of the study area was having rich under the permissible range in all the sampling months supply of DO. The lower values of DO at site-III and site- (February-April) and at all the sampling sites (I-IV) (Table IV may be due to waste water of Distilleries and Sugar 1). The maximum TDS (241.34 mg/l) was recorded at site mill, which was loaded with various organic and inorganic IV, while minimum TDS (193.31 mg/l) was recorded at pollutants, that tends to decrease DO concentration when it site-I. This was due to drainage of industrial and urban infiltrates and enters into the aquifers. wastes in this area. The TDS concentration was found to Hussain et al. (2012) recorded lower values of DO (2.6-4.2 be more in winter and summer, which may be attributable mg/l) around Pioneer distilleries limited, Dharmabad to greater solubility of ions at higher temperature. Evapo- District Nanded. Rao et al. (2013) also reported DO in the ration during summer and winter season and enhanced concentration ranged (4.27-5.16 mg/l) in GW samples of rock water interaction increases ionic concentration which Vuyyuru, (A.P.) part of East Coast of India. BOD is used in turn increases TDS. to assess the effects of organic pollutant on water quality Maheshwari et al. (2011) reported that TDS value varies and biodiversity, by measuring the quantity of oxygen from 178 mg/l to 200 mg/l in summer and 210 mg/l to 280 used by microorganism (aerobic bacteria). Whereas, COD mg/l in winter in GW samples at different sites located is a determination of pollution in marine system. Elevated nearby Yamuna River, Agra (India). Bartarya and Bahu- COD may possibly be a reason for oxygen reduction in khandi (2012) recorded highest concentration of TDS in relation of decomposition by microorganisms to a level winter season which varies from 91 mg/l to 796 mg/l with unfavourable to aquatic life. an average of 353 mg/l. The lowest TDS are found in post During the present study BOD and COD of GW samples monsoon season and varies from 5 mg/l to 651 mg/l with were found under the agreeable range in all the sampling an average of 276mg/l, while moderate concentration of months (February-April) and at all the sampling sites (I- TDS is found in summer season which varies from 74mg/l IV). The maximum BOD/COD (1.90/6.55 mg/l) was to 881mg/l with an average concentration of 276mg/l at recorded at site IV, while minimum BOD/COD (1.20/3.90 Dehradun. mg/l) was recorded at site-I. This may be due to organic pH: pH is the scale of strength of acidity and alkalinity of pollution such as solid runoff from solids and waste water and shows the concentration of hydrogen ions. Dur- disposal activities (Kumar et al., 2011). Sharmila and ing the present study pH of GW samples were found under Rajeswari (2015) recorded BOD/COD value in the range

46 Yasir and Sachin Srivastava /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 1 (1): 43-48 (2016)

(3.8-8.00/20.00-55.00 mg/l) in groundwater samples of containing calcium oxide and industrial waste containing Chennai city, Tamil Nadu, India. magnesium (Ojo et al., 2012). Saoji and Devhade (2015) Total alkalinity (TA) and total hardness (TH): Hardness recorded alkalinity/TH in the range (285-340/380-480 mg/ of water is a visual quality of water and it occurs by l) in well water and (378-390/520-599 mg/l) in tube well carbonates, bicarbonates, sulphates and chlorides of calci- water samples of Village Pokhari, Tahasil and District um and magnesium. It prevents the lather formation with Buldana, (Maharashtra) India. soap and increases the water boiling point. The highest Cl-: All type of natural and raw water contains chlorides. It permissible limit of TH for drinking use is 300 mg/L. comes from activities carried out in agricultural area, In- Hardness more than 300 mg/L may cause heart and kidney dustrial activities and from chloride stones. High chloride problems. Alkalinity of water is the determination of the content in water bodies, affects agricultural crops, metallic capability to deactivate a strong acid. The bases such as pipes and are injurious to people suffering from to heart carbonates, bicarbonates, hydroxides, phosphates, nitrates, and kidney diseases (Dohare et al., 2014). During the pre- silicates, borates etc are responsible for alkalinity of water. sent study Cl- of GW samples were found under the It gives an idea of natural salts in water (Sharmila and permissible ranges in all the sampling months (February- Rajeswari, 2015). April) and at all the sampling sites (I-IV) (Table 1). The During the present study alkalinity and TH of GW samples maximum Cl- (19.94 mg/l) was recorded at site IV, while were found under the permissible range in all the sampling minimum Cl- (8.31 mg/l) was recorded at site-I. Sharmila months (February-April) and at all the sampling sites (I- and Rajeswari (2015) observed the chloride content varies IV) (Table 1). The maximum alkalinity/TH (250.53/295.70 from 60-260 mg/L. Most of the ground water samples mg/l) was recorded at site IV, while minimum alkalinity/ show chloride concentration within the permissible limit TH (229.31/274.97 mg/l) was recorded at site-I. The (250 mg/L) of WHO, which indicates less contamination source of hardness include sewage and run-off from soils of chloride. Paul et al. (2015) recorded Cl- concentrations particularly limestone formations, building materials in all the samples ranged between 9.9 mg/L to 54.59 mg/L Table 1. GW quality parameters at different sites of Dehradun, Uttarakhand (India). Months Permissible Site I Site II Site III Site IV limit Parameter Temperature (oC) 20.67±1.53 21.00±2.00 22.33±1.22 23.67±1.53 28-30 EC dS m-1 0.47±0.03 0.79±0.10 0.88±0.13 0.94±0.08 2000 TDS (mgL-1) 193.31±10.09 231.65±11.13 234.68±4.04 241.34±21.85 500-1000 pH 7.12±0.27 7.01±0.10 6.80±0.19 6.89±0.51 6.5-8.5 DO (mgL-1) 6.84±0.15 6.25±0.64 5.35±0.56 5.60±0.72 8 BOD (mgL-1) 1.20±0.46 1.50±0.27 1.90±0.08 1.82±0.16 28-32 COD (mgL-1) 3.90±0.96 4.84±1.57 6.55±1.43 6.10±1.49 500 Alkalinity (mgL-1) 229.31±11.82 242.51±11.27 233.75±10.38 250.53±7.56 200-600 Total Hardness (mgL-1) 274.97±12.70 285.56±13.00 278.72±12.27 295.70±12.70 300 Cl (mgL-1) 8.31±0.40 15.34±2.94 17.57±2.96 19.94±3.43 250 Na (mgL-1) 9.24±0.84 10.75±1.40 13.95±1.25 11.85±1.61 200 K (mgL-1) 3.59±0.39 3.92±0.46 6.81±1.67 4.39±0.56 10 The values are mean ± SD of six replicates. Table 2. Correlation matrix among the various physico-chemical parameters at different sites (I-IV).

Parameters Temp EC TDS pH DO BOD COD TA TH Cl- Na+ K+ Temp 1.000 EC 0.812 1.000 TDS 0.741 0.991 1.000 pH -0.756 -0.873 -0.818 1.000 DO -0.674 -0.940 -0.924 0.955 1.000 BOD 0.982 0.850 0.774 -0.861 -0.772 1.000 COD 0.967 0.934 0.886 -0.846 -0.824 0.973 1.000 TA 0.694 0.736 0.763 -0.340 -0.467 0.600 0.744 1.000 TH 0.752 0.726 0.738 -0.353 -0.448 0.653 0.775 0.993 1.000 Cl- 0.860 0.995 0.980 -0.858 -0.911 0.884 0.961 0.771 0.770 1.000 Na+ 0.629 0.797 0.746 -0.984 -0.938 0.761 0.736 0.186 0.191 0.769 1.000 K+ 0.404 0.542 0.478 -0.872 -0.775 0.567 0.488 -0.161 -0.150 0.504 0.939 1.000

Yasir and Sachin Srivastava /Arch. Agr. Environ. Sci., 1 (1): 43-48 (2016) 47 in groundwater samples from wells located within 1 km environment. Conclusively, the present study reveals that around a rice mill at Chelamattom part of Okkal pancha- water quality of all the four sites (I-IV) were better and yath, Ernakulam district, Kerala. safe, only slight variation were observed at site-III Na+ and K+: The groundwater in rivers and industrial area (Kuanwala) and site-IV (Doiwala) due to increasing urban- has a high concentration of sodium (>200 mg/l). Elevated ization and industrialization. The GW quality parameters value of sodium ion in drinking water may be a reason for such as temperature, EC, TDS, pH, DO, BOD, COD, heart problems. Excess amount of sodium ion in ground- alkalinity, TH, Cl-, Na+ and K+ are well within the permis- water normally affects the palability of water. The chief sible limit of drinking water standards as prescribed by ISI sources of potassium are weathering of igneous and and WHO. BOD and COD values indicate less contamina- metamorphic rocks. Evaporate deposits of gypsum and tion of wastes from its catchment area. Slight variations in sulphate release add considerable amount of potassium in GW data at site-III and site-IV was the result of urbaniza- to groundwater. Main reason of increasing potassium into tion and industrialization due to which concentrations of groundwater is due to agricultural activities (Sayyed and EC, TDS, BOD, COD, alkalinity, TH, Cl-, Na+ and K+ Bhosle, 2011; Ramesh and Thirumangai, 2014). During the were increased, while pH and DO were decreased that con- present study Na+ and K+ of GW samples were found firmed that the treatment of wastewater in these industries under the permissible range in all the sampling months is not effective and they need to go for better treatment (February-April) and at all the sampling sites (I-IV) (Table before disposal. The Correlation coefficient indicates posi- 1). The maximum Na+/K+ (13.95/6.81 mg/l) was recorded tive and negative significant correlation of physico- at site IV, while minimum Na+/K+ (9.24/3.59 mg/l) was chemical parameters with each other. The correlation val- recorded at site-I. This was in accordance with Bartarya ues in the present study showed significant increase/ and Bahukhandi (2012), they recorded maximum Na+/K+ decrease of one parameter over the other in GW monitor- (13.00/6.00 mg/l) in industrial area and (20.00/3.00 mg/l) ing of Dehradun. From the observed results it is suggested in urban area of Dehradun district. Usharani et al. (2010) to monitor the ground water quality periodically which will recorded maximum/minimum range of Na+/K+ (50.67- be helpful in preventing further contamination. 72.33/6.33-13.67 mg/l) in GW samples of Perur, India. Open Access: This is open access article distributed under Correlation study: The correlation coefficients (r) value the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution among each parameter and different sites were presented in License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and r Table 2. During the present study correlation coefficient (r production in any medium, provided the original author(s) value) on different physico-chemical parameters revealed and the source are credited. that EC was recorded to be positively correlated with Tem- perature at sites (I-IV). 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ISSN Number : 2456-6632 (Online) Name : Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science Periodicity : Four issue in a year (March, June, September and December) Publisher : Agriculture and Environmental Science Academy Haridwar-249408 (Uttarakhand), India

he journal Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science (AAES) is a peer- reviewed, multi-disciplinary, open access International Journal that provides rapid T publication (on monthly basis) of original research articles as well as review articles. It publishes research papers in all areas of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences. All papers are subjected to peer review by members of the editorial board or qualified reviewers by the use of double blind peer review system and if accepted it will be published in the coming issues (March, June, September and December) of the journal. Agricultural chemistry, Agricultural development, Agricultural economics, Agricultural engineering, Agricultural entomology, Agricultural extension, Agricultural genomics, Agricultural microbiology, Agro-ecology, Agronomy, Animal science, Aquaculture, Bioinformatics, Bio-processing, Bioremediation, Crop science, Cytogenetics, Dairy science, Ecosystems services, Environmental impacts, Environmental pollution, remediation and restoration, Environmental microbiology, Environmental toxicology, Environmental sciences, Epigenetic, Food and nutritional sciences, Forestry, GIS and remote sensing applications, Horticulture, Irrigation Science, Lives stock production, Marine science, Medicinal plants, Natural resource ecology and management, Nutrient recycling, Pesticide science, Plant breeding, Plant pathology, Plant protection, Pollution Research, Post-harvest biology and technology, Poultry science, Seed science research, Soil science, Stored products research, Sustainable Development, Systematic biology, Tree fruit production, Toxicology, Vegetable Science, Waste management, Water resources management and Weed biology and other related disciplines.

Vinod Kumar Editor-In-Chief

Guidelines for Authors

The journal ‘Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science’ publishes papers of international significance relating to the Agricultural, Biological and Environmental Science and related fields.

 Types of papers 1. Original papers (Regular papers) should report the results of original research. The material should not have been published previously elsewhere, except in a preliminary form. 2. Reviews should cover a part of the subject of active current interest. They may be submitted or invited. 3. A Short communication is a concise, but complete, description of a limited investigation, which will not be included in a later paper. Short communications should be as completely documented, both by reference to the literature and description of the experimental procedures employed, as a regular paper. They should not occupy more than 6 printed pages (about 12 manuscript pages, including figures, etc.). 4. Letter to the Editor: correspondence.

 Language The manuscripts must be written in good English (American or British usage is accepted, mixture of these should be avoided).

• Ethics in publishing For information on Ethics in publishing and Ethical guidelines for journal publication read the guidelines.

 Conflict of interest All authors are requested to disclose any actual or potential conflict of interest including any financial, personal or other relationships with other people or organizations within three years of beginning the submitted work that could inappropriately influence, or be perceived to influence, their work.

 Copyright Upon acceptance of an article, authors will be asked to complete a 'Journal Publishing Agreement' (for more information on this and copyright. An e-mail will be sent to the corresponding author confirming receipt of the manuscript together with a 'Journal Publishing Agreement' form or a link to the online version of this agreement.

 Online Submission The research papers/reviews/short communications can be submitted for its forthcoming issues. The research papers can be submitted any time preferably online at www.aesacademy.org or via email to [email protected] or [email protected]. All correspondence, including notification of the Editor's decision and requests for revision, will take place by e-mail. All submissions must be accompanied by a cover letter detailing what you are submitting.

 Referees Authors are required to identify four persons who are qualified to serve as reviewers. Authors are requested not to suggest reviewers with whom they have a personal or professional relationship, especially if that relationship would prevent the reviewer from having an unbiased opinion of the work of the authors. A working e-mail address for each reviewer is essential for rapid review in the event that reviewer is selected from those that are identified by the authors. You may also select reviewers you do not want to review your manuscript, but please state your reason for doing so.

 Article structure • Title of the manuscript The title of the manuscript should be short, specific and informative. The author(s) name and their full address with the name of the department, institute, city, pin code, state and country. Complete addresses of corresponding author along with E-mail id must be provided on the title page and the name of corresponding author must be indicated by star (*) in the names of authors. • Abstract Abstract (not to exceed 250 words) should be written with the aim, major findings (numerical values) and a conclusion statement including novelty of the work. • Keywords At least three to five keywords must be added at the end of abstract. Keywords must not be included in the title of the manuscript. • Introduction Clearly write the introduction of research problem, objectives of the work and provide an adequate background, avoiding a detailed literature survey or a summary of the results and significance of the study in the introduction section. • Materials and Methods Materials and methods should be written clearly and systematically. Standard methods used in the study should be mentioned. Provide sufficient detail to allow the work to be reproduced. Methods already published should be indicated by a reference: only relevant modifications should be described. • Results and Discussion Results should be clear and concise and should be presented either in the tables and figures. Repetition of results should be avoided. Results should be discussed with input of current references and should explore the significance of the results of the work, not repeat them. A combined Results and Discussion section is often appropriate. Avoid extensive and old citations and discussion of published literature. • Conclusions The main conclusions of the study may be presented in a short conclusions section followed by Results and Discussion section. Conclusion should be written in view of the major findings of the study. Do not use non-standard or case-specific abbreviations in the Conclusions. Citations should be avoided in the conclusion section. • Acknowledgements Funding agency that provided financial support for the conduct of the research and/or preparation of the manuscript and to briefly describe the role of the sponsor(s), if any, in study design; in the collection, analysis and interpretation of data; in the writing of the report; and in the decision to submit the article for publication should be acknowledged. Grant number/file number must be mentioned for a funding agency.

• Abbreviations Abbreviations should be defined in the text where they are used first. • Tables Tables should not be excessively large. All the tables should be cited consecutively in accordance with their appearance in the text. Place footnotes to tables below the table body and indicate them with superscript lowercase letters. Carefully use the tables and ensure that the data presented in tables do not duplicate results described elsewhere in the article. Table caption for each table must be provided. • Figures Colour or gray scale figure with high resolution must be provided. In case of graphs well defined axis should be preferred. Figure caption for each figure must be provided. • References All the references should be cited both in the text and reference section of the manuscript and vice versa. • Citation in the text 1. For single author: The author's name (without initials, unless there is ambiguity) and the year of publication, Example: (Chopra, 2015). 2. For two authors: Both authors' names and the year of publication, Example: (Kumar and Chopra, 2015). 3. For three or more authors: First author's name followed by 'et al.' and the year of publication, Example: (Kumar et al., 2015). 4. Groups of references should be listed chronologically of their publication year. More than one reference from the same author(s) in the same year must be identified by the letters 'a', 'b', 'c', etc., placed after the year of publication. , Example: (Kumar and Chopra, 2014a; 2014b; 2014c).

• Citation in reference section Reference to a journal publication  For single author: Kumar, V. (2014). Fertigation response of Abelmoschus esculentus L. (Okra) with sugar mill effluent in two different seasons. International Journal of Agricultural Science Research, 3(9): 164-180.  For two authors: Kumar, V. and Chopra, A.K. (2014). Ferti-irrigational impact of sugar mill effluent on agronomical characteristics of Phaseolus vulgaris (L.) in two seasons. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 186:7877–7892.DOI 10.1007/s10661-014-3974-4  For three or more authors: Chopra, A.K., Srivastava, S., Kumar, V. and Pathak C. (2013). Agro-potentiality of distillery effluent on soil and agronomical characteristics of Abelmoschus esculentus L. (Okra). Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 185: 6635-6644. DOI 10.1007/s10661-012-3052-8

Reference to a book publication Mettam, G.R., Adams, L.B. (2009). How to prepare an electronic version of your article, in: Jones, B.S., Smith, R.Z. (Eds.), Introduction to the Electronic Age. E-Publishing Inc., New York, pp. 281– 304.

Reference to a book chapter Kumar, V. and Chopra, A.K. (2013).Contamination of heavy metals in vegetables irrigated with textile effluent at Haridwar (Uttarakhand). Climate Change Effects on Agriculture and Economy, Biotech Books, New Delhi, 73-80.

Reference to an online documentation The Royal Society and the Royal Academy of Engineering. (2004). Nanoscience and Nanotechnologies: Opportunities and Uncertaintie. pp, 20-22. Retrieved August, 18 2006 from www.nanotec.org.uk/finalreport.htm

 Submission checklist The following list will be useful during the final checking of an article prior to sending it to the journal for review. Please consult this Guide for Authors for further details of any item. Ensure that the following items are present: One author has been designated as the corresponding author with contact details:  E-mail address  Full postal address  All necessary files have been uploaded, and contain:  Keywords  All figure captions  All tables (including title, description, footnotes)  Further considerations  Manuscript has been 'spell-checked' and 'grammar-checked'  References are in the correct format for this journal  All references mentioned in the Reference list are cited in the text, and vice versa  Permission has been obtained for use of copyrighted material from other sources (including the Internet)

• Submission and publication Manuscripts can be submitted any time on-line at http://www.aesacademy.org/ . The author membership is not necessary for submission of the manuscript. The author shall submit processing fee (Rs. 500/- inside India / USD $50 outside India) once the manuscript number is allotted. On the receipt of processing fee, the manuscript will come under the review process. On completion of the review process and depending on the quality of the manuscript, it would be accepted for publication. The decision of Editor-in-Chief would be final for the acceptance of the manuscript for publication in the journal. On acceptance of the manuscript, administrative (Rs. 1500/- inside India / USD $100 outside India) fee would be charged for publication. It may be noted that the processing fee does not guarantee acceptance of the manuscript. It will be non-refundable, even if manuscript is not accepted. The processing fee for Annual Members will be waived for one manuscript in the membership year. The processing fee for the Life-members will be waived for one manuscript every year. However, administrative fee will be charged for publication of the manuscript. For any subsequent manuscript, separate processing and administrative fee would be charged.

• Proofs Galley proofs of the accepted manuscript will be sent to the corresponding author and should be returned within five days of receipt by e-mail. However, on non-receipt of the proof, the care would be taken by the publisher to get the papers corrected and published at the earliest possible. As part of our Go Green initiative, AESA has decided to publish the journal online. This will help us to fulfill our environmental commitment to care of our mother earth for ourselves and generations to come. There will be nominal charges to cover publication and administrative costs. A secured e-print (pdf file) of the published research paper/review article would be provided free of cost by e-mail to the members of Agriculture and Environmental Science Academy. Authors will be able to access the manuscript published in the journal after free registration on the website of the journal.

• Other contributions The book reviews/announcements of forthcoming seminars/conferences and their reports/ book reviews/letters to the editors would also be considered by the Editors for publication.

*Fellow of the Academy (FAESA): The life members of the academy will be considered for the fellow of the academy. The payments would be accepted preferably online /or through Bank draft in favour of ' Agriculture and Environmental Science Academy' payable at Haridwar (Uttarakhand) and should be sent by registered/ speed post to Dr. Vinod Kumar, President, AESA, Department of Zoology and Environmental Science, Gurukula Kangri University, Haridwar-249404, (Uttarakhand), India. Cheques will not be accepted. Agriculture and Environmental Science Academy

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Department: ______Affix a passport Institution /Organization: ______sizephotograph Educational Qualifications: ______Research Field: ______

Type of Membership (Check √): Annual ( ) / Lifetime ( ) / Individual ( ) / Institutional ( ) Year of Membership: From ____/____/______to ____/____/______or lifetime ( ) or renewal ( ) Mailing Address: ______Phone (with code): ______Fax (with code): ______E-mail: ______

Self Declaration I herby declare that all the information given by me are true. I am enclosing herewith an Online payment in- voice No. ______of worth INR/USD ______(in words ______) in favor of “Agriculture and Environmental Science Academy” payable at Haridwar towards my selected membership/subscription. I accept the rules and regulations of Agriculture and Envi- ronmental Science Academy.

Dated: ______Signature of Applicant Instructions: 1. All fields are necessary. 2. A valid bank-draft and this form (completely filled) should be sent by registered/speed post to the address “Dr. Vinod Kumar (President), Agriculture and Environmental Science Academy 86, Gurubaksh Vihar (East) Kankhal Haridwar-249408, Uttarakhand, India.” 3. Do not staple the form with demand draft or any other document.

Membership/Subscription Information

*Fellowship of the Academy (FAESA): The life members of the academy will be considered for the fellow of the academy. For any query email us at [email protected] Agriculture and Environmental Science Academy | Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science For any query visit journal homepage or email us at [email protected] Archives Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science

Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science

An International Journal

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An An InternationalJournal

Volume 1 Issue 1 Issue

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