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Evaluation and Management of Patellar Instability

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Evaluation and Management of Patellar Instability 12 Review Article Page 1 of 10 Evaluation and management of patellar instability Elizabeth R. Dennis^, Simone Gruber^, William A. Marmor^, Beth E. Shubin Stein^ The Patellofemoral Center, Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Hospital for Special Surgery, New York, NY, USA Contributions: (I) Conception and design: BE Shubin Stein, ER Dennis; (II) Administrative support: All authors; (III) Provision of study material or patients: BE Shubin Stein; (IV) Collection and assembly of data: All authors; (V) Data analysis and interpretation: BE Shubin Stein, ER Dennis; (VI) Manuscript writing: All authors; (VII) Final approval of manuscript: All authors. Correspondence to: Elizabeth R. Dennis, MD, MS. Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Hospital for Special Surgery, 535 East 70th Street, New York, NY 10021, USA. Email: [email protected]. Abstract: Patellar instability is a common clinical problem that primarily affects the adolescent and young adult population. The demographic and anatomic risk factors that predispose patients to patellar instability are multifactorial and include young age, female sex, trochlear dysplasia, elevated tibial tubercle to trochlear groove distance (TT-TG), patella alta, femoral and tibial malalignment, ligamentous laxity, and lack of neuromuscular control. There have been substantial efforts to predict which patients who sustain a first-time dislocation will go on to incur additional dislocations. This is particularly important because with each dislocation event, there is a significant risk of injury to the patellofemoral joint including both medial patellofemoral ligament (MPFL) stretch or rupture and damage to the cartilage which can range from simple fissures to full-thickness cartilage defects and osteochondral fractures. Prediction models have demonstrated that amongst first time dislocators, young patients with trochlear dysplasia are at the highest risk for redislocation. The current standard of care for treatment of first-time dislocators without a loose body or osteochondral fracture is nonoperative management. However, recently there has been a focus on implementing a risk-stratified approach to the surgical indications for a first-time dislocator as the high- risk population might be better treated with early surgical stabilization to prevent or reduce their risk of recurrent dislocation and its associated morbidity. Likewise, for patients with recurrent dislocations, it remains to be determined whether an isolated MPFL reconstruction is sufficient for high-risk patients with several poor prognostic risk factors or if bony realignment procedures should be implemented concurrently. Keywords: Patella instability; medial patellofemoral ligament reconstruction (MPFL reconstruction); patellar dislocation; tibial tubercle osteotomy (TTO); trochlear dysplasia Received: 24 July 2020; Accepted: 16 October 2020. doi: 10.21037/aoj-2020-sri-09 View this article at: http://dx.doi.org/10.21037/aoj-2020-sri-09 Epidemiology and background factors both demographic and anatomic. Demographic risk factors include young age, female sex, history of Patellar instability is a common clinical problem affecting between 6 and 23 per hundred thousand person-years with contralateral dislocation, and family history (5). Anatomic a higher incidence in females than males (1-4). The most risk factors include trochlear dysplasia, elevated tibial predominantly affected group are adolescents between the tubercle to trochlear groove distance (TT-TG), patella ages of 14 and 18 years old (1,2). Patellofemoral instability alta, femoral and or tibial malalignment or rotational is a multifactorial problem that can stem from a host of risk deformity, ligamentous laxity, and neuromuscular ^ ORCHID: Elizabeth R. Dennis: 0000-0002-7214-3460; Simone Gruber: 0000-0002-6313-1353; William A. Marmor: 0000-0002-8434- 2088; Beth E. Shubin Stein: 0000-0003-4249-7740. © Annals of Joint. All rights reserved. Ann Joint 2020 | http://dx.doi.org/10.21037/aoj-2020-sri-09 Page 2 of 10 Annals of Joint, 2020 imbalance or control (6). Recently, the risk of recurrence after a first time dislocation Clinical evaluation has been an area of research focus (4,7-12). Prediction models for first-time dislocators have concluded that Clinical evaluation should begin with a detailed history. there is a high-risk subset of young patients with trochlear This should include the patients age, skeletal maturity, sex, dysplasia who have a much higher rate of recurrence than and activity level of the patient and any relevant family previously thought (4,11-13). The risk of recurrence after history. The clinician should determine if this was a first- a first-time dislocation was previously documented as low time dislocation or a recurrent dislocation. In cases of as at 17%, however, this number was based on all-comers recurrence, a detailed history of the first dislocation and (4). More recent studies have demonstrated the risk of any subsequent dislocations or subluxations, including recurrence as high as 85% in high-risk subsets of the first- age and mechanism of injury should be determined. It is time dislocator group (13). very important to determine if this is an isolated instability In addition to the pain and dysfunction caused by an problem or if pain is a substantial part of the chief instability event and the time away from sport required for complaint. This does not refer to pain associated with the recovery, with each dislocation, there is a significant risk of instability events, but rather the clinician should seek to morbidity to the joint (14-16). In children and adolescents determine if there is daily or sports-related pain associated who sustained a first-time patellar dislocation, more than with weighted bent knee activities that would indicate 90% will sustain an injury to the medial patellofemoral overload and or malalignment in addition to the instability. ligament (MPFL) (17), and greater than 90% will sustain If the patient is an athlete, it is important to understand some type of injury to their cartilage (14). The cartilage what the patient’s expectations are with respect to returning injury can vary from simple cracks and fissures to full- to sport and how their seasonal timing may factor in so that thickness cartilage defects and osteochondral fractures. the clinician can appropriately counsel the patient and their These can be devastating injuries to the future health of the families (19). joint. A detailed physical exam begins with inspection and Current standard of care for first-time dislocators cartilage injury the patient standing alignment for any without a loose body or osteochondral fracture is valgus or rotational deformities (19). Next, the Beighton nonoperative management (18). However, recent literature scale is assessed, thumb to forearm, MCP hyperextension, has demonstrated a high-risk population of patients with elbow hyperextension, knee recurvatum, and palms to floor trochlear dysplasia who are under 25 years old at the time and a score out of 9 possible points is documented (20). All of their first dislocation. These risk factors predispose tests are scored bilaterally with the exception of palms to to an almost 70% risk of recurrence and as high as 85% floor. in patients with a history of contralateral dislocation in Next, in the seated position, a “J sign” is assessed while addition to other anatomic risk factors (13). Given the the patient flexes and extends their knee (21). This is young age of this high-risk population and increasing risk done on both sides to compare the injured knee to the of cartilage damage with subsequent dislocation, there is a non-injured side. In the same seated position, crepitus is current focus in determining whether this high-risk group assessed with open chain knee extension to help focus the might be better treated with early surgical stabilization to clinician’s attention to any potential underlying cartilage prevent or reduce their risk of recurrent dislocation (6,7). injuries. The patient is then asked to lie supine, and While still controversial, there is growing evidence that a with the knee in extension, ballottement of the patella is risk-stratified approach to surgical indications for the first performed to assess for effusion. Knee range of motion, time dislocator might be better than the one-size-fits-all including hyperextension, is assessed in the supine position model currently in use. and compared to the other knee. In the same position, hip The two major questions we currently seek to answer in range of motion including internal and external rotation is the field of patellar instability are (I) should we operate on assessed. a first time dislocator at high risk for recurrent dislocation Next, with the leg in full extension, the passive position and (II) what is the best surgical option for patients with of the patella is noted. In patients with passive patellar recurrent dislocations? Is an MPFL alone enough for high- tilt, the clinician must assess whether or not the lateral risk patients with several poor prognostic risk factors? structures are tight. This is done by maintaining the patella © Annals of Joint. All rights reserved. Ann Joint 2020 | http://dx.doi.org/10.21037/aoj-2020-sri-09 Annals of Joint, 2020 Page 3 of 10 reduced in the trochlea and manually trying to evert the of motion can be assessed again in this position. Hip patella to neutral. If the clinician is unable to bring the anteversion should also be checked in the prone position. patella parallel to the table
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