African Canadian Women and the Question of Identity

Njoki Nathani Wane, Centre for Integrative Introduction Anti-Racist Research Studies (CIARS), "Black" and "woman" are the two words that immediately , conducts research and come to mind whenever I'm asked to describe myself. I teaches in the areas of Black in am always "Black" first and "female" second. Canada, African feminisms, African indigenous (Riviere 2004, 222) knowledges, anti-racist education in teacher education, African women and spirituality, and Canada is a nation that embraces ethno-medicine and has published widely on diversity and multiculturalism as its corner stone these topics. for building the sense of belonging for all her citizens. However, Himani Bannerji is quick to Abstract point out that, in her opinion, the notion of Canada is a nation that embraces diversity and diversity and multiculturalism, although multiculturalism as its corner stone for building characteristically "Canadian," do not effectively the sense of belonging for all her citizens. Many work in practice. She states: "It does not require Black Canadian women, however, feel much effort to realize that diversity is not equal excluded and not part of the Canadian mosaic. to multiplied sameness; rather it presumes a This paper shows the complexities associated distinct difference in each instance" (Bannerji with understandings and interpretations of 2000, 41). In her discussions on Black women's identity and discusses Black women's question identity, Adrienne Shadd pointed to some of the of identity as situated in Black Canadian stereotypical questions that some racialized . Canadians face and, particularly, the question Résumé of, "Where are they really from?" Shadd noted Le Canada est une nation qui encourage la that by asking this question, one is diversité et le multiculturalisme comme sa "unintentionally" denied what is rightfully pierre de coin pour bâtir un sentiment hers/his and at the same time rendered d’appartenance pour tous ses citoyens. Un bon vulnerable in her/his host country (Shadd 1994, nombre de femmes noires canadiennes, par 15). Francis Deng defined identity as the way contre, se sentent exclues et de ne pas faire individuals and groups define themselves and partie de la mosaïque canadienne. Cet article are defined by others on the basis of race, montre les complexités associées avec la ethnicity, religion, language, and culture (Deng compréhension et les interprétations de 1995, 1). Richard Jenkins described identity as l’identité et discute de la question de l’identité the ways in which individuals and collectivities des femmes noires telle que située dans la are distinguished in their social relations with théorie féministe de la femme noire other individuals and collectivities (Jenkins canadienne. 1996, 4). In 2000, Jenkins observed that in common-sense, everyday speech, the notion of identity is used in connection with personal individuality, life-style, social position and status, politics, and bureaucracy and citizenship. Many Black Canadian women are not excluded from the discussion of their identity and the question of where they are really from, nor from the challenging question of how they should define their ethnicity in terms of whether

www.msvu.ca/atlantis PR Atlantis 34.1, 2009 149 they are Canadian, African Canadian, Black Racial Identity and Black Canadian Canadian or simply Black or African. Riviere Feminist Thought (2004, 222) explains, "I do not quite accept the According to Françoise Baylis, a idea that that choice is fully 'ours' to make." Canadian of Caribbean descent, "For some, "Black women in Canada are never black or racial identity is a fairly stable aspect of an women. They are always both" (Herbert 1989, individual's personality, for others it is a 274). developmental process influenced by This paper draws in part on research environmental and personal factors" (Baylis findings from a larger three year Social Science 2003, 142). Nevertheless, she acknowledges and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC) of the fact that there are multiple ways in which Canadian study on Black Canadian feminisms. one can own her identity. I remember telling The broader goal of the study was to examine students in my class that what is important to what constitutes feminisms among women of note in terms of identity is that often there is a African ancestry. This paper however, focuses conflict between the frames that one uses to on eight participants' understanding of their own define one's self and the frames that society identity. The paper shows the complexities uses to define them. However, as Riviere notes associated with understandings and "when those two frames meet, they diverge interpretations of identity. It provides a brief from each other....What is left from that point of discussion about identity in general and Black divergence is who you really are" (Riviere 2004, women in particular. The discussion is situated 229). Additionally, transnationalism makes it in Black Canadian feminist theory that has even more difficult to speak of specific identities emerged as a result of Black women activists' in relation to a particular nation (Spitzer and and scholars' feelings of being far removed Okeke-Ihejirika 2004). As a result, how identity from White, middle-class, liberal feminist gets constructed becomes an "intellectual discourses (Few 2007, 455). April Few adds exercise, because the myriad forces which that Black is a standpoint theory that shape that identity are constantly moving, transcends the arguments of mere identity constantly changing" (Riviere 2004). According politics and actively examines the politics of to Castells (2000), identity formation is not an location in the lives of Black women and the individualistic effort. It cannot be carried out in groups of which they are a part (2007, 454). It isolation; rather, identity becomes a material is important to note that when speaking of force and a material source of meaning, when Canadian Black feminist theory, one is it has been enforced enough over time. speaking of a body of knowledge or "the Koppelman (1996) argues that Black women's practice of theorizing by and about Black simultaneous embodiment of blackness and women living in Canada" (Amoah 2007, 106). It femaleness leaves them between the is through this theory that the paper explores categories of race and sex, thus forcing them to Black women narratives about their journeys of divide and prioritize their identities that are self discovery; shifting identities; and coping integral to their self-concepts and life strategies that they utilize to mitigate the experience. The concept of "double jeopardy" myriads positionings. which is often evoked (Beale 1970 cited in Reid The study employed a qualitative 1984, 247) puts Black women in situations research methodology and generated data where they must decide between their dual through interviews and focus groups with 400 identities as Blacks and women. This double women from the cities of Toronto, Calgary, jeopardy, therefore, takes central space in Ottawa, Halifax and Saskatoon. The sample Black Canadian feminist theory. consisted of Black women of African ancestry Black Canadian feminist theory focuses who were over 18 years and with various on social justice for women and creates a backgrounds in religion, ethnicity, age, sexuality space to acknowledge their racialized orientation, language, educational levels, class, experiences. The theory broadens and deepens etc. the historical and social analysis of black women, exposes the multiplicity of oppressions

150 Atlantis 34.1, 2009 PR www.msvu.ca/atlantis and deconstructs neoliberal thinking. This fluidity of Canadian Black feminist theory is not an end in itself, but rather a thought...Black feminist thought occupies pedagogy that may be directed towards greater multifocal transnational space and gains its social justice for all people. According to Rai strength and momentum from critical Reece, "Black Canadian feminist thought exploration though multiple entry points" (2007, occupies a meaningful space in activism, since 275). Similarly, Patricia Hill Collins describes the interlocking oppression that Black women Black feminism as a critical social theory or as face...are the molds that provide foundation bodies of knowledge and sets of institutional from which [Black women] stand (Reece 2007, practices that actively grapple with the central 271). Njoki Wane defines Black Canadian questions facing groups of people differently feminism as: placed in specific political, social, and historic contexts characterized by injustice (Collins a theoretical tool meant to elucidate and analyze the 1998, 276). historical, social, cultural, and economic relationships of April Few argues that Black women women of African descent as the basis for development exist within an intersectionality matrix - a of a liberatory praxis. It is a paradigm that is grounded in location where multiple systems of oppressions the historical as well as the contemporary experiences of simultaneously corroborate and subjugate to Black women as mothers, activists, academics and conceal deliberate, marginalizing ideological community leaders. It is both an oral and written maneuvers that define "Otherness" (Few 2007). epistemology that theorizes our experiences and can be In this unique location within the matrix, specific applied to situate Black women's past and present "historical, geographical, cultural, psychic, and experiences that are grounded in their multiple imaginative boundaries" (Mohanty 1992, 75, oppressions. (Wane 2002, 38) cited in Few 2007, 455) influence how Black women have come to define their shared and The above definition captures women's diverse experiences feminist standpoint. stories, their lived experiences and their interpretation of what it means to be a Black Discussion: Women's Voices on Identity, woman. Black feminism can also be defined "as Education and Work the sum of its constituent's parts: Canadian, George Dei notes that "voice" allows Black, Feminism, Theory, each with its own readers to bring their own interpretations to particular connotations (Amoah 2007,104). data presented. Accordingly, the voices Michael Amoah goes on to explain, "It is difficult presented herein reflect the complexities to identify a certain cultural aspect as being associated with understandings and distinctively Canadian, as the element of interpretations of identity (Dei 1996). Many multiculturalism is itself part of the Canadian participants talked about their arduous and identity" (2007, 104). Furthermore, he states turbulent journey of self-discovery to reposition that being Black is more than just a culture or and relocate themselves in Canadian contexts, color and that what is important is the both the Canadian-born and those who understanding of what it means to be straddled emigrated to Canada. Participants pointed to between more than one world or multiple the ways in which they contend with ideologies. As stated earlier, Black Canadian experiences of shifting identities, as students, women's diasporic identities provide the mothers, nursing aides, professional women or richness and the diversity that constitute this homemakers. They also shed light on the particular mold of feminism. Reece, in making coping strategies they utilize to mitigate the reference to her identity and usage of Black trauma and trials of their myriad positioning, feminist thought states: "...being of West Indian reflecting Millsom Henry-Waring's observations background, I find that Black feminist thought is of the ethnic, gendered and national generally constructed as 'American' Black subjectivities of African-Caribbean women in feminist thought" (2007, 275). She sums up: Britain from which she called for a critical, "[t]here is not one conventional radical and new framework which would enable all-encompassing analysis that can harness the the shifting and multiple nature of African

www.msvu.ca/atlantis PR Atlantis 34.1, 2009 151 Caribbean women's lives in Britain to be The works of Black Canadian scholars validated. Henry-Waring further noted that a such as Rinaldo W alcott (2003), Michelle diversity of responses and negotiations that Wright (2004; with Shuhmann 2007) and challenge racism need to be celebrated as well Katherine McKittrick (2006) show that forms of as looked at as a case of essentializing naming, which are based upon skin "otherness" (2004, 39). pigmentation and ethnicity, in most cases tend Who is included in the categories of to deny the complexity of what may and may "Black"; "African"; "African Canadian"; "people not constitute blackness. While some of these of African ancestry?" Who uses these labels and terms are used more often than categories when they describe themselves and others, they are all contested, perhaps why? Michelle Wright states, "Blacks in the particularly so among research participants. Diaspora possess an intimidating array of Blackness in Canada becomes contested and different historical, cultural, national, ethnic, is often identified with immigration but rarely religious, and ancestral origins and influences. with slavery. This is because slavery in Canada [...] Despite this range of differences, they are was not as widespread as in the United Sates, most often identified in the W est as simply Caribbean or Latin America (McKittrick 2006, "Black" and, therefore, as largely homogenous" 97). In particular, it is speculated that slavery (Wright 2004, 2). Narrative responses likewise and segregation only took place in United point to the ways in which multiple and States and not in Canada (Wane 2009). sometimes shifting identities of the participants Elsewhere I have indicated that slavery did play yielded problems relating to identity formation. an integral part in Canada's development as a For example, some participants debated on wealthy colony/country and segregation and whether they are African or Black. Arret, who civil rights movements played out from coast to emigrated from the Caribbean when she was a coast in this country (W ane 2007). teenager, commented: For some women who emigrated from African countries, defining themselves was an Yes, I am a Black woman, but I am not African. I was not unsettling and challenging undertaking. Eunice, born in Africa. My family has been here for more than 500 who is originally from Ghana and has been in years. I do not think I have anything African in me or even Canada for over a decade, noted: my culture, except my skin color. So who am I? At least with Africans, Africans, they know who they are and Since my arrival in Canada 15 years ago, I have had where they are from - I do not see them having any feelings of disorientation, dislocation, alienation, and no problems with their identity.... (Focus group 1 2005) sense of belonging - I can say. I have culture conflict as well as an identity crisis. I did not feel it when I was Arret's account points to the younger, growing up in West Africa. I was not born with it negotiations of identity among women of there was an entry point. I was aware that I was from a African ancestry in the diaspora. Her narrative Ghanaian background and I belonged to the Akan people, suggests the different, and sometimes which is part of my identity. I feel that the...initial crisis competing, identifications individuals have to happened after my arrival in Canada. I experienced deal with as they negotiate specific contexts rejection and displacement. I was faced with choices I had (Dwyer 2000). This is clearly seen in Arret's to make pertaining to the values I wished to adopt and narrative when she states that she is black but follow. Besides, the phenomenon of racism was a reality not African, and argues that women from the in my life. I feel that this form of differential treatment continent of Africa have no problem with their contributed to the identity crisis that I went through... identity because they can trace their ancestry to (Focus group II, 2005) a particular country such as Ghana, Nigeria or Kenya. The narrative reveals the uncertainties Eunice indicates that she experienced one can get caught up in especially in diasporic identity crisis when she came to Canada contexts in terms of drawing boundaries because of differential treatment. In spite of between Black and African identities, which growing up knowing that she was Ghanaian, yield a more complex form of identity. the respondent got disoriented and dislocated

152 Atlantis 34.1, 2009 PR www.msvu.ca/atlantis when she got to Canada because of the culture choose what aspects of the African culture or the African shock and racism she faced. Eunice notes that Grenadian culture I was going to disclose in my in a number of instances, she had to make conversations in class. Besides, I had to ascertain what choices or give preference to some values or aspects of the Canadian culture I wanted to imbibe and aspects of mainstream identity in order to fit in. follow. I think the identity crisis is the result of negotiating Henry Giroux, writing on identity, describes this these tensions in one's life. One is never going to be fully as the search of the individual self (Giroux African or fully Canadian. I am always going to be living in 1990, 12). Eunice's narrative above confirms a "hybrid" culture, following a blend of the traditional and this assertion as she tries to define a space and modern forms of values, beliefs and customs... place that she can call her own within the (Focus group I, 2006) Canadian landscape. This searching process results in a shifting of identity that is signified by As this quote suggests, Masa found dropping some of her traditional identities and herself torn between Grenadian, African and her acquisition of Canadian identities. This Canadian culture. She had to make choices on indicates that identities are not static or what to prioritize and what not to. The monolithic. From Arret's and Eunice's respondent notes that one is not really going to narratives, one can also argue that the be fully African, Grenadian or Canadian but psychological processes that construct the rather a blend of the three cultures and thus, social position of Black women can lead to live in a hybrid culture. As Claire Dwyer found, identity crisis, stress, cultural shock and individuals prioritize different aspects of their dislocation. Reflecting on the narratives of compound identities depending on context. At Eunice and Arret, one can only hope that their the same time, individuals attempt to negotiate experiences can produce a particular level of "hybrid" identities, which emphasize a fusion of consciousness of systems of oppression that cultural influences and which challenge could lead to unifying Blackness and other discourses that seek to essentialize difference racialized women. (Dwyer 2000, 483). What is more, the change In addition, the voices of the in values, attitudes, mannerisms and behavior participants reflect their anxiety about cultural are indicative choices one is forced to make adaptability and acceptance as a source of (Giroux 1990). Olgah eloquently captures her identity contestations. Indeed, Gay W ilentz, in dilemma: acknowledging the changes that occur when one moves from one place to another, remarks I went through awkward, uncomfortable and stressful that whenever people with shared values, situations when people grossly misinterpreted and cultural traditions, and racial or ethnic identity misconstrued what I was saying, in some cases, due to are dispersed into hostile environments, there the odd power dynamic that existed between the two emerges simultaneously a culture which retains cultures - the African culture and the Western culture. I many of the residual traditions while attempting am constantly in a state of crisis and many times I wish I to cope with the alien-and most often could just be me - Black Canadian woman who brings a dominant-society around them (Wilentz 1992, wealth of knowledge to Canada. (Focus group III, 2005) 385). One source of this anxiety for the women are the conflicts and contradictions they find Olgah's words point to issues that arise themselves in between the traditional culture when two opposing cultures meet. back home and mainstream culture. This is Unfortunately, it is quite evident that echoed by Masa, a university student: newcomers' values get masked and overrun by dominant cultures. It is a mistaken notion The process of searching for an identity has often placed among the respondents that they would find me in a state of confusion and conflict. I was not sure of more acceptance from their mainstream my identity and how the tensions associated with it played colleagues if they tried to conform to dominant out most in my relationship with my fellow classmates. My patterns of behavior. Instead, racism negatively parents are from Grenada, I was born in Canada, but very affects their integration into the new culture conscious of my African identity. I had to constantly and, thus, they experience additional stress

www.msvu.ca/atlantis PR Atlantis 34.1, 2009 153 caused by the emphasis placed on them to try According to Arret, family impacts to integrate into the host society. The word greatly on identity formation (Keefe and Padilla "crisis" was often mentioned by women while 1987) especially during the childhood years. talking about their lived experiences. This crisis The family presents an individual with an continues to reverberate long past the actual observer position and from that point one is point of arrival, settlement and attempt at full able to see and know who she is. Arret's early participation within the Canadian mainstream formative experiences shaped or sculpted her society as reported by Emily: underlying layers of identity and those layers were contradictory, confusing and traumatizing. My identity crisis was quite evident when I [was] asked the The respondent tried to negotiate expectations question "where I was from." Who I am - I thought to for her to fit into the mainstream culture, yet myself. Was it not obvious I was African and Black? I other children laughed at her when she often wondered why this question shook the roots of my attempted to do so. Arret's experiences are identity. Of course I am African searching for....Not sure. reflective of the way in which, as Judith Butler Many times when I meet with Black women who are (2005) contends, a negative effect, or shock Canadian they tell me I should have no problem at all with can be the beginning of formation of identity my identity. What they do not realize is that, growing up in and self. It can happen at anytime in childhood, Africa, I always wanted to be a woman with long flowing after crossing oceans to emigrate to a land of hair, something from the movies, but when I got to new opportunities. The respondent's Canada, I did not want that any more. I wanted to be me - experience speaks to the process of African woman with short kinky hair...Many times, I was at disconnection with self, and the struggle to redefine and build a new identity. Allena times irked by clichéd questions, "Where are you from? provided another perspective of how she Where are you really from?" - regarding my country of perceives her identity: origin. These common racist questions made me feel that I did not belong to the host society and that I was neither I grew up in the Caribbean and came here when I was an African nor a Canadian, manifesting a shifting identity twelve years old... I came here having an identity that was through reaffirming difference in my life. These questions shaped by my family...race was not an also indicated the notion that the word "Canadian" only obsession...although in the Caribbean...something about includes White people and excludes people of color... how light skinned one was could make a difference in the (Focus group I, 2005) job market...but I had a good sense of myself...yes, I came thinking I could do anything...however, the way I felt Arret also noted: about myself was not how others felt...my counsellor laughed at me when I said I wanted to be a lawyer...that My life is trauma in itself - I have always been traumatized destroyed my self confidence...since then, I have spent a ever since I can recall. It was always the same story from lot of my time building myself...strengthening myself from my grandmother and my mother who would say "watch the inside... (Focus Group 1, 2006) out otherwise you will end up like so and so or what is wrong with you, you want to be white now - or your skin is Allena's words provide an avenue for a too dark already, do not stand for too long under the hot dialogue on how women of African ancestry sun." The only time I felt I was me, was when I was define themselves both individually and asleep, because no one nagged me about my skin color collectively. The narrative creates opportunities or my future in this country. In school, it was the same to interrogate, examine and rethink ways of thing - I can vaguely remember my first blonde wig, my creating, locating and incorporating the whole mother struggled to fit it on my tiny head - I can still recall self as women of African ancestry in a set of the whispers from other children in my class when I negotiated positions. walked in. I thought, they would accept me now that I had Lafo, a newcomer from Jamaica, their hair but no. They laughed at me - but I was not sure explained the effects of racism on accessing why they laughed - I was too young then. I really wanted employment and the consequences on her to have a sense of belonging, but up to now, I have never family and, particularly, the disintegration and found any... (Focus Group I, 2005)

154 Atlantis 34.1, 2009 PR www.msvu.ca/atlantis the emerging confusions on the identities within Canada and suddenly I found out that being a black the family: woman in Canada has these negative stereotypes as presented in the media. To know that people think of you I initially found it difficult to obtain jobs due to lack of in derogatory terms was rather annoying for a while...I Canadian experience, language and skin colour. When I mean people could say to me, you speak English so well, did get a job, it was not proportionate to my educational oh you are very well learned or you have more experience qualifications. This downhill trend caused acute status than other people. I am like what are you saying? It was shock/dislocation in my life. I experienced a drop in social ridiculous for me. (Focus Group II, 2005) status and it was difficult for me to accept that I was now of a lower class than I was back in Jamaica. My Racel reflects on ways identity is occupational status decline was quite significant in my life understood in her birth place (Jamaica). She and the lives of my children and my husband...my talks about her past and present experiences marriage ended in a divorce and some of my children as a young person in Jamaica and her dropped out of school. Everyone in the family had lost relationships with other people. This process their sense of belonging and each felt they were more led her to develop a secure, positive sense of Canadian than the other - it was difficult to adjust from the identity as a Jamaican. Upon arriving in initial intense "status-shock." Another thing is this Canada, she gained insights into the "Canadian experience" they ask of you on your arrival- implications of being black in the Canadian how on earth was I going to fulfill this requirement when society. Chaje explained how her work no one was willing to give me a job. (Focus group I, 2004) experience shaped her identity in the following words: Lafo's racial and language identity implicated her chances of securing adequate My identity as a black woman really got strong when I employment. Ironically, some of the criteria for came to Canada and began working as an educator. I granting landing status in Canada are good realized that things were different for students and having education and proficiency in either English or my own nieces and nephews talk about their experiences French. Many times, however, newcomers have in school. (Focus group IV, 2005) had their education and previous work experiences rendered irrelevant upon stepping What Chaje is pointing to are the forces on the Canadian soil. Lafo affirms that failure to that inform their identities as newcomers to secure a job had implications not only on her Canada. All the women reveal ways in which own economic well-being but also that of her their bodies are read at work, places of abode family. The complications and challenges and in educational settings, and a practice that emanating from lack of employment and impacts on their social and economic mobility. therefore, economic insecurity saw Lafo's marriage disintegrate. This also implicated the Some Final Thoughts on Women's family's definitions of who they are. The words Narratives of this woman cut across age and class, The women's narratives have showing interconnections and diversities in the demonstrated that race, though a social experience of black Canadian women. In their construction, is central in the construction of the responses to forces that shape their identities, self. The study participants indicated that they Black women pointed to factors such as learned about who they are through lived experience, location, class, work and education. experiences and that the negotiation of their Racel talked about class, geography and identity took place in relation to being Black and education in the quote below: African or being "just Black." However, feelings of racism caused insurmountable stress. Wing My identity has been shaped by three things: my social and Merchan describe this stress as "spirit and economic class, geographical location, and injury" (W ing and Merchan 1995, 516). Spirit educational background. I grew up in Jamaica and race injury inflicted on an individual leads to a was not a big issue. I grew up knowing I am Jamaican deliberate and gradual deterioration of the soul, and that is how my identity was shaped until I came to psyche and identity. Feelings of racism that are

www.msvu.ca/atlantis PR Atlantis 34.1, 2009 155 indescribable suggest that many women were if they tried to conform to dominant patterns of experiencing a form of spirit injury and this had behavior. Consequently, the newcomers did not implications on how they perceived themselves. fully assimilate but struggled to integrate into The status-shock of newcomers had the host culture. They held their own culture to severe repercussions on the family dynamics a certain degree while at the same time sought between parent and child relationships and to participate in the dominant culture. other members of the community. The effects Nevertheless, racism negatively affected their of status dislocation had far reaching full integration into various spheres, particularly psychological implication for many women. The employment and education. The women's integration process forced many to accept the everyday experience is shaped by stress as "best" values in both cultures and mediate a they live in conflicting worlds of desiring to space for themselves in the "new" country. In a maintain their culture and struggling to fit into racially discriminating environment, it is the mainstream culture. possible that familial support together with Overall, the study findings show that cultural affiliations could be a source of many Black women of African ancestry tremendous strength during the initial years in struggling to live in diasporic contexts consider Canada. themselves to be outsiders of the dominant Many Black women who were culture. The women's voices point to interviewed indicated that they shared problems negotiations of listening to and understanding of with friends and family members and tried to self and society while self reflecting and maintain a balance in their lives. Patience examining the assumptions that, historically, Elabor-Idemudia writes of how Black women socially, economically and politically, are deeply who migrate to the Canadian prairies become, embedded in the normalcy of whiteness. over time, resourceful and help each other to Listening to Black women from diverse find employment as well as listen to each communities and their experience of self, of other's problems (Elabor-Idemudia 1999). Many work, of becoming and belonging, of family, of the participants in this study said that they did education and feelings, all contribute to debates not seek professional counseling. This could be on Black women's question of identity. due to the unease and shame that is associated with the practice of going to see References psychologists or psychiatrists. Talking about the Amoah, M. Reconstructing the Nation in Africa: reality of shifting identities with friends and The Politics of Nationalism in Ghana. London; family could then be an excellent way to cope New York: Tauris Academic Studies, 2007. with the crisis, stress, status-shock and low self-esteem because everyone had Bannerji, H. The Dark Side of the Nation: experienced some degree of stress and hence, Essays on Multiculturalism, Nationalism and the need to talk and think about it collectively. Gender. Toronto: Canadian Scholars' Press, 2000. Conclusion A dialogue on identity is complex and Baylis, F. "Black As Me: Narrative Identity," the women's voices have shown how they get Developing World Bioethic 3.2 (2003): 142–50. caught up trying to create a home in Canada. The women's voices show that they live a dual Beale, F. "Double Jeopardy: To Be Black and life whether they are Canadian born or have Female," The Black Woman, T. Cade, ed. New emigrated to Canada. The participants are York: Signet, 1970, pp. 90–100. forced to lead a "double life" possibly because they perceive their cultural lifestyle as inferior to Butler, J. Giving an Account of Oneself. New Euro-Western ways of life. In fact, some York: Fordham University Press, 2005. participants indicated that they held a mistaken assumption that they would find "more Castells, M. The Rise of the Network Society, acceptance" from their mainstream colleagues Second edition. Oxford, UK and

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